Abstract

The article examines two approaches to develop

leadership. For each approach a definition is pro-
Job Related Interventions as vided, a brief review of the literature is conduct-
ed and a description of best practices is
Sources of Learning in
described. Each section concludes with analysis
Leadership Development: of its use in industry, literature base, empirical
Widely Used in Industry – Wildly support, cost effectiveness, ease of implementa-
Absent in the Literature tion, ease of evaluation and return on investment.
It is determined that there are a number of
opportunities for empirical work on job-related
sources of learning.

Scott J. Allen

Introduction

Scott J. Allen, Ph.D., is an assistant pro- By some estimates, more than $200 billion is
fessor of management at John Carroll
University. Scott is the coauthor of spent each year on training and development
Emotionally Intelligent Leadership: A (Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001). However, the
Guide for College Students (Jossey-
Bass) and The Little Book of Leadership
return on investment for this work still remains
Development (AMACOM). Along with an elusive concept. Bruce Avolio (Volckmann,
writing and speaking, Scott consults, 2011) suggests “until we monetize it and know
facilitates workshops, and leads
retreats across industries. what the return is, it’s always going to be some-
thing that the majority of the people will say that
it’s nice to have, unless we’re short on resources”
(para. 85). One way to convince organizational
executives of the value of development is to
closely link it to the work of employees. This
Contact Information “just-in-time” approach to development seeming-
Scott J. Allen ly circumvents one natural challenge of leader-
14 Forest Dr.
Chagrin Falls, OH 44022, USA. ship development – the lag time between learn-
Email: [email protected]. ing and doing (Jackson & Lindsay, 2010). These
Phone: 216-224-7072. approaches come in a number of forms and are
often labeled job rotation, job enrichment, job
enlargement, action learning and developmen-
tal/job assignments. At face value, this approach
seems to make a lot of sense. As McCall (2010a)
suggests “Why spend so much time and energy

Volume 31  Number 1  Spring 2013 39

trying to convince ‘senior management’ to buy in, some of the relevant research and provide poten-
support, and fund various initiatives when…there tial benefits and drawbacks for each approach.
is little need to sell the value of challenging Each section will conclude with an analysis the
assignments? (p. 9). To McCall’s point, not only is intervention based on seven criteria. The article
real work getting done in the organization, pro- concludes with a discussion and implications for
gram architects are engaging those learners who practice.
are performance goal oriented (Volckmann, 2011).
A Seven Point Filter for Determining
To accommodate different learning styles and var- Effectiveness
ious objectives, several sources of learning have
been incorporated into leadership development In an effort to determine the usefulness for each
programs (Allen & Hartman, 2009). Sources of source of learning, I have identified seven distinct
learning take on a number of characteristics and criteria traditionally addressed in the literature.
are the primary method for delivering learning These areas also provide (in a general sense) a
activities (e.g., action learning, outdoor manage- heuristic to view the strengths and weaknesses of
ment development, 360 feedback, e-learning, sim- each approach. As a result, each section will con-
ulations). They may take place in the classroom, clude with a brief analysis of its use in industry,
outdoors, or on the job. Or, they may be highly literature base, empirical support, cost effective-
personalized and incorporate intense feedback ness, ease of implementation, ease of evaluation
from peers, subordinates and supervisors. and return on investment. Somewhat subjective in
Alternatively, sources of learning may require nature, the purpose of this analysis is to provide
passive involvement or, the learner may find him- readers with a snapshot for each source of learn-
self intently involved in a simulation, case study, ing and begin a dialogue on how to critically ana-
or tackling a “real life” organizational problem lyze and assess commonly used techniques for
(Allen & Hartman, 2008). All sources of learning development. A list of the seven criteria with a
have benefits and drawbacks depending on the brief explanation are found below:
context, and each has its time and place in a lead-
ership development program. However, no single 1.Use in industry: To what degree is this
approach currently being used in industry?
source of learning is appropriate at all times; the 2.Literature base: Are there more than 50
appropriate source of learning depends on num- academic, peer-reviewed articles on the topic?
ber of contextual factors (e.g., objective, time, 3.Empirical support: Does the literature
suggest (based on empirical research) that
financial resources, staffing).
this as a useful approach to development?
4.Cost effectiveness: Is there a large financial
This paper examines two sources of learning com- investment associated with this approach
to leadership development?
monly used in organizations. These sources of
5.Ease of implementation: Can the source of
learning are job rotation and developmental job learning be implemented with relative ease?
assignments (also known as job assignments). 6.Ease of evaluation: Does the literature
widely discuss how to evaluate or high
Both are widely used in industry and for each
light successful evaluation techniques?
source of learning I will provide a definition,
description of best practices or process, highlight

40 Organization Development Journal

 7.Return on investment: Is the return on employees.
investment discussed or explicitly 4.Use job rotation with both older (plateaued)
mentioned in the literature? and younger employees. This may help
retention and keep people engaged.
5.Job rotation can serve as a career development
Job Rotation intervention without offering a promotion.
According to the authors, this is a benefit for
In his 1956 article entitled Job Rotation, James organizations that are downsizing.
6.Job rotation plans for women and minority
Morris suggests, “job rotation is the planned
workers should be given special attention.
movement of men from one position to another 7.Job rotation should be linked with the career
for the basic purpose of encouraging and stimu- development function so there is a clear path
of needed skills and abilities.
lating growth of the individual” (p. 268). Bennett
8.Systems that maximize the benefits of job
(2003) defines job rotation as “a planned move- rotation and minimize costs should be
ment of people between jobs over a period of time implemented.
and for one or more of a number of purposes” (n.
p.) and describes two specific types of job rota- Potential Benefits and Drawbacks of Job
tion: within-function rotation and cross-functional Rotation
rotation. A within-function rotation is a rotation at a
similar level within an individual’s current func- The perceived benefits of job rotation focus heavi-

tion in the organization. Cross-functional rotations ly around the development of the individual and

move an employee into different divisions or some cite the employee’s improved skills (techni-

units of the organization. cal, business and administrative) and abilities

(e.g., Bass, 1990; Bennett, 2003; Cheraskin &
The Job Rotation Process Campion, 1996; Yukl, 2002). In addition, job rota-
tion will orient new employees to a wide range of
Popular in management development programs business practices and “enhance career develop-
(Bass, 2008), there are a number of applications ment because of the adjustments and knowledge
and interpretations of job rotation. For instance, acquisition new jobs require” (Campion,
several articles on the topic highlight job rotation Cheraskin, & Stevens, 1994, p. 1520). Others sug-
as an occupational safety intervention in industri- gest that job rotation provides employees with
al settings (e.g., Ellis, 1999; Jorgensen, Davis, varied experience, which creates generalists with
Kotowski, Aedla, & Dunning, 2005). Based on a balanced background (Bass, 1990; Bennett, 2003;
their experience, Cheraskin and Campion (1996) Campion, Cheraskin, & Stevens, 1994; Yukl, 2002)
offer eight suggestions for successful implementa- and a number of cross-functional relationships
tion of a job rotation program: (Bennett, 2003). Finally, job rotation may increase
commitment, overall satisfaction (Cheraskin &
1.Job rotation should be managed as a piece of Campion, 1996) and offset the experience of a
the training and career development function. plateaued employee by adding new stimulation to
2.Organizations should be clear about the
the environment (Campion, Cheraskin, & Stevens;
specific skills they hope to develop with job
rotation. 1994).
3.Job rotation should be used with employees at
all levels of the organization; not just exempt

Volume 31  Number 1  Spring 2013 41

However, critics suggest that job rotation may dis- in the organization longer than ten years were
rupt workflow within a department as employees much less interested in rotation opportunities. In
scramble to get someone else “up-and-running.” addition, Campion, Cheraskin, and Stevens (1994)
To this point, Cheraskin and Campion (1996) sug- found that job rotation was generally associated
gest “there are costs associated with the learning with individuals doing well in their jobs and one
curve on new jobs, including time spent learning, study found a correlation between job rotation
training costs and errors that employees often and promotion (Cheraskin & Campion, 1996).
make while learning a new job” (p. 37). As a Finally, Huang (1999) found a significant relation-
result, for those not rotating there may be a ship between job rotation and job satisfaction and
decrease in motivation (Bennett, 2003; Cheraskin Campion, Cheraskin, and Stevens (1994) found
& Campion, 1996). that employees perceive a large increase in skills
and knowledge as a result of job rotation.
In addition, job rotations can be a challenge to
administer. Participants, managers and teams Job Rotation Conclusion
should be prepared for turnover and an ongoing
learning curve within the department. Finally, Proponents (e.g., Cheraskin & Campion, 1996)
with the increase in dual-income households, it view job rotation as a single intervention that
may be more difficult for families to take advan- could increase an individual’s knowledge base
tage of job rotation – especially when it involves a (Cheraskin & Campion, 1996) and commitment
move to another city or state or country. (BMC Health Services Research, 2009; Cheraskin
& Campion, 1996). Likewise, job rotation may
The Job Rotation Research help organization recruit individuals interested in
exploring their options prior to committing to a
The research on job rotation is limited (Ortega, single function (Pooley, 2005).
2001; Yukl, 2002). Bass (1990) suggests, “unfortu-
nately, little empirical evidence is available about At face value, the link to leadership development
any of the expected positive effects of rotation” is a natural one. For those interested in develop-
(p. 836). Cheraskin and Campion (1996) conduct- ing employees, this source of learning may be one
ed research within Eli Lily, an organization with a answer depending on the needs and context of
long history of job rotation. In their study they the program. Job rotation is relatively easy to
found that interest in rotation was greater among implement and a cost effective way to develop
newer (less than ten years) employees; nearly 75 employees. However, little research has verified
percent wanted job rotation. People who had been the traditional assumptions of its benefits (Bass,

Table 1. The Impact of Job Rotation

Use in Extensive lit- Empirical Cost effec- Ease of Ease of

ROI
industry erature base support tiveness implementation evaluation

Job Rotation Yes No No Yes Yes No No

42 Organization Development Journal

1990), and the literature base is sparse even with In Kotter’s (1982) research on general managers,
its wide use in industries such as banking, manu- he found that throughout their careers, the gener-
facturing and healthcare. In addition, this source al managers he studied moved positions every 2.7
of learning may be difficult to evaluate and calcu- years. This may support the notion held by
late a return on investment (see Table 1). McCall et al. (1988) that these individuals did not
have time to spend in the classroom; they were
Developmental Assignments too busy working and learning “just in time.”

Developmental job assignments (also known as Components of Developmental

job assignments or developmental assignments) Assignments
are perhaps the most widely used source of learn-
ing in corporate America today (Ohlott, 2003). Along with the “challenge” assignments are
Often deemed as interventions that provide developmental in nature if two attributes are
“lessons from experience,” a key attribute of present. First, there should be a level of challenge
developmental assignments is “challenge” of the assignment to be considered “developmen-
(Ohlott, 2003, p. 20; Robinson & Wick, 1992; Cobb tal” (Brutus, Ruderman, Ohlott, & McCauley,
& Gibbs, 1990; Bonoma & Lawler, 1989; McCall, 2000). Second, developmental assignments should
2010a; Day, 2010; DeRue & Ashford, 2010). provide individuals with the opportunity and
According to Conger (1989), “research shows that motivation to learn. Individuals should be afford-
challenging assignments are the most helpful ed the opportunity to try out new skills, behav-
experience for developing executive talent” (p. iors and thinking (McCauley, Ruderman, Ohlott,
166). McCall, Lombardo, and Morrison (1988) & Morrow, 1994). Along with the two attributes
studied 91 successful executives to find out what mentioned above, Lombardo and Eichinger (1989)
learning opportunities helped them along the way suggest the at least five or more of the following
and the vast majority reported that experience was challenges are imbedded in the assignment or
the greatest educator. In addition, Kotter (1982) experience:
found that organizations with strong reputations
for solid management made use of job assign- • Success and failure are both possible and
ments as a source of learning. Developmental will be obvious to others
assignments are seen by many as an easy way to • Requires aggressive individual “take
align development with the natural flow of the charge” leadership
organization (McCall, 2010a). McCall, Lombardo, • Involves working with new people, a lot of
and Morrison (1988) found that executives people or both
• Creates additional personal pressure
learn when they need to or have
• Requires influencing people, activities, and
to…because of the demanding nature of these
assignments, learning was not a nicety – some factors over which the manager has no
thing to be done out of interest or because it direct authority or control
might be helpful. Learning was something these
managers did because they had no choice but to • Involves high variety
take action – stab at problems even if they • Will be closely watched by people who
weren’t sure what they were doing, because
opinions count
doing nothing was surely unacceptable. (p. 63)

Volume 31  Number 1  Spring 2013 43

 • Requires building a team, starting some Early work experiences are an individual’s introduc-
thing from scratch, or fixing or turning tion to corporate life. The authors found that
around a team or an operation or a project these early work experiences offered individuals
in trouble the opportunity to work with difficult bosses, col-
• Has a major strategic component and is leagues and customers. In addition, these experi-
intellectually challenging ences afforded the young executive opportunities
• Involves interacting with an especially to learn about herself and organizational life. An
good, or bad, boss individual’s first supervisory position is another
• Something important is missing. (pp. 5-7) learning moment recognized in the research of
McCall, Lombardo, and Morrison (1988). This
Once developmental assignments have been iden- experience allowed the new manager an opportu-
tified (Ohlott, 2003; White, 1992; McCall, 2010a), nity to get work done through others versus rely-
there are several potential steps that architects of ing on themselves and their own technical expert-
developmental assignments can employ. White ise. Developmental projects or task forces are specific
(1992) suggests an analysis of how current execu- opportunities to serve on a committee and work
tives have developed and grown and a systematic through a particular organizational challenge.
identification of skills that will be needed in the Line-to-staff switches affords the leader an opportu-
future. Ohlott (2003) and McCall (2010a) suggest nity to work with executives (Stewart, 1984) and
that participants should have an opportunity to the perceived stakes are much higher. In addition,
“opt-in” and then a key decision must be made. the leader must establish a number of relation-
Does the organization want to design a system ships in a new environment. The individual must
that matches individuals with specific needs build new relationships and learn new competen-
(Ohlott, 2003; Cobb & Gibbs, 1990; McCall 2010a)? cies and skills. Starting from scratch, may be a new
Or, does it want to develop a systemic process product or product line, a new plant, or a new
whereby all young managers are exposed to a division. In their book, Leadership Pipeline, Charan
similar process (Ohlott, 2003)? Finally, a system to et al. (2001) suggest that “each passage requires a
track progress should be implemented (McCall, new set of skill requirements (new capabilities
2010a). required to execute new responsibilities), time
applications (new time frames that govern how
Types of Developmental Assignments one works) and work values (what people believe
is important and becomes the focus of their
There are a number of experiences cited by execu- effort)” (p. 8). Naturally, these new skills may be
tives as developmental. In their research, McCall, completely different than those needed in their
Lombardo, and Morrison (1988) found that these previous capacity. The final learning development
include: early work experiences, first supervisory job, assignment is a leap in scope. This leap is usually
project and task force jobs, line-to-staff switches, start- signified in some large jump into a new area that
ing from scratch, fix it/turn around jobs, and a leap in will require a completely new set of skills.
scope.
Other challenges mentioned in the literature on
development/job assignments include job transi-

44 Organization Development Journal

tions (McCall et al, 1988; McCauley Eastman & achieved (Manz & Sims, 1981). A natural chal-
Ohlott, 1995; Ohlott, 2003; Stewart, 1984), creating lenge to this concept is that many executives do
change (Dechant, 1990; McCall et al, 1988; not feel they have the time to pause and reflect;
McCauley Eastman & Ohlott, 1995; Ohlott, 2003), the nature of their environment may not allow for
an increase in responsibility (Bonoma & Lawler, it. This leads some to wonder if the organizational
1989; McCall et al, 1988; McCauley Eastman & context is appropriate for learning in the first
Ohlott, 1995; Ohlott, 2003; Stewart, 1984), non- place (Day, 2010; Ericsson, 2009; Ligon & Hunter,
authority relationships (Dechant, 1990; McCall et 2010).
al, 1988; McCauley Eastman & Ohlott, 1995;
Ohlott, 2003), obstacles (Dechant, 1990; McCall et Factors that Contribute to Learning from
al, 1988; McCauley Eastman & Ohlott, 1995; Experience
Ohlott, 2003). Stewart (1984) also mentions pro-
motions, cross-functional moves and moving to The literature contains several suggestions for
another type of business as developmental experi- incorporating developmental assignments at the
ences. individual and organizational levels. Table 2, on
following page, highlights several factors that
Learning from Developmental Assignments facilitate learning at the individual level.

Developmental assignments occur at a rapid pace, At the organizational level, there are several fac-
and at times, those experiencing them may have a tors that contribute to learning as well. While
difficult time capturing the learning. To this point, there seems to be little general agreement, on
Mumford (1996) describes four ways that people what these are, some of the major themes are
learn from developmental experiences. The first, highlighted in Table 3, on page 47.
the intuitive approach is not necessarily an inten-
tionally built in to an experience. The second Limitations of Developmental Assignments
approach, the incidental approach, is an experi-
ence (perhaps a mistake or failure) that gets the A natural limitation of developmental assign-
attention of the employee and causes him or her ments is the lack of research that exists (Hezlett,
to reflect. The third approach, retrospective is an 2010; McCall 2010a). Most of the studies on devel-
after action review or reflection on experiences to opmental assignments are retrospective in nature
make meaning. The final approach, a prospective and rely heavily on people who served in those
approach, involves a more intentional pre-mediat- positions. In addition, Yukl (2002) writes that
ed approach to learning. Rather than reflection, there is evidence to support the notion that
this may be considered pre-flection (Falk, 1995; women are “less likely than men to be given chal-
DeRue & Ashford, 2010; Robinson & Wick, 1992). lenging, high-visibility assignments” (p. 386).
Without reflection (and pre-flection) the process Others mention the importance of correctly
of learning and developing as an individual will matching the individual’s developmental needs
take longer and may in fact never occur. It is like- with the developmental assignment (Day &
ly that in an environment where this behavior is Halpin, 2001; McCauley, Lombardo, & Usher,
modeled (at all levels), greater success will be 1989).

Volume 31  Number 1  Spring 2013 45

Along with some of the gaps that have been iden- Ohlott, & McCauley, 2000; Dragoni, Tesluk,
tified above, a number of other challenges are Russell, & Oh, 2009; Kelleher, Finestone, Lowy,
identified in the literature. Perhaps the greatest 1986; McCauley, Eastman, & Ohlott, 1995;
challenge was highlighted by White (1992) when McCauley, Lombardo & Usher, 1989; McCauley,
he suggested that “The fact that it might be possi- Ruderman, Ohlott, & Morrow, 1994). A number of
ble to learn something from an assignment does- the questions and future directions are examined
n’t mean it will be learned” (p. 202). To this point, in the discussion section.
Kotter (1982) suggests “many of them, like most
people, are not inclined to slow down and go Developmental Assignments Conclusion
through a serious process of self-assessment” (p.
143). After all, development is long term and Developmental assignments are a rich resource of
involves any number of “twists and turns” leadership development if the learning is cap-
(McCall, 2010a; Day, 2010). tured. In his article, Executive Development as a
Strategic Tool, McCall (1992) suggests that
Others wonder if the work context is even the cor-
rect context for learning (Day, 2010) and some if senior management believes that leadership is
not a critical source of competitive advantage,
experts suggest that the organizational context is that the current supply of leadership is adequate
not appropriate for deliberate practice (Day, 2010; for the present and the future, the executive
Ericsson, 2009). Other challenges focus on transfer ability cannot be developed, or that the cream
rises without any help, then executive
of learning (Ligon & Hunter, 2010; Wilson & Yip,
development will end up as a showpiece rather
2010), differences in learning styles (Baran & than a strategic tool. (p. 31)
Adelman, 2010; Wilson & Yip, 2010), and cultural
differences (Wilson & Yip, 2010). Developmental assignments could be viewed in a
similar way. Unless organizations set objectives
Research on Developmental Assignments for development and strategically use these expe-
Much of the original research on developmental riences for development, it will be difficult to
assignments/job assignments has stemmed from evaluate their impact and show a return on

Table 2. Factors That Contribute to Learning at The Individual Level

the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) or indi- investment. Lacking in empirical support and a
viduals closely linked with CCL (e.g., Eichinger & relatively sparse literature case (based upon its
Lombardo 1989; McCauley & Brutus, 1998; widespread practice in industry), organizations
McCauley Eastman & Ohlott, 1995; Ohlott, 2003). should be intentional about how they determine,
While the notion of learning from experience or assign, and help people learn through develop-
job assignments has been in circulation for more mental assignments. By doing so, they can inten-
than 25 years, there is still a great deal of work to tionally implement this cost effective and easily
be done from an empirical standpoint. Similar to implemented source of learning. As with any
job rotation, there is surprisingly little empirical source of learning a lack of intentionality from the
research on the topic (e.g., Brutus, Ruderman, outset will result in difficulty evaluating and

46 Organization Development Journal

Factor Source

There is a system for selection Northcraft, Griffith, & Shadley, 1992

Developmental assignments are combined with Cobb & Gibbs, 1990 DeRue & Ashford, 2010 Hall 1995 Hezlett,
other sources of learning (e.g., coaching, action 2010 Jackson & Lindsay, 2010 Ligon & Hunter, 2010 McCall,
learning, assessments, classroom learning, simula- 2010a McCall, 2010b McCauley & Brutus, 1998 Mumford, 1995
tions) Mumford, 1996 Smerek, 2010 Vicere, 1994 White, 1992

Embedded in the larger system Cobb & Gibbs, 1990 McCauley & Brutus, 1998 Volckmann, 2011

Supportive supervisor Cobb & Gibbs, 1990 Kelleher, Finestone, & Lowy, 1986

Encouraging environment Mumford, 1996

Good role modeling Cobb & Gibbs, 1990

Linked to strategic imperatives of the organization Cobb & Gibbs, 1990 Hall, 1995 McCall, 2010a

Not used in appraisal/only development Cobb & Gibbs, 1990

Champions at varied levels in the organization Cobb & Gibbs, 1990

System for capturing the learning Hall, 1995

Hardwire development into employee development

Yost, 2010
plans

Table 3. Factors that Contribute to Learning at the Organizational Level

determining the return on investment (See Table effectiveness, supportive research base, return on
4). investment, popularity in practice, extent of the
literature base, ease of implementation and ease
Discussion of evaluation. Admittedly, a somewhat subjective
analysis, the purpose is to provide readers with a
This manuscript focused on two commonly used snapshot (See Table 5) about these widely used
sources of learning used to develop skills and approaches to development.
leadership capacity of employees in organiza-
tions. At the conclusion of each section each Although the literature base is small, these
source of learning was rated on seven items – cost approaches are widely used interventions (Vicere,

Volume 31  Number 1  Spring 2013 47

1998) and “lessons from experience” are deemed Campion, 1996; Dragoni, Tesluk, Russell, & Oh,
by McCall (2011a) and Eichinger & Lombardo 2009; Kelleher, Finestone, Lowy, 1986; McCauley,
(1989) as the best place to start when developing Eastman, & Ohlott, 1995; McCauley, Lombardo &
leaders. Both sources of learning are commonly Usher, 1989; McCauley, Ruderman, Ohlott, &
used in industry. However, this assessment is Morrow, 1994) there is little empirical evidence in
anecdotal with the exception of a few studies that support of these approaches and virtually no dis-
would suggest this to be the case (Vicere, 1998). cussion of return on investment. To this point
Likewise, both developmental assignments seem Hezlett (2011) suggests:
to be cost effective interventions at face value.
However, hidden costs such as training, loss of Much has been learned about how leaders learn
from their experience, but more knowledge is
productivity and program implementation and needed to confidently predict when and what a
ongoing support are natural costs associated with particular person will successfully learn from a
widespread implementation. Of course other fac- specific experience. Without this knowledge,
practitioners’ ability to help organizations
tors such as scale and industry must be factored
develop talent by methodically assigning
in as well. Unfortunately, there is a relatively experiences to leaders is limited. (p. 56)
small base of literature for each approach.
Perhaps this is related to the difficulty of measur- In addition to the analysis above, there are a num-
ing impact of learning (Day, 2011) or evaluating ber of questions that still need to be explored as it
these approaches in general. However, the litera- relates to job assignments and job related inter-
ture base is overwhelmingly positive but is based ventions. Table 6 highlights a number of areas for
more on conceptual pieces and anecdotal evi- exploration.
dence vs. empirical studies validating these
approaches to development. Even the support for Along with future research on the topic of job
the use of developmental assignments are prima- related sources of learning, it is important for
rily based on a few well known studies (Kotter, architects of leadership development interven-
1982; McCall, Lombardo, & Morrison, 1988) and tions to understand that leadership is contextual.
has little empirical support in the leader- Likewise, leadership development is contextual
ship/leadership development literature. With the and sources of learning that impact an individual
exception of a few studies (e.g., Brutus, (or groups of individuals) in one organization
Ruderman, Ohlott, & McCauley, 2000; Campion, may produce dismal results in another.
Cheraskin, and Stevens, 1994; Cheraskin and Individuals who are motivated by job rotation

Table 4. The Impact of Developmental Assignments

Extensive
Use in Empirica Cost effec- Ease of imple- Ease of evalua-
literature ROI
industry l support tiveness mentation tion
base

Developmental
Yes Yes No Yes Yes No No
Assignments

48 Organization Development Journal

 Ease of
Use in Extensive lit- Empirical Cost Ease of
implementa- ROI
industry erature base support effectiveness evaluation
tion

Job Rotation Yes No No Yes Yes No No

Developmental
Yes Yes No Yes Yes No No
Assignments

Table 5. Developmental Assignments

early in their career may have little interest in this and resources – perhaps more than societies or
approach at age 50. As a result, the success or fail- organizations possess, and certainly more than
ure of these sources of learning is difficult to pre- they are willing to expend” (pp. 38-39).
dict. An individual’s age, learning style, organiza- Organizations that take a long-term approach to
tional role, development level, motivation, readi- leadership development and create a supportive
ness to learn, and self-efficacy all determine the environment to do so will likely benefit from a
level of impact on the individual. well planned and thought through approach to
job rotation and developmental assignments.
Thus, it behooves organizations to offer a variety Finally, (as with any source of learning) program
of learning experiences that employees have at architects must design and develop interventions
their disposal. Doing so will afford individuals with great care and intentionality to produce
the opportunity to choose how they will develop. desired results. Systems to evaluate and capture
Sources of learning are simply instruments to return on investment must be thought through
help the learning process and it’s likely that vari- ahead of time. Likewise, the interventions should
ous combinations will yield greater impact. For be linked to organizational strategy and should
instance, a developmental assignment combined benefit from support at multiple levels of the
with assessments and coaching will yield differ- organization. Likewise, and perhaps most impor-
ent results than the assignment alone. Some tant, the intervention should take into considera-
organizations may think that they do not have the tion the many individual and organizational fac-
funding to create an adaptive system of develop- tors that will lead to success (Table 2 and Table 3).
ment, but I would argue that job rotation and Regardless, program architects should proceed
developmental assignments are relatively inex- with caution. There are a number of unknowns
pensive ways to develop individuals in the organ- (Table 6) that must be managed, adhered to and
ization. resolved.

In addition to an individual approach, organiza- Conclusion

tions should take a long-term approach to devel-
opment and growth. Conger (1992) suggests, Job related interventions as sources of learning in
“Most would agree that to seriously train individ- leadership development are widely used in indus-
uals in the arts of leadership takes enormous time try and wildly absent in the literature.

Volume 31  Number 1  Spring 2013 49

 Table 6. Questions & Concepts to Explore

Question Source

“What factors contribute to the success of developmental assign-

McCauley & Brutus, 1998, p. 86
ments?”

“What standards are to be used to assess the outcomes of develop-

McCauley & Brutus, 1998, p. 86
mental assignments?”

“What are the indirect effects of implementing developmental-

McCauley & Brutus, 1998, p. 87
assignment systems in organizations?”

“Perhaps what is needed most in this area is an overarching theory

that would help explain why managers with particular preferences,
Hezlett, 2010, p. 57 McCall 20010a McCall, 2010b
personalities, abilities, and demographic characteristics are more
likely to learn from developmental assignments than others.”

“How supplemental activities, such as reflection and goal setting,

Hezlett, 2010, p. 56
facilitate or impair leaders, learning from their experiences.”

“We need to learn more about how contextual or situational factors

Hezlett, 2010, p. 57
enhance or impede experienced-based development.”

“Building a better understanding of leaders’ ‘‘readiness’’ to learn

from experience would help us understand when to assign a leader Hezlett, 2010, p. 58
to a developmentally challenging experience.”

“It would be valuable to know more about what specific lessons are
Hezlett, 2010, p. 58
learned from different kinds of on-the-job experiences.”

How does the expertise literature link to developmental assignments

Day, 2010 Hezlett, 2010 McCall, 2010b
and leadership development?

Can learning happen in the context of work? Day, 2010 Ericsson, 2009 Ligon & Hunter, 2010

“More attention needs to be given to the role of deliberate practice

Day, 2010, p. 44
both on and off the job.”

“Which transitions “are most central to leadership development and

what can be done to help talented people get through them success- McCall, 2010, p. 17
fully.”

There is a need for consistent and clear terminology Allen

What are the crucial components of a well-designed Cobb & Gibbs, 1990 McCall, 2010a McCall 2010b
job/developmental assignment process? Ohlott, 2003 White, 1992

50 Organization Development Journal

What elements facilitate success at the organizational level? Cobb & Gibbs, 1990 DeRue & Ashford, 2010 Hall 1995
Hezlett, 2010 Jackson & Lindsay, 2010 Ligon & Hunter,
2010 McCauley & Brutus, 1998 Northcraft, Griffith, &
Shadley, 1992 McCall, 2010a Smerek, 2010 Vicere, 1994
White, 1992 Yost, 2010

What elements facilitate success at the individual level? Cobb & Gibbs, 1990 Day, 2010 Dechant, 1990 DeRue &
Ashford, 2010 Dragoni, Tesluk, Russell, & Oh, 2009
Hezlett, 2010 Jackson & Lindsay, 2010 Kelleher et al., 1986
McCall, 1994 McCall, 2010b McCauley & Brutus, 1998
Mumford, 1996 Perkins, 1994 Perkins, 1992 Robinson &
Wick, 1992 White, 1992
What blocks can stall learning and development or transfer Volckman, 2011 Mumford, 1987
of learning?
What are the types of developmental assignments? Bonoma & Lawler (1989) Dechant, 1990 Lombardo and
Eichinger,1989 McCall et al, 1988 McCauley Eastman &
Ohlott, 1995 Ohlott, 2003 Stewart, 1984

This is likely a surprise for anyone hoping to Bass, B. (1990). Bass & Stogdill’s handbook of
learn more about the empirical evidence behind leadership: Theory, research and
each of these commonly used interventions. The managerial applications (3rd ed.). New
good news is that there is a vast array of opportu- York: The Free Press.
nities for future research. However, until there is Bass, B. (2008). The Bass Handbook of Leadership:
a better understanding of its use in industry, a Theory, research and managerial
broader literature base and better empirical sup- applications (4th ed.). New York: The Free
port it will be difficult to argue that these inter- Press.
ventions are worth the cost (time, money, Bennett, B. (2003). Job rotation: Its role in
resource) and yielding a positive return on invest- promoting learning in organizations.
ment. Training Strategies for Tomorrow, 17(4), 7-9.
Bonoma, T. V., & Lawler, J. C. (1989). Chutes and
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