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R.M.D ENGINEERING
COLLEGE

OMD 551
BASICS OF
BIOMEDICAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Department : ECE

Batch/Year : 2018-2022 / III year

Created by : Dr. K. HelenPrbha

Dr. C.Shobana Nageswari
Mrs. R.Aarthi

Date : 28.07.2020
 Table of Contents
S.No Contents Page
Number

1 Course Objectives 7

2 Pre Requisites 8

3 Syllabus 9

4 Course outcomes 10

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 11

6 Unit 2 – Bio Signal Characteristics and Electrode 12

Configuration
13
6.1 Lecture Plan
14
6.2 Activity based learning

6.3 Lecture Notes

 Biosignals characteristics – frequency and 16

amplitude ranges

 ECG – Einthoven’s triangle 17

 Standard 12 lead system. 23

 EEG 35

 10-20 electrode system, unipolar, bipolar and 38

average mode.

 EMG–unipolar and bipolar mode 44

48
6.4 Assignments

5
S.No Contents Page
Number
49
6.5 Part A Q & A
54
6.6 Part B Questions
55
6.7 Supportive online Certification courses
56
6.8 Real time Applications in day to day life
and to Industry
57
6.9 Content beyond the Syllabus
7 Assessment Schedule 58

8 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 59

9 Mini Project suggestions 60

6
1. COURSE OBJECTIVES

OBJECTIVES:

1. To study about the different bio potential and its propagation

2. To understand the different types of electrodes and its placement for various
recording

3. To study the design of bio amplifier for various physiological recording

4. To learn the different measurement techniques for non-physiological parameters.
5. To learn the different bio-chemical electrodes.
6. To learn different biochemical measurements.
2. Pre Requisites

1. EC8453 – LINEAR INEGRATED CIRCUITS

By learning this course the student will have deep insight in to Operational
Amplifiers, Instrumentation Amplifiers
3. SYLLABUS

OMD551 BASICS OF BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION LTPC

3 003

UNIT I BIO POTENTIAL GENERATION AND ELECTRODES TYPES

9
Origin of bio potential and its propagation. Types of electrodes - surface, needle and
micro electrodes and their equivalent circuits. Recording problems - measurement with
two electrodes

UNIT II BIOSIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ELECTRODE

CONFIGURATIONS 9
Biosignals characteristics – frequency and amplitude ranges. ECG – Einthoven‟s
triangle, standard 12 lead system. EEG – 10-20 electrode system, unipolar, bipolar and
average mode. EMG– unipolar and bipolar mode.

UNIT III SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS 9

Need for bio-amplifier - differential bio-amplifier, Impedance matching circuit, isolation
amplifiers, Power line interference, Right leg driven ECG amplifier, Band pass filtering

UNIT IV MEASUREMENT OF NON-ELECTRICALPARAMETERS 10

Temperature, respiration rate and pulse rate measurements. Blood Pressure: indirect
methods -Auscultatory method, direct methods: electronic manometer, Systolic,
diastolic pressure, Blood flow and cardiac output measurement: Indicator dilution, and
dye dilution method, ultrasound blood flow measurement.

UNIT V BIO-CHEMICAL MEASUREMENT 8

Blood gas analyzers and Non-Invasive monitoring, colorimeter, Sodium Potassium
Analyzer, spectrophotometer, blood cell counter, auto analyzer (simplified schematic
description).
4. COURSE OUTCOMES

COURSE OUTCOMES:

After successful completion of the course, the students should be able to

Highest
Course Outcomes Cognitive
Level
To Learn the different bio potential and its
CO 302.1 K2
propagation.
To get Familiarize the different electrode
CO 302.2 K2
placement for various physiological recording
Students will be able design bio amplifier for
CO 302.3 K2
various physiological recording
Students will understand various technique non
CO 302.4 K2
electrical physiological measurements
To learn the about different bio-chemical
CO 302.5 K2
electrodes
Understand the different biochemical K2
CO 302.6
measurements
5. CO- PO/PSO Mapping

MAPPING OF COURSE OUTCOMES WITH PROGRAM OUTCOMES:

Program
Program Outcomes Specific
Course Level
Outcom of
Outcomes
K3,
es CO
K3 K4 K4 K5 K5, A3 A2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2 K5 K5 K3
K6
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12 PSO-1 PSO-2 PSO-3
C302.1 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - -
C302.2 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - -
C302.3 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - 1 - -
C302.4 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - 1 - -
C302.5 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - -
C302.6 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - -
C302 K2 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - - - - - -

11
6 UNIT II BIO SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS AND
ELECTRODE CONFIGURATION

12
 6.1 LECTURE PLAN
UNIT I – BIOMEDICAL POTENTIAL GENERATION
AND ELECTRODE TYPES

Mode of Delivery
Taxonomy level
Proposed Date
No. of Periods

Pertaining CO
Actual Date

Reason for
Deviation
S.No

Topic

Bio signal 1 K2 PPT through

1 CO2
Characteristics Online
Bio signal 1 K2 PPT through
2 frequency and CO2 Online
amplitude range
ECG – Einthoven’s 1 K2 PPT through
3 triangle CO2 Online
12 Lead System 1 K2 PPT through
4 CO2
Online
ECG Recording 1 K2 PPT through
5 CO2
setup Online
EEG – 10-20 1 K2 PPT through
6 CO2
electrode system Online
EEG Recording 1 K2 PPT through
7 setup CO2 Online

Unipolar, Bipolar, 1 K2 PPT through

8 Average mode CO2 Online
EMG - Unipolar and 1 K2 PPT through
9 bipolar mode CO2 Online

Total No. of Periods : 9

Total No. of Periods : 12

13
6.2 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

Pertaining Highest Activity

SI.No. Topic
CO(s) Cognitive Level

1 ECG CO2 K2 Quiz

2 EEG CO2 K2 Crossword puzzle

14
6.3 Lecture Notes

UNIT – 2 BIO SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS AND

ELECTRODE CONFIGURATION

Biosignals characteristics – frequency and amplitude ranges. ECG –

Einthoven‟s triangle, standard 12 lead system. EEG – 10-20 electrode
system, unipolar, bipolar and average mode. EMG–unipolar and bipolar
mode

15
 2.1 Bio signals Characteristics – Frequency and
amplitude ranges

Origin

Name of Bio- Frequency Type of (Origin

Voltage μV produces
electric Signal range in Hz Electrodes used
bioelectric
signal)
Electrocardiogram
(ECG) Surface electrodes
are used with jelly.
0.05 to 100 10 – 5000 Heart muscles.
Needle electrodes
are also used.

Electro
Encephalogram Surface electrode or Activity of the
0.1 to 100 2 – 200
(EEG) needle electrode brain.

Cerebral potential
It has pulse
duration Deep needle Cerebrum of the
10 – 100000
electrodes are used. brain.
0.6 ms – 0.1 sec

Electromyogram
(EMG) Surface electrodes
5–2K 20 – 5000 or needle electrodes Skin muscles.
are used.

Electrogastrogra
Peristaltic
m (EGG)
Surface electrodes movement of
0.05 – 0.2 10 – 350
are used the gastro-
intestinal tract

Electroretinogram
(ERG) Corneal electrode Retina of the
0.01 – 200 -
(dedicated to ERG) eye

Electrooculogram Miniature surface Corneal – retinal

(EOG) - 10 – 3500
electrodes are potential
2.2 ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY
.
ECG means Electrocardiography. Electro Cardio Graph shows the electrical activity of
the heart muscles.

Heart is divided in to 4 chambers , They are left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle,
right ventricle .

Fig 2.1 Chambers in heart

Fig 2.2 Cross section of the heart

 The Tricuspid Valve: It is located in between the right atrium and right
ventricles. It prevents backward blood flow from right ventricle to right atrium.
Bicuspid Mitral Valve: It is located in between the left atrium and rleft
ventricles. It prevents backward blood flow from left ventricle to left atrium.
Pulmonary Valve: It is located at the right ventricle. It has 3 half moon shaped
cusps.It does not allow blood to come back to the right ventricle.
Aortic Valve: It is located between left ventricle and aorta. It does not allow blood
to come back to the left ventricle.

Heart consists of 3 layers namely,

Peri cardium
Endo cardium
Myo Cardium

Pericardium: It is the outer layer of the heart. It keeps the outer surface and
prevents the heart from the friction.
Endocardium: It is the inner layer of the heart. It provides smooth path for
blood flow.
Myocardium: It is the middle layer of the heart. It acts as the main muscle of
the heart. It is made up of short cylindrical fibers.
Blood vessels: These are hollow tubes through which the blood is carried to
various parts of the body. There are two types of blood vessels they are Arteries
and Veins
Arteries: These are thick walled vessels used to carry the oxygenated blood
away from the heart. Blood vessels that carry pure blood from heart to various
organs.
Veins: These are thin walled vessels through which impure blood returns to the
heart.
Capillaries: These are very small blood vessels 8,00,000 km capillaries are
present in human being.
The heart pumps the blood by a movement termed as heart beat
The normal heart beat rate is 72 beats/minute. The heart pumps the blood
through the pulmonary circulation to the lungs and through systemic circulation to
other organs of the body.
Heart pumps the blood to the lungs through the pulmonary circulation for the
purpose of purification
Heart pumps the pure blood to all the parts of our body through systemic
circulation.
 SA Node: It is abbreviated as Sino Atrial Node. This node initiates the heart
activity. It generates impulses at the normal rate of the heart. These impulses are
propagated through the right atria and left atria.
AV Node: It means Atrio-ventricular node. IT delays the spread of excitation of
about 0.12s. Bundle of this carries the action potential to the ventricle.

2.4 ECG LEAD SYSTEM

There are two types of Lead System

Bipolar lead system ( Standard lead system)
Uni-polar lead system (Augmented uni-polar limb lead system)

Bipolar Lead System:

It is also known as Einthoven leads. In this lead system, ECG is recorded by using
two electrodes. Final output is taken as the difference of electrical potential
between these two electrodes.
In this system, electrodes are placed in four different places. These are:
LA (Left Arm)
LL (Left Leg)
RA (Right Arm)
RL (Right Leg)
Usually , right leg (RL) electrode act as ground reference electrode.

Fig 2.3 Different places to fix electrodes

These are the recommended positions to fix the electrode.
Lead I: The difference in potential between 2 electrodes (one electrode is in LA
and another electrode is in RA) are measured. RL is the reference electrode.

Fig 2.4 Lead I

Lead II : The difference in potential between 2 electrodes ( 1 is in LL and another
is in RA) is measured. RL is Reference Electrode.

Fig 2.5 Lead II

Lead III: The difference in potential between 2 electrodes ( 1 is in LL and another

is in LA) is measured. RL is Reference Electrode.
 Fig 2.6 Lead III
The ECG measured from any one of the three basic limb leads is a time-variant
single dimensional component of that vector.
Einthoven also made assumption that the heart is near the centre of an
equilateral triangle.
By assuming that the ECG potentials at the shoulders are essentially the same as
the wrists and that the potentials at the crotch differ little from those at either
ankle, the points of this triangle represent the electrode positions for the three
limb leads. This triangle known as Einthoven triangle.

Fig 2.7 Einthoven triangle

 Lead I Position : It gives Voltage drop V1 from LA to RA
Lead II Position: It gives Voltage drop V2 from LL to RA
Lead III Position: It gives Voltage drop V3 from LL to LA
According to Einthoven, the cardiac electric field is a 2 dimensional one in the frontal
plane of the body

Lead I  R-wave amplitude = 0.07 to 1.13 mV

Lead II  R-wave amplitude = 0.18 to 1.68mV
Lead III  R – wave amplitude = 0.03 to 1.31mV
If V1 = 0.53mV (for lead I) , V2 = 0.71mV (for lead II) , V3 = 0.38mV
Always V2 = V1 + V3 (Kirchoff’s voltage law is followed)

Fig 2.8 Amplitudes of R wave at different Leads

Augmented unipolar leads
This system is introduced by Wilson. In this system, voltage is taken between
single exploratory electrode and the central terminal.
Two equal resistors are connected to a pair of limb electrodes and the center
point act as one terminal to measure the voltage
In this lead system, small increase in the ECG voltage can be realised.
 Three Augmented lead connections are possible. They are
Augmented Voltage Right Arm (aVR)
Augmented Voltage Left Arm (aVL)
Augmented Voltage Foot (aVF)

Lead aVR

Fig 2.9 Lead aVR

avR = -V1 – (V3/2) [V1 , V3 are bipolar lead voltages]

LA and LL are connected with two resistors and common point is connected to
negative terminal. RA is connected to positive terminal of operational amplifier, RL is
the Reference Terminal

Lead aVL
RA and LL are connected with two resistors and common terminal is connected with
negative terminal. LA is connected to positive terminal. RL is the reference point.
 Fig.2.10 Lead aVL

aVL = V1 – (V2/2) [ V1 , V2 are bipolar lead voltages]

Lead aVF

Fig.2.11 Lead aVF

aVF = V2 – (V1/2) [ V1 , V2 are bipolar lead voltages]

.
RA and LA are connected with two resistors and common terminal is connected to
negative terminal of amplifier. LL is connected with positive terminal of amplifier. RL
is actng as Reference electrode.

Fig 2.12 Waveforms at aVR, aVL and avF

Unipolar Chest leads:

Fig 2.13 Unipolar Chest leads

 A Single Chest electrode is sequentially placed on each of the six pre designated
points on the chest.
These Chest positions are called the pre cordial unipolar leads and are designated
V1 through V6.
V1 - Fourth intercostal space of right sternal margin
V2 - Fourth intercostal space at left sternal margin
V3 - Midway between V2 and V4
V4 - Fifth intercostal space at mid-clavicular line
V5 - Same level as V4 0n anterior auxiliary line
V6 – Same level as V4 on Mid-auxiliary line

RA , LA , LL are connected with resistors and common point is taken and connected
with negative terminal of amplifier. Chest electrode is connected to positive terminal
of amplifier. RL is used as Reference point.

Fig 2.14 Waveforms at V1 through V6.

2.5 ECG RECORDING METHOD
The following block diagram is used for recording electrocardiograph

Fig.2.15 ECG Recording method

ECG Waveform

Fig.2.16 ECG Waveform

Defibrillator Protection Circuit:

The electrodes used for taking ECG measurement are connected in RA,LA chest
and LL of the patient. The other ends of the electrodes are connected with lead
selection logic through defibrillator protection circuit.
 The protection circuit employs buffer amplifiers and over voltage protection
circuits.
Four buffer amplifiers are utilised (1 buffer amplifier for each lead electrode).
Input impedance is increased by using the buffer amplifier
Over voltage protection circuit is used to protect pre amplifier and power
amplifiers from over voltage.
Lead Selection Logic
By using this block, we can choose either bipolar limb lead type (or) augmented
unipolar limb lead type.
Calibration Circuit
IF lead selection is changed, then some artifact is introduced in the output of the
ECG. So, Calibration circuit is used to help to the technician to calibrate the output
unit.
When the lead selection is changed, then the amplifier is switched off for some
time. After the passage of artifact (noise), the pre amplifier is switched on.
Pre Amplifier
Here the differential amplifier with high gain and high CMRR is used as pre
amplifier.
Power Amplifier
Power amplifier is used to drive the output unit. The pen motor is used in the
output unit. This pen motor need sufficient electrical power to initiate recording.
So, power amplifiers with high power gain is used here.
Feedback Network
This feedback network consists of R-C circuit. It provides necessary damping to
the pen motor.
Auxiliary Amplifier
It is connected between the lead selection logic and RL(Right leg) of the Patient.
The impedance of all the electrodes are not equal. The differential amplifier used
in pre amplifier block is not sufficient to completely eliminate the common mode
signals. So, auxiliary amplifier is used to reduce common mode signal.
The output of Auxiliary amplifier is connected with right leg. So this output drives
the body to zero common voltage. So, noise is reduced. Hence, CMRR ratio is also
increased.
Output Display Unit
CRO or Paper Chart recorder is used as output unit.
Generally, paper chart recorder is used. Pen motor is used in output and pen
motor is used in this recorder.
The paper speed = 25 mm/s in US manufacturing system
Paper speed = 50mm/s in European ECG machines

ANALYSIS OF ECG WAVEFORM

P - depolarization of the atrial musculature

QRS - Combined result of the repolarization of the atria and
depolarization of the ventricles, which occurs simultaneously
T - Ventricular repolarization
U - IF U wave is present is generally belived to be the result
of after potentials in the ventricular muscle.
Fig 2.17 Analysis of ECG Waveform
Amplitude
P - 0.25mV
R - 1.60mV
Q - 25% of R-wave
T - 0.1 to 0.5mV

Duration
P – R interval  0.12 to 0.20 sec
Q-T interval  0.35 to 0.44 sec
S-T segment  0.05 to 0.15 sec
P wave interval  0.11 sec
QRS interval  0.09 sec

P – WAVE :
Presence of P wave in ECG strip shows sinus rhythm

Abnormalities:
pulmonale : This is tall and peaked P wave in lead 1 and lead 2 and lead 3
in right atrial hypertrophy (pulmonarhypertension)
mitrale: It is biphasic or broad Pwave seen in left atrial hypertrophy (mitral
stenosis)
 Inverted P-Wave:
It is most likely an ectopic atrial rhythm not originating from the sinus node
In dextrocardia

QRS COMPLEX:
It is a wide complex because it mask the atrial repolarization
Q wave is the first wave of this complex but often absent
Q wave present interventricular septal depolarization
It is the first wave in ECG with negative deflection
Q wave is greater than 1/3 the height of the R wave , greater than 0.04sec are
abnormal and may represent the old infarction

Low Voltage QRS complex:

When the height of R or S wave is not more than 5mm it is seen in pericardial
effusion

High Voltage QRS complex

This is present in Ventricular hypertrophies
The maximum voltage of QRS complex may be 35mv
V1 and V2 shows high voltage QRS complex in right ventricular hypertrophy.(S
wave)
V5 and V6 show such QRS complex in left ventricular hypertrophy.(r wave)
T wave & R Wave
T wave should not more than one third of R wave
T wave inversion represent ischemia of heart
Tall and peaked R wave is present in hyperkalemia
Flattened R wave in pericarditis and myocarditis

P R Interval:
This is from beginning of P wave to the beginning of Q wave
It is represent the conduction time of impluse from SA node to the ventricles
and AV delay
Prolong PR interval shows delayed conduction from SA to AV node

First degree heartblock

Atrio-ventricular conduction lengthed
Interval is about 0.2 to 0.3sec

Fig 2.18 First degree heart block ECG waveform

Second degree heart block

Sudden drop QRS Complex

PR interval is about 0.4 sec

Fig 2.18 Second degree heart block ECG waveform

Third degree heart block

When there is AV Block , atria continue to beat at normal rhythm while new
pacemaker develops in purkinjie system with a rate of 15 to 50beats/min.
With a sudden block purkinjie system cannot take over pace maker activity
immediately , it takes about 16 to 30 sec . during which ventricles fail to contract
and person faint
This delayed pickup of heart beat is called stokes Adams syndrome
QT interval
Measured from beginning of Q to the end of the T wave
It indicates total systolic time of ventricles

ST Segment
This segment present between S wave and T wave
It is represent the plateau phase
Elevation – seen in recent MI and hyperkalemia
Depression – seen in ischemia , digitalis therapy
 Analysis of ECG Waveform

Fig (a) shows the normal ECG Waveform

Fig (b) Shows first degree AV block. Here PQ period has

prolonged conduction time (> 0.22s)

Fig (c) shows the widening of QRS complex (QRS period >
0.1s)

Fig (d) shows the elevation occur in ST period. It results

myocardial infarction.

Fig (e) shows the negative T-Wave (normally it is positive). It

results coronary insufficiency.

Fig (f) shows completely different ECG Waveform. It appears

like triangular waveform. It is due to the ventricular
fibrillation. It should immediately curred by defibrillator.

Fig (g) shows the straight line. If the patient is dead, this
waveform is obtained

Fig : Analysis of ECG Waveform

2.6 ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY

Electro Encephalography is the study of the electrical activity of the brain. The
biological name of the brain is Encephalon. In EEG measurement, electrical activity
of brain is measured from electrodes which are placed on the scalp.

STRUCTUREOF BRAIN

Fig : 2.19 Anatomy of Brain

Fig : 2.20 Structure of Brain

The brain consists of four parts
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord

Medulla is associated with the control of the functions like breathing, heart rate,
kidney functions , etc.
Pons is an interconnecting area. Some of nuclei in pons are responsible for face
expressions. Some relays in Pons are responsible for auditory system.
Cerebellum:It plays a vital role in the ability of the human being to maintain their
balance
Thalamus: It contains many relays for visual, auditory systems
RAS(Reticular activation system):Thalamus is surrounded by RAS. It receives the
excitation from all of the sensory inputs. RAS is not able to distinguish that which
type of sensory input is activated. But, RAS alerts the cerebral cortex.RAS keeps
the person alert.
Hypothalamus: This is the center for emotions in the brain. It contains nuclei
which are responsible for eating, drinking, sleeping, emotional behaviour of the
human being.
Basail gaglia: It is in indirect connections with the motor neurons.
Cerebral cortex: This is important part of cerebrum. It contains 9 – 12 billion
neurons in human brain. Cortex is divided in to various lobes.
The hemisphere consists of four different lobes:
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Temporal lobe
Occipital lobe

Frontal lobe: Primary motor neurons lead to the various muscles of the body. The
frontal lobe is responsible for intelligence.

Prefrontal lobe: The forward part of the brain contains neurons for special motor
control functions like eye movement control.
 Occipital lobe: It is located at the back side of the head over cerebellum. This lobe
has the visual cortex in which patterns are received from retina. It is responsible
for Vision centre.
Temporal lobes: Audio sensory inputs are traced to temporal lobes of the cortex.
It is responsible for hearing centre and it is also used for the storage process in
long term memory.
Olfactory bulb: It is near the centre of the brain. It is responsible for the
perception of smell.
Parietal lobe: It contains sensors nerves and motors nerves.

Action Potential of the brain

Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential (IPSP)
Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential(EPSP)

The resting potential along with a nerve fibre is used to transmit the information
from one end to other
If the transmitter substance is inhibitory, then the membrane potential of the
receptor neuron increases in a negative direction. So that it is less likely to
discharge. This induced potential change is called as Inhibitory Post Synaptic
potential(IPSP)
If the transmitter substance is exhibitory, then the receptor membrane potential
wil increase in a positive direction. So that it is more likey to discharge and
produce a spike potential. This induced potential change is called as Excitatory
Post Synaptic Potential

Evoked Potential
These are the potentials developed in the brain as the responses to external
stimuli like light, sound, etc.
The external stimuli are detected by sense organs that cause some changes in the
electrical activity of the brain. The term “Event Related Potential” is also used,
because these are some changes that are evoked by an external stimulus, but are
related to an event.
2.6.1 PLACEMENT OF ELECTRODES IN EEG MEASUREMENT
Generally, 10-20 electrode placement system is used. In this system, the distance
between 2 electrodes is 10% and 20% of the distance between specified points
on the scalp.

Anterior – Posterior Measurement:

Fig 2.21 10 – 20 electrode placement systems

The distance between the Nasion and Inion over the head is divided in to 5
points.
FRONTAL POLE(FP) : 10% of Nasion – Inion above Nasion.
FRONTAL(F): 20% of Nasion – Inion distance from FP
CENTRAL(C) : 20% of Nasion – Inion distance from F
PARIETAL(P):20% of Nasion – Inion distance from C
OCCIPITAL(O):10% Nasion – Inion distance from inion
(b) Lateral Measurements ( 21 Electrode System)

Fig 2.22 Lateral Measurement

The distance is measured from left to right points (from left ear to right ear)
Temporal Points(T) : 10% of the distance from the pre-auricular point(from one
ear)
Central Points (C) : 20% of the same distance
FP1,FP2 = Frontal pole points
F3,F4 = Frontal points
T3,T4,T5,T6 = Temporal points
O1,O2 = Occipital points
C3,C4,Cz = Central points
A1,A2 = Pre-Auricular Points
2.7 EEG RECORDING SET UP

Fig 2.23 EEG Recording Setup

Here 21 electrode system is used . These electrodes are connected with eight
channel selector.
Eight channel selector outputs are connected with differential amplifier unit. This
unit is used to reduce the noise and these are used as pre amplifiers. A.C.
interference create 50Hz of noise that can be reduced by this differential
amplifiers. The differential amplifiers have good CMRR (>80 db) and input
impedance grater than 10Mꭥ.
The ouputs from differential amplifier are connected with the signal processing
unit. These outputs are stored in a memory for further processing. After
processing , the data is displayed in the output unit.
Some extra facilities are also available in this EEG recorder. Potential generated
from sensory parts of the brain can also be recorded by using this EEG recorder.
So, signal processing unit outputs are connected with audio stimulus, visual
stimulus , tactile stimulus.
 EEG responses for such a stimulus are measured.
The time delay between stimulus and the response from the brain can also be
measured by using this EEG unit.
The outputs from the differential amplifier are connected with the filter bank unit.
It consists of low pass filter, high pass filter, band pass filter. These are used to
select different types of brain waves without noise. The outputs of the filters are
connected with Display Recorder Unit. Pen Recorder with 8 pens are used here.
One pen is dedicated for each channel. The normal paper speed in this recorder is
30mm/second.
EEG RECORDING MODES
Three mode are used in EEG Recording
Unipolar : Potential of each electrode can measured with respect to one reference
electrode.
Average Mode (Wilson Mode) : Potential can be measured between 1 electrode
and the average of all other electrode.
Bipolar mode: Potential can be measured between successive pair of electrodes
which are closely spaced

2.8 ANALYSIS OF EEG WAVEFORM

Fig 2.24 Brain Waves

ALPHA WAVES:
Alpha waves are found in normal persons( resting state)
When they are awake.
They Occur in Occipital region
Alpha waves are 8 – 13 Hz
Alpha waves are present; they indicate a calm and relaxed state.
BETA WAVES
Beta waves are recorded from parietal and frontal region of scalp
Divided in to two types
Beta – 1 which is inhibited by cerebral activity
Beta – 2 excited by mental activity like tension
Beta waves are 13 – 30 Hz.
Beta waves indicate can alert such when you focus on solving a problem
THETA WAVES
Theta waves are recorded from temporal region of scalp from children
They occur stress and frustration
Theta waves are 4 – 8 Hz
Theta waves observed when you are day dreaming and drowsiness .
Brain disorders (Adult , children , premature ,Serious brain disorders)
Emotional questions are asked get in to the theta waves.
DELTA WAVES
Delta waves are recorded from the cortex region.
They occur deep sleep in premature babies & in case of brain disease
Delta waves are 0.5 – 4 Hz.
It is occurred in premature babies and when the person is in deep sleep.
Application of EEG
EPILEPSY: EEG is very helpful to find the acuteness of epilepsy
ANESTHETIC LEVEL: EEG is helpful to anaesthesiologist to find the depth of
intensity of anesthesia.
BRAIN INURY: If there is scar on the cerebral cortex, it creates irritative effect
on the nearby healthy cortex. These are identified by the EEG waveform.EEG is
used to locate the tumor with in the brain.
MONITOR DURING SURGERY: In the various surgeries involving heart, EEG
waveform is helpful to the doctor to find the patient’s condition.
EFFECT OF YOGA: Effect of Yoga can be identified by EEG. For normal person,
initially EEG is recorded. The person has to do yoga for some time. After some
period, once again EEG has to be recorded for the same person. It is compared
with the previous EEG waveform. This difference give the effect of Yoga.
2.8 ELECTROMYOGRAPHY

Electromyograph is an instrument used for recording the electrical activity of the

muscles to determine whether the muscle is contracting or not
Muscular contractions are caused by the depolarization of muscle fibres.
Electrodes used for EMG
Two types of electrodes are used in EMG measurement
Surface Electrodes: Usually this electrode is used for EMG. But by using this
electrode, it is not possible to take the deeper potential. So, needle electrodes are
used to take such a potential.
Needle Electrodes: These are inserted in to tissue or closer to tissue to
measure the electrical activity of muscle.

EMG RECORDING SYSTEM

Fig 2.25 EMG Recording System

EMG potentials are taken from the tissue-by-tissue using electrodes.

 These EMG potentials are given to differential amplifier. This is the high gain
amplifier. Its frequency range is given as 10Hz to 10KHz
Bandwidth of EMG is large. CMRR of this differential amplifier is 80 to 100db.
Input impedance of this amplifier is 10Mꭥ.
Here there is no lead selector switch. Because, only 2 electrodes and available.
The output of the Differential amplifier is given to loudspeaker system, tape
recoder and CRO.
Before giving the output of differential amplifier to loud speaker , it is given to
power amplifier. Power amplifier amplifies the signal that is received by loud
speaker.
The amplified signal from the output of the differential amplifier is displayed by
using CRO. Here storage oscilloscope is used. Output can be displayed and the
same can be stored in CRO.
The signal from the differential amplifier is recorded by using tape recorder. It is
used for the future purpose

MEASUREMENT OF CONDUCTION VELOCITY IN MOTOR NERVES

Fig 2.26 Conduction Velocity Measurement

 In modern EMG systems, nerve conduction time and nerve velocity are measured.
For this measurement, initially nerve is stimulated, and EMG is measured.
This conduction velocity measurement is used to indicate the location and type of
nerve lesion.
Steps: Involved in Measurement of Conduction Velocity
Stimulate is applied at point A
Electrical activity of muscle is measured at point B
The space between A and B is noted as l1 meters
The time delay between applying stimulus and receiving action potential is known
as latency. This time delay is denoted as t1 second
Now change the position of A in to C. Now the space is reduced. It is noted as l2
meters
The time delay noted is t2 second
Usually, l2<l1 and t2<t1
Now the conduction velocity is given as , V = (l1 – l2)/(t1 - t2).
Usually V = 50m/sec
If V < 40m/sec. It means there is some disorder in nerve conduction
Thus Conduction Velocity is measured in motor nerves

APPLICATIONS OF EMG
Electrophysiological testing
Clinical neurophysiology
Neurology
Psychiatry
LINK TO VIDEOS:

S.No Topic Link

1 BIOELECTRIC SIGNAL https://youtu.be/2lT9HXAmPfM

CHARACTERISTICS AND
RECORDING MODES

2 ECG LEADS CONFIGURATION https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sd0pheOh1O

w

3 ECG WAVE FORM ANALYSIS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j8Y8ONy9Fpw

4 EEG 21 ELECTRODE PLACEMENT https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yoougg2BLm0

5 EEG WAVEFROM ANALYSIS https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Alp7n5IKTmU

6 BASICS OF https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qO6Bfz8kaQc
ELECTROMYOGRAPHY
6.4 ASSIGNMENTS

Different Filtering methods to remove noise from ECG signal using MATLAB.

Separation of high and low frequency components in EEG signal using

Thresholding using MATLAB.
6.5 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.No PART A CO’S Bloom

s Level

1. What are the electrodes used for ECG? CO2 K2

Limb electrodes
Floating electrodes
Paste less electrodes
2. What are the electrodes used for EEG? CO2 K2
Silver chloride disc electrode
Depth electrode
Small needle electrode
Silver ball or pellet electrodes
Carbon cloth electrode

3. Define Electrocardiograph and CO2 k1

Electroencephalograph.

The electrocardiograph (ECG) is an instrument which

records the electrical activity of the heart. It is the
instrument used for recording electrical activity of the brain
by suitably placing electrodes on the scalp.

4. What are the electrodes used for EMG? CO2 K2

Needle electrode
Coaxial core electrode
Capacitive type needle electrode

5. Define EOG and ERG. CO2 k1

The measure of corneal-retinal potential is called
Electrooculogram (EOG).

The recording and interpreting the electrical activity of eye

is called Electro retinogram (ERG).

6. Give the disadvantage of using surface electrodes CO2 K2

with EMG
Surface electrodes can be used only for superficial
muscles

They are sensitive to electrical activity over too wide

area.

49
S.No PART A CO’S Bloom
s Level

7. Give the disadvantage of using surface electrodes CO2 K2

with EMG
Surface electrodes can be used only for superficial
muscles

They are sensitive to electrical activity over too wide

area.
8. What is the use of EMG? CO2 K2

EMG is used for the measurement of action potentials,

either directly from the muscle or from the surface of the
body.

9. What is the purpose of electrode paste? CO2 K2

The electrode paste decreases the impedance of the

contact the artifacts resulting from the movement of the
electrode or patient.

10. List the brainwaves and their frequency. CO2 K1

Alpha 8 t-13 Hz
Beta 13 - 30 Hz
Theta 4-8 Hz and Delta 0.5-4 Hz

11. Define the term latency in EMG. CO2 K1

Electromyography (EMG) is a medical technique for

evaluating and recording physiologic properties of muscles
at rest and while contracting.
For nerve conduction studies (NCS) studies, a
noninvasive stimulator applies brief electrical impulses to a
peripheral nerve transcutaneous, the nerve then transmits
the impulse and a response is recorded by electrodes at
some distance away.
The time it takes for the stimulus to reach the recording
electrodes is called as latency. It can be accurately
measured and a velocity of transmission calculated.
Healthy nerves will transmit the electrical impulse faster
than diseased ones.
50
S.No PART A CO’S Bloom
s Level

12. Define Einthoven triangle. CO2 K1

The closed path RA to LA to LL and back to RA is called

Einthoven triangle. According to Einthoven the frontal
plane of the body and cardiac electric field vector forms
the two dimensional plane.
13. Define electrocardiogram (ECG) CO2 K1

The electrocardiogram is a graphic recording or display of

the time variant voltage display produced by myocardium
during cardiac cycle. Electrocardiography (ECG) deals with
the study of electrical activity of heart muscles.

14. How the heart sounds and murmurs characterized? CO2 K2

Heart sounds and murmurs are usually characterized by

three physical properties. They are
Frequency
Amplitude
Quality

15. List the three augmented lead connections. CO2 K1

The three augmented lead connections are

Augmented voltage right arm (aVR)
Augmented voltage left arm (VL)
Augmented voltage foot (aVF).

16. How many lead selections are required for CO2 K2

electrocardiograms?

Twelve lead selections are required to record the

electrocardiogram. i.e. 3 standard bipolar leads, 3
augmented leads and 6 chest leads.

17. List the practical considerations for ECG recording. CO2 K1

Artifacts, wandering of base line, solid base line, frequency

response.

51
S.No PART A CO’S Bloom
s
Level
18. Define excitory post synaptic potential (EPSP). CO2 K1

If the transmitter substance is excitatory, the receptor

membrane potential increases in a positive direction. So
that the receptor neuron is more likely to discharge and
produces a spike potential. This induced change is
called excitory post synaptic potential(EPSP).
19. Give the classifications of the brain waves. CO2 K2

Brain waves are classified into four types. They are

Alpha wave
Beta wave
Theta wave
Delta wave
20. How many electrodes are used in modern EEG CO2 K2
unit?

12 electrodes are used in modern EEG unit.

21. How the EEG can be recorded? CO2 K1

EEG may be recorded by picking up voltage difference

between an active electrode on the scalp with respect
to a reference electrode on the ear lobe or other part of
the body. This type of recording is called monopolar
recording.
22. Define Epilepsy. CO2 K1

Epilepsy is a system for brain damage. This may be due

to defects in the birth delivery or head injury during
accident or boxing. It may also be due to brain tumor.

23. Define stroke volume. CO2 K1

Stroke volume is defined as the amount of blood that is

ejected during each heart beat.
Stroke volume = Cardiac output / number of beats/
min.

52
S.No PART A CO’S Bloom
s
Level
24. Define total lung capacity. CO2 K1

Total lung capacity (TLC) is the amount of gas

contained in the lungs at the end of maximal
inspiration. It is the sum of vital capacity and residual
volume.
25. Define heart sounds. CO2 K1

Heart sounds are acoustic phenomena resulting from

the vibrations of cardiac structures. 74.List the
classifications of heart sounds. Heart sounds are
classified into four group on the basis of their
mechanism of origin.
They are
Valve closure sounds
Ventricular filling sounds
Valve opening sounds
Extra cardiac sounds
26. Define heart murmurs. CO2 K1
Heart murmurs are sounds related to non-laminar flow
of blood in the heart and great vessels.

27. Give the origin of heart sounds. CO2 K2

There are four basic separate heart sounds that occur
during the sequence of one complete cycle.
First heart sound: it is produced by the sudden closure
of the mitral and tricuspid valves associated with
myocardial contraction.
Second heart sound : it is due to the vibration set up by
the closure of semilunar valves. i.e. the closure of aortic
and pulmonary valves.
Third heart sound : It arises as the ventricles relax and
the internal pressure drops below the pressure in the
atrium.
Fourth heart sound : it is also called an atrial sound. It
is caused by an accelerated flow of blood into ventricles
or due to atrial contraction.
28. Define inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP). CO2 K1
If the transmitter substance in inhibitory, the
membrane potential of the receptor neuron increases in
a negative direction. So that it is less likely to
discharge, this induced potential change is called
inhibitory post synaptic potential.

53
6.6 Part B Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.No PART B CO’S Blooms

Level

1. Express the importance of 12 lead system in ECG. CO2 K2

2. Analyze the 10-20 system of recording EEG.
CO2 K2

3. Show the typical ECG waveform and mark the

important features and their associated function of CO2 K2
the heart
4. Develop the EEG waveform in detail and its signal
frequency bands. CO2 K2

5. Compare the signal characteristics of ECG and EMG CO2 K2

6. Measure the ECG recording system in detail CO2 K2

7. Discuss about augmented unipolar limb lead system CO2 K2
8. Measure the EEG recording system in detail CO2 K2
9. Explain in detail about EMG with recording system CO2 K2
10. Discuss about different types of bio electric signals
and its characteristics CO2 K2

54
6.7 Supportive online Certification courses (NPTEL,
Swayam, Coursera, Udemy, etc.,)

ONLINE COURSE NPTEL:

https://swayam.gov.in/explorer?searchText=biomedical

Bio-medical nano technology

By Prof. P. Gopinath | IIT Madras

This course introduce to the applications of nanotechnology, that are gaining

overwhelming response in almost all the fields. Especially in healthcare sector,
tremendous developments have been achieved. Thus, the main objective of this
course is to impart knowledge on biomedical applications of nanotechnology.

ONLINE COURSE COURSERA:

https://www.coursera.org/learn/bioengineering

Introduction to Biomedical engineering

Dr Kirill Aristovich

The course is covers the practical basics that a Modern Biomedical Engineer
required to know: electronics, control theory, microcontrollers (Arduino), and
high-level programming (MATLAB).The course is also providing a platform from
which the students can improve their skills further by simply adding more
complicated systems and experimenting with more advanced control paradigms.

55
6.8 Real time Applications in day to day life and to
Industry

PORTABLE ECG MONITOR

DESCRIPTION :

Track your heart activity including heart rate and single-channel ECG
waveform/trace, with the ability to transfer the data and waveform to your
Android/IOS phone via Bluetooth. Share the ECG data with your doctor by phone
or through printing paper or email for further diagnostic reference. Compact one-
lead ECG design to operate independently and individually by two hands at
anytime, anywhere. No wires, cables or electrodes are needed.

VIDEO LINK : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4B3TgPe6WQ8

56
6.9 Contents beyond the Syllabus

ELECTRORETINOGRAPH (ERG)

 Electro Retinography is the method of recording and interpreting the

electrical activity of the eye.

 The process of recording the change in potential when light falls on the
eye is known as electroretinography.

ELECTRODES USED IN ERG:

 In ERG , Bipolar recording technique is used

 The exploring electrode is placed on a saline – filled contact lens
 The contact lens is fixed on an eye.
 Negative pressure technique is used to attach contact lens on an eye. So
even during the eye movement, contact lens is not moved
 Normally used contact lens are not used for recording ERG
 Special type of contact lens is used to record the action potential of eye
when flash light incident on eye.

ERG RECORDING SYSTEM:

 If flash of light incident on eye for 2 seconds, then some waveform is

generated in the output unit.
 When the flash of light incident on eye, the wave starts from the point a .
It is due to Early receptor potential generated by the light

57
 7. Assessment Schedule

Assessment Proposed Date Actual Date

Unit 1 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 1

Unit 2 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 1

Retest for IA 1

Unit 3 Assignment
Assessment
Unit Test 2

Unit 4 Assignment
Assessment
Internal Assessment 2

Retest for IA 2

Unit 5 Assignment
Assessment
Revision Test 1

Revision Test 2

Model Exam

Remodel Exam

University Exam

58
8. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Leslie Cromwell, “Biomedical Instrumentation and measurement”, Prentice

hall of India, New Delhi, 2007.
2. John G. Webster, “Medical Instrumentation Application and
Design”, John Wiley and sons, New York, 2004. (Units I, II & V)

REFERENCES:
1. Myer Kutz, “Standard Handbook of Biomedical Engineering and Design”,
McGraw Hill Publisher, 2003.
2. Khandpur R.S, “Handbook of Biomedical Instrumentation”, Tata
McGraw- Hill, New Delhi, 2003.(Units II & IV)
3. Joseph J. Carr and John M. Brown, “Introduction to Biomedical Equipment
Technology”, Pearson Education, 2004.

59
9. Mini Project suggestions

BMI MINI PROJECTS LIST

S.No Name of The Project

1. Heartbeat Monitor with LCD Display

2. Brain-Computer interface and EEG

3. EMG-Based Control of a Robot Arm

4. Computerized Brain wave machine

5. Ultrasound fetal heart beat monitor.

6. Real Time ECG Measurement and Visualization on Mobile

7. Human body motion sense

60
 Thank you

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