Energy xxx (2015) 1e11

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Effects of low reactivity fuel characteristics and blending ratio on low

load RCCI (reactivity controlled compression ignition) performance
and emissions in a heavy-duty diesel engine
Jesús Benajes, Santiago Molina, Antonio García*, Javier Monsalve-Serrano
CMT e Motores T

ermicos, Universitat Polit
ecnica de Val
encia, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This work investigates the effect of low reactivity fuel characteristics and blending ratio on low load RCCI
Received 23 December 2014 (reactivity controlled compression ignition) performance and emissions using four different low reac-
Received in revised form tivity fuels: E10-95, E10-98, E20-95 and E85 (port fuel injected) while keeping constant the same high
18 May 2015
reactivity fuel: diesel B7 (direct injected). The experiments were conducted using a heavy-duty single-
Accepted 22 June 2015
cylinder research diesel engine adapted for dual fuel operation. All tests were carried out at 1200 rev/min
Available online xxx
and constant CA50 of 5 CAD ATDC. For this purpose, the premixed energy was equal for the different
blends and the EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) rate was modified as required, keeping constant the rest
Keywords:
Reactivity controlled compression ignition
of engine settings. In addition, a detailed analysis of air/fuel mixing process has been developed by
Low load means of a 1-D spray model.
Low reactivity fuels Results suggest that in-cylinder fuel reactivity gradients strongly affect the engine efficiency at low
Mixing process load. Specifically, a reduced reactivity gradient allows an improvement of 4.5% in terms of gross indicated
Efficiency efficiency when the proper blending ratio is used. In addition, EURO VI NOx and soot emission levels are
fulfilled with a strong reduction in CO and HC compared with the case of the higher reactivity gradient
among the low and high reactivity fuel.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction engines, researchers and manufacturers are focusing their effort on

develop new combustion strategies and aftertreatment systems to
As response of the regulations introduced around the world to fulfill the stringent limitations. Since the complex aftertreatment
limit the pollutant emissions associated to internal combustion devices incur in higher costs and fuel consumption, the in-cylinder
emissions reduction is clearly necessary.
HCCI (homogeneous charge compression ignition) is a widely
Abbreviations: 1-D, one-dimensional; ASTM, American Society of Testing and investigated LTC combustion concept. It has been demonstrated its
Materials; ATDC, after top dead center; CAD, crank angle degree; CA10, crank angle potential to produce virtually no soot or NOx emissions while
at 10% mass fraction burned; CA50, crank angle at 50% mass fraction burned; CA90, maintaining high efficiency [1e3], but in return, new challenges
crank angle at 90% mass fraction burned; CO, carbon monoxide; CI, compression
ignition; DI, direct injection; DOC, diesel oxidation catalyst; DPF, diesel particulate
regarding combustion control [4,5] and mechanical engine stress
filter; EGR, exhaust gas recirculation; EVC, exhaust valve close; EVO, exhaust valve were also identified [6]. Thus, Bessonette et al. [7] suggested that
open; EOC, end of combustion; FSN, filter smoke number; GIE, gross indicated ef- different in-cylinder reactivity is required for proper HCCI opera-
ficiency; HC, hydro carbons; HCCI, homogeneous charge compression ignition; HD, tion under different operating conditions. In particular, high cetane
heavy duty; HT, heat transfer; IVC, intake valve close; IVO, intake valve open; LHV,
fuels are required at low load and a low cetane fuels are needed at
lower heating value; LTC, low temperature combustion; LTHR, low temperature
heat release; MON, motor octane number; ON, octane number; PM, particulate mediumehigh load. With the aim of improving the reduced
matter; PFI, port fuel injection; PER, premixed energy ratio; PPC, partially premixed controllability and excessive knocking in HCCI combustion, the use
charge; PRF, primary reference fuel; RCCI, reactivity controlled compression igni- of gasoline-like fuels under PPC (partially premixed combustion)
tion; RON, research octane number; RoHR, rate of heat release; RI, ringing intensity; strategies has been widely studied [8e12]. The investigations
SOC, start of combustion; SOI, start of injection; WHSC, world harmonized sta-
tionary cycle.
confirmed gasoline PPC as promising method to control the heat
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ34 963879659; fax: þ34 963877659. release rate while providing a simultaneous reduction in NOx and
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. García). soot emissions [13,14]. However, the concept demonstrated

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.06.088
0360-5442/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Benajes J, et al., Effects of low reactivity fuel characteristics and blending ratio on low load RCCI (reactivity
controlled compression ignition) performance and emissions in a heavy-duty diesel engine, Energy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2015.06.088
2 J. Benajes et al. / Energy xxx (2015) 1e11

difficulties at low load conditions using gasoline with ON (octane Table 1

number) greater than 90 [15,16]. In this sense, the spark assistance Single cylinder engine specifications.

provided temporal and spatial control over the gasoline PPC com- Engine type Single cylinder, 4 St cycle, DI
bustion process [17e19], but resulted in unacceptable NOx and soot Bore  Stroke [mm] 123  152
emissions [20], even using double injection strategies [21,22]. Connecting rod length [mm] 225
Displacement [L] 1.806
Recent trends in LTC investigation confirm the extensive in- Geometric compression ratio [] 14.4:1
terest of the research community in dual-fuel compression igni- Bowl type Open crater
tion combustion. This combustion mode enables an effective Number of valves 4
control of the in-cylinder equivalence ratio and reactivity strati- IVO 375 CAD ATDC
IVC 535 CAD ATDC
fication, which allows a flexible operation over a wide operating
EVO 147 CAD ATDC
range. Experimental and simulated studies proved that RCCI EVC 347 CAD ATDC
(reactivity controlled compression ignition), a dual-fuel diesel-
gasoline combustion concept, is a more promising LTC technique
than HCCI and PPC [23,24]. Thus, several investigations have been
conducted with the aim of insight into the RCCI phenomena. First circuit is required. Detailed specifications of the engine are given in
of all, the effects of the gasoline percentage in the blend and direct Table 1.
injection timing were widely studied [25e27]. These works As it is illustrated in Fig. 1, the engine was installed in a fully
revealed that RCCI concept allows to reach ultra-low NOx and soot instrumented test cell, with all the auxiliary facilities required for
emissions levels, together with improved fuel consumption its operation and control. In addition, Table 2 summarizes the
compared to CDC (conventional diesel combustion). In this di- accuracy of the instrumentation used in this work.
rection, further investigations confirmed the potential of Moreover, to achieve stable intake air conditions, a screw
combining different engine settings, such as in-cylinder gas compressor supplied the required boost pressure before passing
temperature and oxygen concentration with the fuel blending through an air dryer. The air pressure was adjusted within the
ratio, to improve the RCCI low load combustion efficiency to intake settling chamber, while the intake temperature was
values above 98% [28]. Finally, the influence of geometric factors controlled in the intake manifold after mixing with the EGR
such as compression ratio and piston geometry on RCCI emissions (exhaust gas recirculation) flow. The exhaust backpressure pro-
have been also investigated [29]. In this sense, crevices and squish duced by the turbine in the real engine was replicated by means of a
volumes were identified as primary responsible of incomplete valve placed in the exhaust system, controlling the pressure in the
combustion. In addition, it was also identified that RCCI concept exhaust settling chamber. Low pressure EGR was produced taking
offers an interesting potential for improving fuel consumption by exhaust gases from the exhaust settling chamber. Thus, the deter-
lowering wall heat transfer [24]. mination of the EGR rate was carried out using the experimental
Taking into account the major findings about RCCI described measurement of intake and exhaust CO2 concentration. The con-
above, it is clear that local reactivity plays a fundamental role to centrations of NOx, CO, unburned HC, intake and exhaust CO2, and
enhance the RCCI combustion propagation, which proceed gradu- O2 were analyzed with a five gas Horiba MEXA-7100 DEGR analyzer
ally from high reactivity to low reactivity regions, reducing the bench by averaging 40 s after attaining steady state operation.
incomplete combustion. In this sense, a primary source of local Smoke emission were measured with an AVL 415S Smoke Meter
reactivity in RCCI concept is the in-cylinder fuel blending, which and averaged between three samples of a 1 L volume each with
can be managed as required depending on the engine operating paper-saving mode off, providing results directly in FSN (filter
conditions. Thus, several studies confirm that in order to achieve smoke number) units. PM measurements of FSN were transformed
high efficiency while reducing NOx and soot emissions, the higher into specific emissions (g/kWh) by means of the factory AVL
portion of the energy should come from the low reactivity fuel. calibration.
Taking into account this statement, it is clear that the low reactivity
fuel characteristics and its amount in the blend have a significant
contribution to the in-cylinder reactivity. Thus, the main objective 2.2. Fuels and delivery
of the present work is to evaluate the effect of the low reactivity
fuel characteristics and blending ratio on RCCI combustion effi- To enable RCCI operation the engine was equipped with a
ciency as well as on its performance and emissions at low load. For double injection system, one for each different fuel used, as it is
this purpose, four different low reactivity fuels (port fuel injected) shown in the scheme of Fig. 2. This injection hardware enables to
were tested keeping constant the same high reactivity fuel. In order vary the in-cylinder fuel blending ratio and fuel mixture prop-
to provide details in terms of combustion development, emissions erties according to the engine operating conditions. Thus, to
and efficiency differences between the different fuel blends, the inject the diesel fuel, the engine was equipped with a common-
experiments were conducted at constant combustion phasing rail flexible injection hardware which is able to perform up to
(CA50). five injections per cycle. The main characteristic of this hardware
is its capability to amplify common-rail fuel pressure for one of
2. Experimental facilities and processing tools the injection events by means of a hydraulic piston directly
installed inside the injector. Concerning the gasoline injection, an
2.1. Test cell and engine description additional fuel circuit was in-house built including a reservoir,
fuel filter, fuel meter, electrically driven pump, heat exchanger
A single-cylinder, HD (heavy-duty) diesel engine representative and commercially available PFI (port fuel injector). The
of commercial truck engine, has been used for all experiments in mentioned injector was located at the intake manifold and was
this study. The major difference to the standard unit production is specified to be able to place all the gasoline fuel into the cylinder
the hydraulic VVA system, which confers great flexibility during the during the intake stroke. Consequently, the gasoline injection
research. In particular, the valve timing, duration and lift can be timing was fixed 10 CAD after the IVO to allow the fuel to flow
electronically controlled for each valve during the engine tests. along 160 mm length (distance from PFI location to intake valves
Thus, a slightly adapted cylinder head to include a dedicated oil seats). Accordingly, this set-up avoids fuel pooling over the

Please cite this article in press as: Benajes J, et al., Effects of low reactivity fuel characteristics and blending ratio on low load RCCI (reactivity
controlled compression ignition) performance and emissions in a heavy-duty diesel engine, Energy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2015.06.088
 J. Benajes et al. / Energy xxx (2015) 1e11 3

Fig. 1. Complete test cell setup.

Table 2
Accuracy of the instrumentation used in this work.

Variable measured Device Manufacturer/model Accuracy

In-cylinder pressure Piezoelectric transducer Kistler/6125B ±1.25 bar

Intake/exhaust pressure Piezorresistive transducers Kistler/4045A10 ±25 mbar
Temperature in settling chambers and manifolds Thermocouple TC direct/type K ±2.5  C
Crank angle, engine speed Encoder AVL/364 ±0.02 CAD
NOx, CO, HC, O2, CO2 Gas analyzer HORIBA/Mexa 7100 DEGR 4%
FSN Smoke meter AVL/415 ±0.025 FSN
Gasoline/diesel fuel mass flow Fuel balances AVL/733S ±0.2%
Air mass flow Air flow meter Elster/RVG G100 ±0.1%

Fig. 2. Fuel injection systems scheme.

intake valve and the undesirable variability introduced by this 2.3. Analysis of in-cylinder pressure signal
phenomenon. The main characteristics of the diesel and gasoline
injectors are depicted in Table 3. The combustion analysis was performed with an in-house one-
To carry out the experimental tests, commercially available zone model named CALMEC, which is fully described in Ref. [30].
diesel and four different low reactivity fuels were used. This combustion diagnosis tool uses the in-cylinder pressure signal
Their main properties related with auto-ignition are listed in and some mean variables (engine speed, coolant, oil, inlet and
Table 4. All the properties were obtained following ASTM exhaust temperatures, air, EGR and fuel mass flow …) as its main
standards. inputs.

Please cite this article in press as: Benajes J, et al., Effects of low reactivity fuel characteristics and blending ratio on low load RCCI (reactivity
controlled compression ignition) performance and emissions in a heavy-duty diesel engine, Energy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2015.06.088
4 J. Benajes et al. / Energy xxx (2015) 1e11

Table 3 necessary inputs for the model are the evolution of the in-cylinder
Diesel and gasoline fuel injector characteristics. thermodynamic conditions (pressure, temperature and density),
Diesel injector Gasoline injector the spray cone angle and the fuel mass injection rate. To reproduce
Actuation type Solenoid Injector style Saturated
the real in-cylinder conditions more accurately, two additional in-
puts are also needed for the 1-D model; the oxygen mass fraction at
Steady flow rate 28.56 Steady flow rate 980
IVC and the stoichiometric equivalence ratio of the in-cylinder fuel
@ 100 bar [cm3/s] @ 3 bar [cm3/s]
Number of holes 7 Included spray angle [ ] 30 blend (2) [35]. These two parameters are used to account the fresh
Hole diameter [um] 194 Fuel pressure [bar] 5.5 air, EGR rate and low reactivity fuel entrainment. Finally, the
Included spray angle [ ] 142 Start of injection [CAD aTDC] 385 calculation time for each test was set from the start of injection of
HRF (SOIHRF) to the experimental SOC (start of combustion).

1  fLRF 12 CHRF þ HHRF þ 16 OHRF

Table 4 fest ¼ $
Physical and chemical properties of the fuels used along the study. CHRF þ HHRF OHRF
4  2
32
1 (2)
Diesel B7 E10-95 E20-95 E10-98 E85 $
$12 CLRF þH32
LRF þ16 OLRF
Y 1
Density [kg/m3] (T ¼ 15  C) 837.9 739 745 755 781 1 þ YN2;IVC þ fLRF $ HLRF OLRF
O2;IVC CLRF þ4
 2
Viscosity [mm2/s] (T ¼ 40  C) 2.67 e e e e
RON [] e 98.8 99.1 103 108
MON [] e 85.2 85.6 90 89 where 4LRF and 4HRF are the equivalence ratios of LRF (low reac-
Cetane number [] 54 e e e e tivity fuel) and HRF (high reactivity fuel), CHRF and CLRF denote the
Oxygen content [% mass] 0.8 3.5 6.6 3.5 29.7 number of carbon atoms, HHRF and HLRF are the number of hydrogen
Lower heating value [kJ/kg] 42.61 41.32 40.05 41.29 31.56 atoms, YN2,IVC stands for nitrogen mass fraction at IVC and YO2,IVC
accounts the oxygen mass fraction at IVC.
To perform the calculations, the model solves the general con-
servation equations either in a transient or steady formulation for
The pressure traces from 150 consecutive engine cycles were
axial momentum and fuel mass in terms of the on-axis (i.e., center
recorded in order to compensate the cycle-to-cycle variation during
line) referred to instantaneous values of velocity and species mass
engine operation. Thus, each individual cycle's pressure data was
fractions. Finally, by processing the raw results, the high reactivity
smoothed using a Fourier series low-pass filter. Once filtered, the
fuel mass distribution mixed to different equivalence ratios at
collected cycles were ensemble averaged to yield a representative
experimental SOC was obtained. Fig. 3 shows an example of the 1-D
cylinder pressure trace, which was used to perform the analysis.
model results as a histogram. In this case, the bars represent the
Then, the first law of thermodynamics was applied between IVC
result of the high reactivity fuel masses mixed to different local
(intake valve closing) and EVO (exhaust valve opening), considering
equivalence ratios and the solid line represents the envelope curve
the combustion chamber as an open system because of the blow-by
of the bars. For the sake of clarity, in the present work the results
and fuel injection. The ideal gas equation of state was used to
were also represented as a pie chart format.
calculate the mean gas temperature in the chamber. In addition, the
in-cylinder pressure signal allowed obtaining the gas thermody-
namic conditions in the chamber to feed the convective and radi-
3. Test methodology
ative heat transfer models in the chamber [31], as well as the filling
and emptying model that provided the fluid-dynamic conditions in
As literature demonstrates, to achieve high efficiencies in a wide
the ports, and thus the heat transfer flows in these elements. The
range of engine speeds and loads during RCCI operation, the mass
convective and radiative models are linked to a lumped conduc-
ratio of premixed fuel (low reactivity) to direct injected fuel (high
tance model to calculate the wall temperatures.
reactivity) should be changed accordingly. Previous works defined
The main results of the model used in this work were the RoHR
(rate of heat release) as well as the heat transfer analysis. Moreover,
several parameters were calculated from the RoHR profile. In
particular, start of combustion (defined as the crank angle position
in which the cumulated heat release has reached 2%), end of
combustion (defined as the crank angle position in which the
cumulated heat release has reached 90%) and combustion phasing
(defined as the crank angle position of 50% fuel mass fraction
burned) were obtained. Additionally, ringing intensity was calcu-
lated by means of the correlation of Eng [32]:

2
1 0:05$ðdP=dtÞmax pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
RI ¼ gRTmax (1)
2g Pmax

where g is the ratio of specific heats, (dP/dt)max is the peak PRR,

Pmax is the maximum of in-cylinder pressure, R is the ideal gas
constant, and Tmax is the maximum of in-cylinder temperature.

2.4. Analysis of mixing process

A 1-D spray model, DICOM [33,34], has been used to understand

the changes in mixing process associated to variations in the in- Fig. 3. Histogram of the high reactivity fuel mass distribution mixed to different
cylinder fuel blending and intake oxygen concentration. The equivalence ratios at experimental SoC.

Please cite this article in press as: Benajes J, et al., Effects of low reactivity fuel characteristics and blending ratio on low load RCCI (reactivity
controlled compression ignition) performance and emissions in a heavy-duty diesel engine, Energy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2015.06.088
 J. Benajes et al. / Energy xxx (2015) 1e11 5

the in-cylinder fuel blending ratio as the mass of premixed fuel to RoHR traces for the different premixed energy ratios and blends are
the total fuel. However, since there is a significant difference in LHV shown in Fig. 4. A detailed view of the LTHR (low temperature heat
(lower heating value) between E85 and the three remaining low release) profiles is presented inside each figure. In addition, the EGR
reactivity fuels tested, as shown in Table 4, the PER (premixed en- rate, combustion duration (CA90-CA10) and ringing intensity are
ergy ratio) is presented here. Thus, the premixed energy ratio is depicted in Figs. 5, 7 and 8, respectively. It is interesting to note that,
defined as the ratio of energy of the low reactivity fuel to the total in the case PER ¼ 79% was not possible to obtain the desired
fuel (3), where the low reactivity fuel and the high reactivity one combustion phasing (5 CAD ATDC) with E85, even without the use
are denoted by the subscripts LRF and HRF respectively. of EGR. In this case, the higher octane number of ethanol E85
combined with the greater intake cooling effect associated to its
mLRF $LHVLRF significantly higher enthalpy of vaporization compared with the
PER½% ¼ (3)
mHRF $LHVHRF þ mLRF $LHVLRF conventional gasolines [36e38], delayed the combustion far from 5
In the present study, four different premixed energy ratios were CAD ATDC.
tested for each fuel blend. The baseline operation was selected As explained in the test methodology, in order to keep constant
according to B7þE20-95 blend. In this sense, four different the CA50 while introducing low reactivity fuels with very
blending ratios were proposed (mass based) and then, the total different characteristics, the EGR rate was modified as required in
energy delivered to the cylinder was maintained constant for the each case. Thus, Fig. 5 shows the EGR rate for the different pre-
three remaining blends by adjusting the low reactivity fuel mass as mixed energy ratios and blends. As expected, the results illustrate
required in each case. The diesel B7 mass was kept constant for that the EGR rate depends on the blend reactivity. Taking into
each premixed energy ratio between the different fuel blends. In account that diesel injection timing as well as its injected fuel
order to clarify the test methodology, Table 5 depicts the fuel mass mass was kept constant for each PER, the blend reactivity was
per blend as well as the total energy delivered to the cylinder for modified only by means of the low reactivity fuel. Focusing on the
each PER proposed. values depicted in Table 4, it is clear that the higher RON and MON,
All the tests were carried out at 1200 rev/min and constant the lower EGR rate needed to maintain the combustion phasing.
combustion phasing (CA50) of 5 CAD ATDC. In order to keep con- Moreover, as PER is increased, a deterioration in the blend reac-
stant the CA50 while introducing low reactivity fuels with very tivity is promoted due to the low diesel fuel mass, requiring lower
different characteristics, the EGR rate was modified as required in EGR rates for the same blend.
each case, keeping constant the rest of engine settings. At these In RCCI operation, the combustion starts with the autoignition
operating conditions, the mean IMEP resulted in 7.5 bar, with a of the high reactivity fuel followed by the entrained low reactivity
maximum value of 7.83 bar (E10-95 and PER 59%) and minimum fuel. The consequent increase in temperature and pressure initi-
value of 7.03 bar (E10-95 and PER 59%) due to differences in com- ates a reaction zone, identified in literature as an auto-ignition or
bustion development between fuels. Table 6 depicts the constant flame propagation depending on equivalence ratio conditions,
engine settings. which proceed gradually from high to low reactivity regions of the
combustion chamber [39e41]. Focusing on the RoHR profiles in
Fig. 4, it is clear that the SOC pattern of the HTHR (high temper-
4. Results and discussion ature heat release) stages between the different fuels is the same
independently on PER. In particular, B7þE85 exhibits earlier HTHR
4.1. Combustion development growth, followed by B7þE10-98, B7þE20-95 and finally B7þE10-
95. Considering the low reactivity fuel characteristics, it is clear
In order to understand the main differences in combustion that this pattern is opposite to the fuel blend reactivity (i.e., octane
process due to variations in low reactivity fuel characteristics, an number). In this sense, the increase in oxygen concentration
analysis of the parameters derived from the in-cylinder pressure through the EGR reduction counteracts the deterioration in the
measurement is presented here. In this sense, the instantaneous mixture reactivity due to the fuel characteristics. Thus, an earlier
HTHR growth is achieved in spite of the high ON fuel blend [42]. In
addition, the higher oxygen content of E85 compared to other
Table 5 fuels also contributes to the more evident advance in the HTHR
Fuel mass per blend as well as the total energy delivered to the cylinder for each onset.
premixed energy ratio.
Fig. 6 illustrate some pie charts of the high reactivity fuel mass
PER ¼ 49% PER ¼ 59% PER ¼ 69% PER ¼ 79% distribution mixed to different 4 at experimental SOC for the
Diesel B7 [mg] 35 28 21 14 different premixed energy ratios and blends. From the four sce-
E20-95 [mg] 35 42 49 56 narios proposed, the ones containing the more reactive equivalence
E10-95 [mg] 33.9 40.7 47.5 54.3 ratios (0.9<4 < 1.1) govern the autoignition process. In this sense, it
E10-98 [mg] 33.9 40.7 47.5 54.3
is possible to see how there is not a significant difference in the
E85 [mg] 44.4 53.3 62.2 71.1
Total energy [J] 2893.1 2875.2 2857.3 2839.3 mass distribution for the diesel fuel when comparing the cases of
B7þE20-95, B7þE10-98 and B7þE10-95, whatever the PER. Thus,
the first slope in the HTHR profiles for these three blends are nearly
equal. Regarding the diesel mass distribution in the case of E85 for
Table 6
these two ranges of equivalence ratios, it is shown that in the cases
Constant engine settings.
of PER ¼ 49% and PER ¼ 59% the fuel mass distribution is very
Engine speed [rev/min] 1200 similar to the ones obtained with the other three blends. However,
Combustion phasing (CA50) [CAD ATDC] 5
the EGR rate reduction needed in the case of PER ¼ 69% to kept
Intake temperature [ C] 40
Diesel pilot inj. timing [CAD ATDC] 60 constant the combustion phasing promotes a very lean mixture
Fuel mass in pilot Diesel inj. [%] 50 distribution, leading to an only 0.5% fuel mass mixed in the 4 range
Diesel main inj. timing [CAD ATDC] 30 of 0.9<4 < 1.1 and no fuel mass mixed to 4 > 1.1. From the figure, it
Diesel injection pressure [bar] 700 is highlighted that the diesel fuel mass distribution becomes leaner
Low reactivity fuel inj. timing [CAD ATDC] 385
as PER is increased, whatever the fuel blend. This behavior is

Please cite this article in press as: Benajes J, et al., Effects of low reactivity fuel characteristics and blending ratio on low load RCCI (reactivity
controlled compression ignition) performance and emissions in a heavy-duty diesel engine, Energy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2015.06.088
6 J. Benajes et al. / Energy xxx (2015) 1e11

Fig. 4. RoHR traces for the different premixed energy ratios and blends.

Fig. 5. EGR rate for the different premixed energy ratios and blends.

Fig. 6. High reactivity fuel mass distribution mixed to different f at experimental SoC for the different premixed energy ratios and blends.

Please cite this article in press as: Benajes J, et al., Effects of low reactivity fuel characteristics and blending ratio on low load RCCI (reactivity
controlled compression ignition) performance and emissions in a heavy-duty diesel engine, Energy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2015.06.088
 J. Benajes et al. / Energy xxx (2015) 1e11 7

Fig. 7. Combustion duration (CA90-CA10) for the different premixed energy ratios and blends.

Fig. 8. Ringing intensity for the different premixed energy ratios and blends.

explained due to the low diesel fuel mass injected and the greater Finally, from Fig. 8, it is stated that ringing intensity trends be-
fresh air amount (lower EGR) provided to the cylinder. This fact, tween the different blends are the same regardless the PER. Hence,
combined with the stoichiometric equivalence ratio of the low RI is directly related to the blend reactivity. Since the diesel fuel
reactivity fuel, contributes to determinate the amount of diesel fuel mass was kept constant for each PER, the blend reactivity is
mass mixed to the leanest 4 range (0.1<4 < 0.5). The over-lean modified only by means of the LRF. Focusing on the values depicted
diesel fuel stratification will cause a deterioration in the combus- in Table 4, it is clear that the higher RON and MON, the lower RI
tion propagation. As it is noted from the figure, the same pattern in registered. Also it is interesting that RI values for each fuel become
terms of diesel amount mixed to this 4 range is appreciated lower as PER is increased. Thus, slightly higher RI values are ob-
(E85 > E20-95 > E10-98 > E10-95), whatever the PER. tained with the lower PER due to the enhancement in the blend
Once initiated the combustion, its evolution strongly depends reactivity through the higher diesel fuel mass. It is remarkable that
on the low reactivity fuel characteristics and the high reactivity RI values are below 5 MW/m2, which was established by Dec and
fuel stratification. Fig. 7 shows the combustion duration (CA90- Yang [43] as a proper upper limit to achieve an acceptable com-
CA10) for the different PER and blends. Once again, the combus- bustion noise and knock-free operation.
tion duration trend is well correlated with the fuel blend reac-
tivity. In this sense, the low reactivity fuels with higher reactivity
enhance the autoignition process, which results in higher
maximum RoHR peaks during the HTHR stage and shorter com- 4.2. NOx emissions
bustion durations. Another interesting finding from the RoHR
profiles in Fig. 4 is that the late combustion phase, from þ10 Fig. 9 represents the NOx emissions for the different premixed
to þ20 CAD ATDC, is almost equal whatever the PER and blend. energy ratios and blends. As reference, dashed lines across the
Hence, the EOC (end of combustion) is almost the same between figures denote the EURO VI NOx limits for HD diesel engines ac-
fuels for the same PER. cording to the WHSC (world harmonized stationary cycle), which
Regarding LTHR profiles, in previous work [28] in which an stablishes a maximum value of 0.4 g/kWh for NOx emissions.
analysis of the temporal evolution of the key combustion species From the figure it is noted that E85 leads to significantly higher
was presented, it was demonstrated that the low temperature NOx emission levels than the other low reactivity fuels since much
reactions are mainly associated to the high reactivity fuel. The low lower EGR rate (Fig. 5) is required to maintain the proper com-
temperature reactions are triggered by the high reactivity fuel bustion phasing. The EGR rate reduction promotes an increase in
consumption. However, since the low reactivity fuel is well mixed combustion temperature, represented in Fig. 10. This higher tem-
at this moment, the temperature increase makes the surrounding perature achieved during the combustion development enhances
zones start also to react. Focusing on the evolution of the LTHR the NO formation reactions promoting an increase in the NOx
profiles represented in the detailed views in Fig. 4, it is clear that levels. Also of note is that as PER is increased, NOx emissions in-
the maximum LTHR peak becomes reduced as PER is increased, crease whatever the blend. In this case, a reduction in the EGR rate
whatever the low reactivity fuel used. In addition, it is stated that is necessary to keep constant the CA50 while reducing the diesel
for the same PER, the maximum LTHR peak depends on the fuel mass. It is interesting to note that E20-95, E10-98 and E10-95
reactivity of the low reactivity fuel. Thus, the maximum LTHR peak are valid to fulfill EURO VI NOx limits independently on the PER.
is well related to the octane number of the low reactivity fuels, Specifically, the higher reactivity of E10-95 allows to use higher
with higher LTHR peaks observed as the RON and MON are EGR rates, leading to emission levels far below of the current
decreased. regulation limits.

Please cite this article in press as: Benajes J, et al., Effects of low reactivity fuel characteristics and blending ratio on low load RCCI (reactivity
controlled compression ignition) performance and emissions in a heavy-duty diesel engine, Energy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2015.06.088
8 J. Benajes et al. / Energy xxx (2015) 1e11

4.3. Soot emissions Meter in all tests. In order to confirm that the strategy to achieve
zero soot is to avoid its formation, Fig. 11 presents the mass dis-
Soot emissions were measured for the different premixed en- tribution mixed up to different equivalence ratios at experimental
ergy ratios and blends. The soot levels registered were below the SOC for the diesel fuel calculated by means of the 1-D spray model
minimum detection limit of the AVL 415S Smoke Meter in all tests. (DICOM). The different PER and blends are also depicted in the
Thus, under this operating conditions, engine-out soot emissions figure. As it can be seen, the higher maximum local equivalence
from RCCI operation are zero whatever the low reactivity fuel used. ratios are obtained for the lowest PER as a result of the higher diesel
Consequently, the limitation in PM mass established by the EURO VI amount injected in these cases. Even in these conditions, the value
regulation for HD diesel engines referred to the WHSC (0.01 g/ of the maximum local equivalence ratio is around 4L ¼ 2, which
kWh), is also fulfilled. confirm the non-formation of soot [44e46]. Moreover, it is inter-
The results confirm that RCCI soot emissions are mainly asso- esting to remark how an E85/air ambient enhances the mixing
ciated to the soot formation and oxidation processes from the high process for the diesel fuel.
reactivity fuel. In this sense, an advanced enough injection strategy
for the direct injected fuel is required to provide sufficient mixing 4.4. HC and CO emissions
time prior to the start of combustion and inhibit soot formation.
Concerning the specific injection timing values used in this Figs. 12 and 13 represent HC and CO emissions for the different
research, shown in Table 6, the pilot direct injection timing was set premixed energy ratios and blends, respectively. Dashed lines
at 60 CAD ATDC in order to ensure that part of the high reactivity across the figures denote the EURO VI HC and CO limits for HD
fuel mass had sufficient mixing time prior to the start of combus- diesel engines according to the WHSC approval cycle (HC < 0.13 g/
tion. Moreover, it is interesting to note that the value selected for kWh and CO < 1.5 g/kWh).
the main injection (30 CAD ATDC) is advanced enough to allow an Taking into account the maximum RoHR peaks in Fig. 6, it is
adequate mixing time for this second fuel mass too, achieving soot demonstrated that the low cylinder reactivity gradients enhance
levels below the minimum detection limit of the AVL 415S Smoke the autoignition process. From Fig. 12 it is noted that unburned HC

Fig. 9. NOx emissions for the different premixed energy ratios and blends.

Fig. 10. Maximum adiabatic combustion temperature.

Fig. 11. Mass distribution mixed up to different equivalence ratios at experimental SoC for the different premixed energy ratios and blends.

Please cite this article in press as: Benajes J, et al., Effects of low reactivity fuel characteristics and blending ratio on low load RCCI (reactivity
controlled compression ignition) performance and emissions in a heavy-duty diesel engine, Energy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2015.06.088
 J. Benajes et al. / Energy xxx (2015) 1e11 9

Fig. 12. HC emissions for the different premixed energy ratios and blends.

Fig. 13. CO emissions for the different premixed energy ratios and blends.

emissions correlate with the fuel blend reactivity, which is also Regarding CO emissions, a reduction in its emission levels are
related with the maximum energy released during the combustion. achieved as PER is increased from 49% to 69% for all the blends. This
Specifically, as the fuel blend reactivity is increased (i.e., lower ON) trend is explained due to the higher combustion temperatures
higher RoHR peaks (Fig. 6) and lower unburned HC are registered. (Fig. 10) attained (promoted by the EGR rate reduction required),
This behavior is the same whatever the PER tested. which improves the oxidation process. Increasing the PER up to

Fig. 14. Gross indicated efficiency (GIE), heat transfer losses, exhaust losses and combustion losses as a percentage of the fuel energy for the different premixed energy ratios and
blends.

Please cite this article in press as: Benajes J, et al., Effects of low reactivity fuel characteristics and blending ratio on low load RCCI (reactivity
controlled compression ignition) performance and emissions in a heavy-duty diesel engine, Energy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2015.06.088
10 J. Benajes et al. / Energy xxx (2015) 1e11

79%, it is possible to appreciate a rise in the CO levels for the three  The combustion development was strongly affected by the low
blends. At this point, the deterioration in the combustion process reactivity fuel characteristics. Thus, the low reactivity fuels with
(larger combustion duration and lower RoHR peaks) promoted by higher reactivity enhanced the autoignition process shortening
the over-lean in-cylinder regions, results in higher CO levels even the combustion duration.
with higher in-cylinder temperature peaks.  Knock-free operation was achieved for any fuel blend. In addi-
The results suggests that, that independently on the PER, a tion, it was demonstrated that the higher RON and MON of the
reduced reactivity gradient between the low and high reactivity low reactivity fuel, the lower ringing intensity registered.
fuel enhances the combustion propagation, reducing the unburned
HC and CO emission levels. However, independently on PER and The notable observations comparing performance and emis-
fuel blend, unacceptable limits are obtained taking into account the sions from the different combinations of high and low reactivity
EURO VI limits. In this sense, recent study discussed the effective- fuel were as follows:
ness of several DOC (diesel oxidation catalyst) with different
precious metal loadings under steady-state operation [47]. It was  The low EGR rate required with E85 fuel enhanced the thermal
demonstrated that all DOCs were effective in oxidizing CO and HC NOx formation resulting in emissions levels far above the EURO
at temperatures greater than 300  C, with no catalyst activity under VI legislation limit.
200  C.  Independently on the low reactivity fuel used, soot formation
was inhibited by setting an advanced injection strategy for the
4.5. Discussion diesel fuel.
 The reduced reactivity gradient between high and low reactivity
This section is focused on detailing the influence of the different fuels enhanced the combustion propagation, which allowed a
combinations of fuels and blending ratios on RCCI concept effi- considerable reduction in HC and CO emissions. The decrease in
ciency. For this purpose, Fig. 14 represents the GIE (gross indicated combustion losses counteracted the increase in heat transfer
efficiency), heat transfer losses, exhaust losses and combustion and exhaust losses, which resulted in greater GIE in this case.
losses as a percentage of the fuel energy for the different premixed
energy ratios and blends. The results of this work demonstrate that the in-cylinder fuel
The results illustrate that, at low load, the gross indicated effi- reactivity gradients strongly affect the engine efficiency at low load.
ciency of RCCI operation using E85 as low reactivity fuel is In particular, an improvement of 4.5% in terms of GIE was achieved
considerably lower than the ones obtained using the other low by reducing the reactivity gradient and selecting the proper
reactivity fuels tested. Taking into account the energy distribution, blending ratio. In terms of engine-out emissions, the use of a lower
it is clear that the main cause of the differences in GIE are related to in-cylinder reactivity gradient allowed a notable reduction in CO
the differences in combustion losses. In this case, the higher un- and unburned HC levels. Moreover, EURO VI NOx and soot emission
burned HC and CO levels (which leads to incomplete combustion) levels are fulfilled in this case. In addition, ringing intensity values
prevails over the reduction in heat transfer and exhaust losses, are below 5 MW/m2, which denotes knock-free operation.
which results in the GIE reduction. The combination of B7þE10-95
allows an improvement between 3 and 4.5% in terms of GIE in
Acknowledgments
comparison with B7þE85. Thus, it is demonstrated that, at low load,
a reduced reactivity gradient between the low and high reactivity
The authors acknowledge VOLVO Group Trucks Technology and
fuel is needed to improve the thermal efficiency.
TOTAL for supporting this research.
Comparing the results between B7þE20-95, B7þE10-98 and
B7þE10-95, in which the combustion temperatures are similar as
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Please cite this article in press as: Benajes J, et al., Effects of low reactivity fuel characteristics and blending ratio on low load RCCI (reactivity
controlled compression ignition) performance and emissions in a heavy-duty diesel engine, Energy (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2015.06.088