Fascist leaders come to power by democratic anywhere including countries like USA.

Social
means but they end democracy. conditions only aggravate the fear. Hence, we have to
 According to Laski, capitalism keeps on shifting actively safeguard against the conditions which may
between democracy and fascism. So far, there is aggravate the chances.
no crisis capitalism can maintain its democratic
character. When capitalism start facing problems, Questions:
people start revolting against the problems like 1. Discuss central tenets of fascism. Explicate the
unemployment, economic hardships, leaders relation between individual and state from the
suspend democracy to check the protest. Thus, perspective of fascism.
they tried to divert the attention of people. They
may divert attention towards external threat, war,
aggression etc.
 The objective remains the protection of
capitalism.

Some scholars described “Fascism” an

ideology of lower middle classes (Centre-Right). Since
in Germany as well as in Italy, capitalists were
organised, communists were organising the workers,
middle class felt left out. They felt that nobody is
taking care of them. Fascist made their base among
the lower middle classes.

Future of Fascism:
Fascism is the dictatorship with the support of
masses. We cannot eliminate the possibility of
emergence of Fascism completely. It can emerge
anywhere, anytime. We should not ignore that
Fascism was not rejected by the people, they had to
be defeated in the war

What is the reason for rise of Fascism?

 Certain socio-economic conditions give rise to
Fascism
 According to Nolte, the chances of Fascism are
high in the countries where democracy is new and
democratic cultures had not got established. For
example, in comparison to Britain fascism
emerged in Germany and Italy where democracy
was very recent phenomena. The countries where
political instability becomes recurrent. For
FEMINISM
example, in both Germany and Italy, unstable Questions:
coalition governments created a situation in 1. “Sex and Gender represent natural inequality and
favour of a strong leader. conventional inequality”. Elucidate and Comment
 Economic crisis like unemployment, inflation
“One is not born women; one becomes women” –
Eric Fromm (Critical School): Simon de Beauvoir
Instead of focussing on the conditions
prevalent in the society, he focusses on the
characteristics of human nature. He coins the phrase
“Fear of Freedom”. Common man has a fear of
freedom. They look for security. They look for strong
leaders who can give them a sense of security. This
gives rise to Fascism because leaders comes to occupy
very strong position. Hence, Fascism can emerge
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 Socialist Feminism has its origin in the work of
Engels. Engels in his book “The Origin of Family,
Private Property and State” has established that
subjugation of women is associated with the capitalist
mode of production. Women do not have right to
property. It weakens their status. Hence, for Engels
women should support the cause of communism.
Once, capitalism ends communism is established,
Simon de Beauvoir (1908-1986) there will be liberation of women automatically.
In socialist countries like USSR, women were
Feminism is also a meta-ideology. It means given the equality of status. Lenin was the supporter
there are different schools in Feminism (inter- of empowerment of women. He even appointed a
sectionalist), yet the common link connect all woman in the cabinet. Once Stalin came to power,
feminists are the concerns for women ending the things started moving in opposite direction he had a
discrimination and to give a life a dignity. Feminism conventional attitude. Instead of giving opportunities
emerged as a social movement. It developed in the to become ministers, he started awarding the titles of
form of waves of feminism. mother heroines.
1. First Wave – up till 1960’s
2. Second Wave – from 1960’s to 1990’s Second Wave of Feminism:
3. Third Wave – from 1990’s onwards  Emergence of Radical Feminism

First Wave of Feminism: Radical Feminism is called as Feminism in real

 Two types of feminism in first wave: sense. Radical Feminism is feminism by women and
o Liberal Feminism for women. Feminism is the ideology which is not
o Socialist Feminism dependent on any masculinist ideology. Feminists
developed their own discourse.
Liberal Feminism:
How feminists look at liberal and socialist feminism?
 They don’t look at this feminism as the feminist
theory rather the adaptation of the masculinist
doctrines in context of women.
 Liberalism and Socialism are not based on the
understanding of women conditions or women
perceptions

Origin of radical feminism:

We can attribute the origin of radical
feminism to two scholars –
1. Betty Freidan of USA – “Feminine Mystique”
2. Simon de Beauvoir of France – “The Second
Sex”
Mary Wollstonecraft is known as mother of
feminism. Her book “Vindication of the Rights of
Women” is seen as the first text book in feminism.
She belonged to the time of French Revolution. She
wanted the recognition of rights of women along with Contribution of Betty Freidan:
the rights of men. Later on, feminism took the place of
Suffragette movement in the West, prominently in
Britain and USA. They demanded the right to vote to
be given to the women. They were successful in the
objective. This school is known as liberal school as
they focused on civil and political rights.

Socialist Feminism:

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 Shula smith Firestone gives the concept of
dialectics of sex.

Why we should end patriarchy?

 Patriarchy should be ended because of
consequences it results into. It is not just the issue
of lack of equality. The worst consequence of
patriarchy is “Violence against women”. They are
some specific and targeted violence which only
women suffer because of being women. For
She conducted survey on American women example, the practice of mutilation of female
(White married belonging to well-off families). She genital organ practiced in certain communities,
wanted to know whether women were satisfied with Female Foeticide and Infanticide, Honour killings,
their lives. She wanted to eliminate the factors like Rape etc.
race, marital status, poverty. Most of the women she
interviewed, she found that they were not happy or According to Susan Brownmiller, rape is one
satisfied with their lives. However, they were unable of the strongest institution of patriarchy. There is no
to explain the reason for dissatisfaction. relation between sexual desire and rape. It is a
Betty Freidan described the problem as targeted violence. The objective of rape is to keep all
problem that has no name. women under the fear all the time.

What was the problem actually? How to end the patriarchy?

 Patriarchy was the problem  End heterosexual families. Heterosexual families
are primary institution of patriarchy. Promote
What does it imply? homosexual families as well as single-parent
 It implies that the problems of women are family.
different from that of men. Hence, it is not  Feminists have coined the phrase “Personal is
enough for women to get civil and political rights, Political”.
social and economic rights, they will continue to
suffer because they leave in patriarchal society. What does “Personal is Political” denote?
Since the time of Aristotle, we are segregating
What is patriarchy? the personal and political sphere. Aristotle has
 The concept of Patriarchy is taken from the word confined women within the four walls of family. It was
patriarch. Father is treated as patriarch in a assumed that politics belongs to public to public
family. It denotes the authority of males. Hence, sphere. The role of state was assumed to be limited to
patriarchy is male dominated society. We live in a the public sphere. Hence, the exploitation which
gendered society. women suffered within the four walls of family
remained out of “public discourse”. It was actually
What is Gender? seen as a stigma “to wash the dirty linen in public”.
 Feminists make difference in sex and gender. Sex Hence, radical feminists emphasise that there is
is natural, biological, whereas gender is social and politics, subordination, exploitation, domination,
cultural. violence within the four walls of family. The domestic
 Gendered society is a society which give violence act brought by government of India is an
preference to one gender over the other. For acknowledgement of personal is political.
example, we live in a society which give On the similar ground, feminists advocate the
preference to men over women as well as need of intervention of the state in the personal laws,
transgender. to reform them in favour of women. According to
Feminist scholars, the phrase “personal is political”
For Feminists, economic structure is not the may understood to have four implications –
basic structure, patriarchy is the basic structure of the
society. Hence, the end of capitalism in itself will not Susan Moller Okin in her book “Gender,
give rise to the equality of status to women. We have Justice and Family” has explained following meanings
to end the patriarchal structure. Hence, feminist of the term “personal is political” –
scholars like Kate Millet talks about “Sexual Politics”.

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 1. It emphasised that there is a politics based on  Simon de Beauvoir was influenced by the French
sex in the family and state has to intervene on scholar Jean Paul Sartre.
the behalf of women  Jean Paul Sartre has given philosophy of
2. It is also a myth that states policies do not existentialism. His famous statement was
impact women. State does intervene in the “Existence is prior to essence”.
family when they make laws related to
personal sphere. State continues to remain Existence is what we are. Essence is the identity which
the institution of patriarchy, there is others give to us. One is not born women, one becomes
inadequate representation of women and women. When a child is born, just on the basis of some
hence, the laws made by state contain superficial characteristics one categorise as a male and
loopholes. female. Not given opportunity to female. Once child is
born – male or female – then decides the profession
3. The ‘personal is political’ denotes politics in
there itself. Colour of clothes are decided. Colour is
family. A child brought up in heterosexual
chosen by somebody else.
family sees the sub-ordination of women.
When the same child enters the society, look Persons existence is more important. Asserting existence
at the sub-ordinate status of women, he or is more important.
she finds its natural. Thus, the system keeps
on reinforcing the patriarchal values. Existence is nature but essence is social

According to Simon de Beauvoir, Existentialism is against religion.

patriarchy is bad not just for women, it is bad
Freedom – carrying responsibilities is more important
even for men. It is terrorising for men. Man
men want to dress like women but because of
Simon de Beauvoir based on the ideas of Sartre.
the fear of patriarchy they are unable to
exercise their freedom Women is identified with reference to men and vice
versa. The status of women is provisional. Identity of
4. Personal is political impacts the prospects of women is made defendant on men.
women in economic sphere. As suggested by
Betty Freidan, patriarchy is sustained by Sartre was critique of religion. There is a
myths. One such myth is that women should tradition of eternalizing in religion. According to him,
marry at early age, otherwise they will lose belief in God is a bad faith, belief in self is a good faith.
attraction. Hence, many women are With freedom also comes responsibilities.
compelled to live education. Hence, they are
having lower skills. When they enter into the “One is not born women; one becomes
job market they enter with lower skills. women” – Simon de Beauvoir.
Hence, they get lower wages which reinforce Above statement is based on Sartre views that
the patriarchy. existence is prior to essence. Radical Feminists make
distinction between SEX AND GENDER. Sex is natural,
Patriarchy is cause of sub-ordination and biological whereas Gender is socio-cultural.
exploitation. Patriarchy is sustained by creating myths Simon de Beauvoir also explains being
which she calls as FEMININE MYSTIQUE. Radical women is socially determined and it is a process. Since
feminists are against “Eternal Feminine Qualities”. the birth, society keeps on imposing certain norms, at
The so called eternal feminine qualities are the myths every stage women is reminded of her womanhood.
created by the intellectuals. She has criticised the role The process of becoming women continues
of women magazines promoting such myths. throughout life.
She has also criticised Sigmund Freud. He In order to understand the problems of
called his psychology as ‘scientific’. But he created women, we have to first define women. Women can
myths. According to him, the most important be defined only provisionally. It means there is no
objective of women should be to appear attractive to independent or autonomous understanding of
men. women. Women is always defined with reference to
men. If man is first sex, women is the second sex. If
Simon de Beauvoir: man is subject, women is object. If man is the primary
sex, women is “the other” or “secondary”. The
 Book: “THE SECOND SEX” identity is provisional because it depends upon the
way we describe men.
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 The reason that women are treated as are different from white women. They are under the
secondary sex is that we live in a gendered society. burden of racism too along with patriarchy
The society which gives preference to men over
women and transgender.
According to Simon de Beauvoir, being 2. Post-Colonial Feminism:
women is not a problem. It is men’s problem.
Similarly, there is no black problem, it is a problem of Chandra Mohanty Talpade and Sarojini
white. There is no Jewish problem, it is a problem of Sahoo – the problem of women in third world differ
Europeans. Hence, being women is not a problem from the women in Western world. They are tripe
because we live in a patriarchal society. burden – patriarchy, racism and neo-imperialism.
Like Betty Freidan, she also highlights various
myths associated with women. They are not just 3. Eco-Feminism:
socio-cultural, even so called scientific disciplines have
created myths. Scholars:
Like Betty Freidan, she has also conducted  Eugene DuBois
survey among women. She exploded the myth that for  Vandana Shiva
women the biggest source of satisfaction or
achievement is motherhood. Theme:
Like Betty Freidan, she has criticised Sigmund  Men exploit both women as well as nature
Freud, the psycho analyst who in the name of
scientific psychology created myths. Sigmund Freud Ecofeminism goes back to eternal feminism.
has created a myth that women suffer from penis The nature of women is conservationist, whereas the
envy and men suffer from castration complex. nature of men is consumerist. Men are destructive by
Similarly, she attacks medical science for creating nature and women are constructive. Women are
myths, simplifying the distinction between men and closer to nature by nature. Nature is also feminine by
women. According to her, society denies women, her nature. Men are responsible for environmental
existence as a human. Women have to make choices degradation. When environmental degradation takes
between their existence as a human and their destiny place the problems of women increase. They have to
as a woman. Those women which reject the walk, longer distances to fetch water. Hence, only
patriarchy are treated as abnormal, defective and women can protect environment. Hence, women
unattractive. Society does not give opportunity to the should be at the centre of any policy of sustainable
women to be free. Women is to be kept in the state of development. Women have been at the forefront of
imminence (stagnation). Global Environmental Movements.
Women are not allowed to achieve
transcendence (to change). Thus, women are MARY DELY
projected as passive, secondary and non-essential.
She suggests women to come out of the 4. Post feminism:
comfort of patriarchy. Women should develop good
faith. She believes that economic empowerment will Scholars:
lead to the improvement in the status of women.  Susan Faludi
Since, patriarchy is bad even for men, men and
women should work together to end patriarchy.

Third Wave of Feminism:

From 1990’s onwards. The inter-sectional in

feminism became prominent since 1990’s. We see the
emergence of following trends –

1. BLACK FEMINISM:
Objectives of radical feminists have been
Scholars like Bell Hooks and Angela Davis
suggest that women cannot be treated as achieved in the West. It is no more relevant. Now, if
homogenous group. The problems of black women radical feminist carries forward the agenda, there will
be backlash against feminism. Hence, post-Feminist

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believe that we should celebrate womanhood,
women should appear attractive to men, women
should domesticate men.

5. Post-Modern Feminism:

Judith Butler – According to her, gender is a

performative term. It means there is no single way to
define women. Gender is a construction of language.
It depends on how we talk about it. There is no single
method to deal with the problems of women.

GANDHISM
 Refer Indian Political Thought (IPT)

PYQs, 2020
1. Liberalism as revolutionary idea. (10 Marks)
2. Explicate the ideological component of Gandhism . (20 Marks)

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