Power System Protection (ELG 7113)

Lecture 5

Dr. Javad Fattahi

Sep 20, 2023

Dr. Fattahi
 Components of a Transmission Line Protection System

I Current Transformer (CT) and

Potential Transformer (PT): These
components play a crucial role in the
protection system. However, PT is not
required in non-directional over-current
and differential protection methods.
I Relay: Processing input currents and
voltages to determine its output.
Operating as a black-box, the relay
features current and voltage inputs and
generates an output in the form of a
normally-open contact closure. This
output is integrated into the trip circuit of
the associated circuit breaker(s).

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 Current Transformer (CT)

The current transformer has dual fundamental roles:

I Current Step-Down and Isolation: The
primary responsibility involves lowering the
current to levels manageable for the relay’s
current coil. Common secondary current
ratings, such as 5A and 1A, are employed to
alleviate relay designers from specifying the
precise primary current value. Furthermore,
the current transformer establishes isolation for
the relay circuitry, preventing exposure to the
high voltages of the HV system.
I Accuracy and Error Handling: The ideal
operation of the CT aims for accurate current
transformation without introducing errors.
Nevertheless, practical constraints result in
errors affecting both magnitude and phase
angle. These errors are termed ratio error
and phase angle error.

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 current transformers (CTs)

CTs serve metering purposes as well. However, a

significant distinction exists between a metering CT
and a protection CT. The design of a metering CT
ensures that, during faults, it saturates, safeguarding
the instrument connected to its secondary against
damage from excessive current. Conversely, a
protective CT is engineered to accurately replicate
the largest fault current.

1.1 Vknee Knee point

Vknee
Excitation voltage

P
Iknee 1.5 Iknee
Magnetizing current
P = Operating point of protective CT
M = Operating point of measurement CT

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 CT in a HV Substation

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 Equivalent Circuit and Current Transformer Performance

Consider the equivalent circuit of a CT.

The primary winding of the CT is connected in series with the power network, leading to the determination of its primary
current 10 by the network’s characteristics. Consequently, the influence of the primary winding’s leakage impedance / G1 0 on

the transformer’s performance is negligible and can be disregarded. Utilizing the turns ratio (n:1) of the ideal transformer,
the following relationships hold:
0
1
1 =
=
0 2
/< = = /<
The load impedance /1 encompasses the impedance of connected relays, meters in the secondary winding, and the
connecting leads between the CT’s secondary winding terminals in the substation yard and the protection equipment located
in the control house.

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 Equivalent Circuit and Current Transformer Performance

Frequently, the lead impedance constitutes a significant portion of the total load impedance. The CT burden can be
expressed as /1 ⌦ or as a burden of 2 /1 VA. If the rated secondary current is 5 A, the specified burden equates to 25/1
volt-amperes.
Referring to the phasor diagram,

The voltage ⇢< across the magnetizing impedance /< is given by: ⇢< = ⇢1 + / G2 2
The magnetizing current < is given by: < = ⇢ <
/<
The primary current 1 , when referred to the secondary winding, is given by: 1 = 2 + <
For small burden impedance values, both ⇢1 and ⇢< are small, resulting in a small < . The per unit current transformation
error n defined as:
1 2 <
n = =
1 1
is consequently small for low /1 values.

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 Equivalent Circuit and Current Transformer Performance

In essence, CTs perform optimally when connected to very low impedance burdens. In the extreme case of zero burden
impedance (and small / G2 ), 1 = 2 , leading to zero CT error.
Often, the CT error is presented in terms of a ratio correction factor ' instead of the per unit error n . The ratio correction
factor ' is defined as the constant by which the nameplate turns ratio = of a current transformer must be multiplied to obtain
the effective turns ratio. It holds that:
1
'=
1 n
While n and ' can be complex numbers, there are cases where they are used as real numbers equal to their respective
magnitudes, which is an approximation but not overly inaccurate.

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 Example

Consider a current transformer with the following Notes:

parameters:
I Turns Ratio: 500:5
I Secondary Leakage Impedance: 0.01 + 90.1W
I Resistive Burden: 2.0 W
I Magnetizing Impedance: 4.0 + 915W
For a primary current (referred to the secondary) of
;:
I Per Unit CT Error: Calculate the per unit
error in the current transformer.
I Ratio Correction Factors: Determine the
ratio correction factors for different
impedances: 1W, 2W, and j2W.

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 the ratio correction factor. The procedure is illustrated by Example 3.2 and one of the problems at

brary on [31/08/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
CT Nonlinear Characteristics
the end of the chapter. As can be seen from these problems, the calculation of CT performance
with nonlinear magnetizing characteristic is a fairly complicated procedure. A much simpler and
approximate procedure is available with the help of the standard class designations described next.
Notice that Figure 3.3 contains a family of characteristics. Each CT may be provided with several
taps, which can be used to obtain a turns ratio that is most convenient in a given application. The

Consider the complexities of transformer Notes:

magnetization and its impact on ratio correction: 1000
500
CT ratio
1200:5
1000:5

I Nonlinearity and Variable /< : The

900:5
800:5
300 600:5
500:5

Secondary voltage volts (rms)

magnetizing branch of a practical transformer
200 400:5
300:5
100
introduces nonlinearity and variable impedance 50
200:5

(/< ). The excitation characteristic is crucial 30 100:5

20
in determining the factor ' for a specific 10

scenario. 5
3
I Magnetizing Characteristic: A practical CT’s 2

magnetizing characteristic is illustrated. This 1

0.001 0.003 0.01 0.03 0.1 0.3 1.0 3.0 10.0 30.0 100.0

plot depicts r.m.s. magnetizing current versus Secondary exciting current amps (rms)

r.m.s. secondary voltage, serving as a vital Figure 3.3 Magnetizing characteristic of a typical CT

reference.
I < and Ratio Correction: To calculate the
ratio correction factor, < for each ⇢< must
be extracted from the curve. This data then
aids in the determination of the required ratio
correction factor.

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 Current Transformer Analysis: Thévenin Equivalent Approach

Let’s examine a CT with a turns ratio of 600:5 and the corresponding magnetizing characteristic. Our objective is to
determine the secondary winding current when the primary current is 5000 A.
Considering a total burden impedance of 9 + 92 W and negligible secondary leakage impedance, and knowing the impedance
angle of the magnetizing branch is 60°, we model the equivalent circuit.
We approximate it as a linear part containing a current source of 41.66 A (derived from 5000(5/600)) in parallel with the
burden, connected across the nonlinear impedance /< . The corresponding Thevenin equivalent is a voltage source of
384.1\12.53° volts (calculated as 41.66 ⇥ (9 + 92)), in series with the burden.

The magnetizing current < and secondary voltage ⇢2 can be expressed in terms of | /< |:
384.1
< =
| /< | ⇥ (0.5 + 90.866) + (9.0 + 92.0)
⇢2 = < /<
These equations can be solved to yield ⇢2 and < in terms of | /< |.

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 Since the magnetizing branch of a practical transformer is nonlinear, Zm is not constant, and
the actual excitation characteristic of the transformer must be taken into account in determining
the factor R for a given situation. The magnetizing characteristic of a typical CT is shown in
Figure 3.3. This being a plot of the r.m.s. magnetizing current versus the r.m.s. secondary voltage,
Im for each Em must be obtained from this curve, and then used in equations (3.5)–(3.7) to calculate
the ratio correction factor. The procedure is illustrated by Example 3.2 and one of the problems at
the end of the chapter. As can be seen from these problems, the calculation of CT performance
with nonlinear magnetizing characteristic is a fairly complicated procedure. A much simpler and
approximate procedure is available with the help of the standard class designations described next.
Notice that Figure 3.3 contains a family of characteristics. Each CT may be provided with several
taps, which can be used to obtain a turns ratio that is most convenient in a given application. The
1000 CT ratio
1200:5
500 1000:5
900:5
800:5
300 600:5
500:5
Secondary voltage volts (rms)

200 400:5
300:5
100
200:5
50
30 100:5
20
10
5
CT Nonlinear Characteristics

3
2
1
0.001 0.003 0.01 0.03 0.1 0.3 1.0 3.0 10.0 30.0 100.0
Secondary exciting current amps (rms)
Figure 3.3 Magnetizing characteristic of a typical CT
1 = 41.66\0 (with corresponding Thevenin voltage
The CT magnetizing characteristic can be found as

With a recalibration of equations to find the phase

Intersection these values in the magnetizing plot,

angles of the currents, the resulting currents are:

This establishes an error n = < / 1 of

' = 1/(1 n ) = 1.47\ 17.51°.

< = 17 A and ⇢2 = 260 V.

The ratio correction factor

⇢th = 384.1\12.53°,
29.96°,
28.24\17.51°.

0.408\ 29.96°,
°

< = 17\
I =

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 voltage transformer (VT)

The voltage transformer (VT) performs two essential Notes:

functions:
I Voltage Step-Down: The primary purpose is
to reduce the high line voltage to a safe level
for the relaying system (pressure coil of relay)
and for personnel handling. Standard
secondary voltage on a line-to-line basis is
often set at 110 V. This standardization aids in
uniformity of protective relaying equipment,
irrespective of the chosen primary EHV value.
I Primary Connection: Unlike a current
transformer (CT) whose primary is in series
with the line, a VT’s primary is connected in
parallel at the desired measurement point.
This distinction stems from the differing nature
of measuring current versus measuring voltage.

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 PT in a HV Substation

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 Circuit breaker (CB)

I The CBs are functioning as an electrically Notes:

operated switch capable of safely making and
breaking short-circuit currents.
I When the trip coil is energized, it releases a
latch, prompting the stored energy in the
closing spring to swiftly initiate an opening
operation.
I To close, the CB’s contacts rely on the force
of a spring, storing energy during closure.
Tripping the CB necessitates releasing a latch,
either manually or through the energization of
the trip coil.
I Energy for this action is supplied by the trip
battery. The relay’s output contact is in series
with the trip battery and trip coil
I Upon relay operation, the trip coil is
energized, leading the circuit breaker to
rapidly open its contacts.

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 Circuit breaker (CB)

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