INTRODUCTION

Shelter is one of the three basic needs of man along with food and clothing.
The prehistoric man lived in caves, and later, he began constructing walls from
the mud. In due course of time, many techniques for the masonry were
developed and it became a structural part of the shelter. In early days, burnt
brick masonry and stone masonry were popular. Now, with growing demand
for construction, cheaper and faster techniques and materials are the need of the
hour.

A concrete block is primarily used as a building material in the construction of

walls. It is sometimes called a concrete masonry unit (CMU). A concrete block
is one of several precast concrete products used in construction. The term
precast refers to the fact that the blocks are formed and hardened before they
are brought to the job site. Most concrete blocks have one or more hollow
cavities, and their sides may be cast smooth or with a design. In use, concrete
blocks are stacked one at a time and held together with fresh concrete mortar to
form the desired length and height of the wall.

HISTORY

Concrete mortar was used by the Romans as early as 200 b.c. to bind shaped
stones together in the construction of buildings. During the reign of the Roman
emperor Caligula, in 37-41 a.d., small blocks of precast concrete were used as a
construction material in the region around present-day Naples, Italy. Much of
the concrete technology developed by the Romans was lost after the fall of the
Roman Empire in the fifth century. It was not until 1824 that the English
stonemason Joseph Aspin developed portland cement, which became one of the
key components of modern concrete.

The first hollow concrete block was designed in 1890 by Harmon S. Palmer in
the United States. After 10 years of experimenting, Palmer patented the design
in 1900. Palmer's blocks were 8 in (20.3 cm) by 10 in (25.4 cm) by 30 in (76.2
cm), and they were so heavy they had to be lifted into place with a small crane.
By 1905, an estimated 1,500 Picture of a rusticated concrete block companies
were manufacturing concrete blocks in the United States.

By the 1920s rock face concrete blocks had become a common building
material used for foundations, porches, even entire buildings and houses. With
the advent of the automotive industry, many homeowners found themselves in
need of a garage to house their new cars. Rock face block was a cheap and
aesthetically pleasing material that was often used to build these new garages
and service stations.

TWO MAJOR TYPES OF BLOCKS OR CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT

Solid Concrete Blocks

Solid concrete blocks are made from aggregate, Portland cement and sand.
These blocks have a solid material, not less than 75% of the total volume of the
block calculated from the overall dimensions. Hence, they are heavy in weight.
These blocks provide good stability to the structure. So, these blocks are used
for a large work of masonry. They are used in the load-bearing walls as well as
the non-load bearing walls. Solid blocks are available in large sizes as
compared to the conventional bricks. Therefore, less time is required to
construct concrete block masonry than brick masonry

Hollow Concrete Blocks

They are the standard sized rectangular hollow blocks made of cast concrete of
high or low density. For high-density blocks, Portland cement and aggregate,
usually sand and fine gravel are used as a raw material. For low density blocks,
industrial wastes, such as fly ash or bottom ash are used as the primary raw
materials and are often called cinder blocks /breeze blocks in different parts of
the world.

Hollow concrete blocks are more commonly used in masonry construction. It

accelerates the construction process, saves cement and steel and reduces the
work expenses at the construction site. These blocks lower the natural weight
of masonry constructions and improve the physical properties of walls, such as
noise and thermal insulation. They also provide facilities for concealing
electrical conduit, water and soil pipes.

Size of Concrete Blocks

Hollow concrete block made of cement, composite, water, can be produced to

the required size and shape by blocking machine, such as concrete unit for
construction materials, standard size is 4 inches, 6 inches, 8 inches, 10 inches
and 12-inch unit adjustment.

Different sizes of concrete block are given below.

• Hollow concrete block 12” (200 X 300 X 400), Weight (kg): 32.

• Hollow concrete block 10” (200 X 250 X 400), Weight (kg): 31.

• Hollow concrete block8" (200 X 200 X 400), Weight (kg): 23.

• Hollow concrete block 6" (200 X 150 X 400), Weight (kg): 18.

• Hollow concrete block 4" (200 X 100 X 400), Weight (kg): 14.
Uses of Concrete Blocks

Hollow concrete blocks are used in all type of masonry construction such as,

• Exterior load-bearing walls

• Interior load-bearing walls.

• Curtain walls

• Partition wall and panel walls

• Backing from brick, stone, and other facing

• Fireproofing over a structural member

• Fire-safe walls around stairwells, elevators

• Piers, column and retaining walls etc.

• Boundary fences

ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE BLOCK MASONRY

According to the research by 'Chaure, A. P., Shinde P. A. et al!' followings are

the advantages of concrete blocks,

1. Hollow concrete block masonry is the easier and faster construction practice
as compared to any other masonry practices.

2. Hollow concrete block masonry reduces the cost of construction labour and
construction materials because the use of a larger size of concrete block
reduces the number of joints in work.

3. Semi-skilled or unskilled labour can also work in this type of construction.

4. These concrete blocks need low maintenance and are durable.

5. They are eco-friendly materials as industrial wastes, such as fly ash or

bottom ash are used as raw materials.

6. Reinforcing the hollow block masonry is possible as there is no additional

formwork or any construction machinery required.

7. Hollow concrete block masonry is highly durable as the concrete is

compacted by high pressure and vibration, which gives substantial strength to
the block. Adequate curing increases the compressive strength of the blocks.

8. As the hollow concrete blocks are light in weight, they reduce the weight of
the structure and hence light structural member or less percentage of steel is
required for a given R.C. C building.

9. Presence of rough texture on concrete blocks provides good bonding

between cement mortar and

10. It is possible to construct a thin wall by using hollow blocks. Therefore, it

helps to save space and increase the floor area or carpet area, i.e. carpet area
efficiency is better.

11. In the hollow blocks, the voids or cores can be filled with steel bars and
concrete for achieving high seismic resistance.

12. Hollow concrete blocks have good insulating properties against sound, heat
and dampness.

13. These blocks have low water absorption than conventional bricks. If you
want to know how to measure water absorption in bricks then read the water
absorption test of bricks.

14. Hollow concrete block can safely resist the atmospheric action. This block
doesn't require protecting covering.

15. It has good fire resistance.

DISADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE BLOCK MASONRY

There are various different types of disadvantage that we can get while using
hollow concrete blocks in construction some of which are given below.

1. Hollow blocks has poor bearing capacity because the total mass of wall
decoration materials is reduced, the load-bearing capacity is also reduced.

2. It is very dangerous to hang heavy objects on such walls.

TYPES OF CONCRETE BLOCKS

1. Stretcher Block

Concrete stretcher blocks are used in construction to connect the corner of

masonry units. Their faces are laid parallel to the face of the wall.

2. Corner Block

Corner blocks are placed at corners, as you might expect, or at the ends of
windows and door openings. The plain side is exposed to the exterior, while the
stretcher side runs parallel to the wall.

3. Pillar Block

As the name implies, pillar blocks are most often used to build pillars or piers.
They're also called double-corner blocks and are designed so that both ends
could be left visible. Pillar blocks are the kind of blocks many people think of
when they think of concrete blocks, and they are often available in large
quantities at building supply stores.

4. Jamb Block

Jamb blocks are made with a shallow groove across the two holes and a deeper
groove at one end. They provide space for the casing members of a window
and are often used specifically in double-hung windows.
5. Partition Block

Partition blocks are similar to concrete pillar blocks except that they are taller
than they are wide. These narrow blocks look almost like wide goggles if
viewed straight-on.

6. Lintel Block

Lintel block, also known as channeled blocks or beam blocks, are U-shaped
concrete masonry units. They are primarily used in the preparation of lintel
beams. It is used for the purpose of provision of beam or lintel beam.

It is generally provided on the top portion of doors and windows, which bears
the load coming from top. Concrete lintel blocks have deep groove along the
length of block. After placing the blocks, this groove is filled with concrete
along with reinforcement.

7. Frogged Brick Block

Frogged brick block is a type of lightweight concrete block that contains a frog
on its top along with header and stretcher like frogged brick. This frog will help
the block to hold mortar and to develop the strong bond with top laying block
making the masonry strong.

8. Bullnose Block

Bullnose concrete blocks are the same as corner blocks in their use and
structure. The only minor difference between the two concrete hollow block
types is that a bullnose block has rounded edges (which is the reason for its
name), while a corner block does not.

9. Column Block

A column block is typically a square block with a single hole. These can be
stacked to create columns, with reinforcement inside. Also referred as double
corner block where two ends of corner are visible.
10. Splitface Block

Splitface blocks look like pillar blocks, except one edge has a very rough,
almost jagged texture that exposes the block's inner aggregates. This block is
very porous and therefore vulnerable to water damage, but it also has a lower
risk of termite infestation and is less susceptible to fire.

A splitface block like the one pictured above might come in a

6-by-8-by-16-inch size.

MATERIALS:

The following materials were used in the production of sandcrete blocks:

Cement

Cement is a construction material used in bonding with stones, bricks and sand.
The principal constituents of cement are compounds of lime. When water is
added to cement, hydration occurs and a large amount of heat is released. On
hydration, gel is formed which binds the aggregate particles together and
provides strength and water tightness to concrete on hardening. The most
common type of cement for construction work is Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC) [5]. Portland cement to be used for the production of sandcrete blocks
must comply with all the prescribed requirements in British Standard (BS-12)
[9] and NIS 444-1:2003 [10] respectively.

Aggregates

The British Standard (BS-882) [11] defined aggregate as a granular material

obtained by processing natural materials while Taylor [12] defined aggregates
as mineral filler materials used in concrete. Aggregates are either natural or
manufactured and occupy about 75% of the volume of concrete. Sand, gravel,
crushed rock and other mineral fillers are used as aggregates. Aggregates are
major components in the production of concrete [17].

Water

Water reacts with cement to bring about hydration. The workability and
strength of sandcrete depends to a large extent on the amount of water used in
mixing. Water to be used for the production of concrete or sandcrete must be
free of suspended particles, inorganic salts, acids and alkalis, oil contamination
and algae [13]. Potable water that meets the NIS 554:2007[14] standard is
recommended for the production of sandcrete blocks.

STANDARD REQUIREMENTS

The Federal Building Code (First edition, 2006) stipulates that the application
of all materials and components used in the construction of buildings must be
such that will achieve aesthetics, durability, functionality, character and
affordability (Afolayan et al., 2008; Anosike, 2011). Locally available building
materials should be integrated for their additional advantages of availability,
identity, job creation and affordability. The National Building Code stipulates
as follows: Sandcrete Blocks: shall mean a composite material made up of
cement, sharp sand and water.

Blocks shall be molded for sandcrete using metal (wood) molds of:

450mm x 225mm x 150mm

450mm x 225mm x 225mm

450mm x 225mm x 100mm

They are usually joined by mortar which is a rich mix of sandcrete.

Aggregate: This include both coarse and fine, from natural sources, blast
furnace slag, crushed clay and furnace clinker.
Sand: shall be of approved clean, sharp, fresh water or pit sand, free from clay,
loam, dirt, organic or saline water of any description and shall mainly pass
4.70mm test sieve. If lagoon sand is used this must be properly washed to the
approval of the supervisor.

Mix Proportion: Mix used for blocks shall not be richer than 1 part by volume
of cement to 6 parts of fine aggregate (sand) except that the proportion of
cement to mix-aggregate may be reduced to 1:4 ½ (Where the thickness of the
web of the block is one 25mm or less).

Strength Requirements: Sandcrete blocks shall possess resistance to crushing

as stated below and the 28day compressive strength for a load bearing wall of
two- or three-story building shall not be less than: - average strength of 6
blocks, lowest strength of individual block 2.00 N/mm2 (300psi), 1.75N/mm2
(250psi).

Molding: The 28-day compressive strength of a sandcrete block for load

bearing wall of two or three story buildings shall not be less than the values
given above and shall comply with the existing NIS specification for sandcrete
blocks.

Compaction: Two methods to be applied depending on the availability of

materials (tools) are;

1. By approval (standard) machine compaction.

2. My metal mold (hand) compaction.

Production/Processing: The sandcrete block shall be cast using an appropriate

machine with cement/sand ratio of 1:6 measured by volume. Where hand
mixing is carried out, the materials shall be mixed until an even color and
consistency throughout is attained. The measure shall be further mixed and
water added through a fire hose in such sufficient quantity as to secure
adhesion. It shall then be well rammed into molds and smoothed off with a
steel face tool (Okoli et al., 2008).

Curing: After removal from machine, the blocks shall be left on pallets under
cover in separate rolls, one block high, with a space between each block for at
least 24 hours and kept wet by weathering through a fire watering hose
(Anosike, 2011). The blocks may then be removed from the pallets and the
blocks may be stacked during which time the blocks shall be kept wet. The
blocks may be stacked not more than 5 blocks high under cover at least seven
(7) days before use after the previous period.

MANUFACTURE OF BLOCKS

Concrete is a mixture of ordinary Portland cement though now Pozzolana

Portland cement (PPC) is now widely used instead of OPC, mineral aggregate
(sand and stone chips) and water. The water used in preparing the concrete
serves two purposes:

• It combines with the cement to form a hardened paste

• It lubricates the aggregates to form a plastic and workable mass

The water that combines with the cement varies from about 22 to 28% of the
total amount of mixing water in concrete.

The process of manufacture of cement concrete hollow blocks involves the

following 5 stages: Proportioning, Mixing, Compacting, Curing, Drying and
Cubing.

Some manufacturing plants produce only concrete blocks, while others may
produce a wide variety of precast concrete products including blocks, flat paver
stones, and decorative landscaping pieces such as lawn edging. Some plants are
capable of producing 2,000 or more blocks per hour.
 • Proportioning:

The determination of suitable amounts of raw materials needed to produce

concrete of desired quality under given conditions of mixing, placing and
curing is known as proportioning. As per Indian Standard specifications (ISI),
the combined aggregate content in the concrete mix used for making hollow
blocks should not be more than 6 parts to 1 part by volume of Portland cement.
If this ratio is taken in terms of weight basis this may average approximately at
1:7 (cement: aggregate). However, there have been instances of employing a
lean mix of as high as 1:9 by manufacturers where hollow blocks are
compacted by power operated vibrating machines. The water cement ratio of
0.62 by weight basis can be used for concrete hollow blocks.

• Mixing

The objective of thorough mixing of aggregates, cement and water is to ensure

that the cement-water paste completely covers the surface of the aggregates.

• Compacting

The purpose of compacting is to fill all air pockets with concrete as a whole
without movement of free water through the concrete. Excessive compaction
would result in formation of water pockets or layers with higher water content
and poor quality of the product.

Semi-automatic vibrating table type machines are widely used for making
cement concrete hollow blocks. The machine consists of an automatic vibrating
unit, a lever operated up and down metallic mold box and a stripper head
contained in a frame work.

Wooden pallet is kept on the vibrating platform of the machine. The mold box
is lowered on to the pallet. Concrete mix is poured into the mold and evenly
levelled. The motorized vibrating causes the concrete to settle down the mold
by approximately 1 1⁄2 to 1 3⁄4 inches. More of concrete is then raked across
the mold level. The stripper head is placed over the mold to bear on the levelled
material. Vibration causes the concrete come down to its limit position. Then
the mold box is lifted by the lever. The molded hollow blocks resting on the
pallet is removed and a new pallet is placed and the process repeated. The
machine can accommodate interchangeable mold for producing blocks of
different sizes of hollow or solid blocks.

• Curing

Hollow blocks removed from the mold are protected until they are sufficiently
hardened to permit handling without damage. This may take about 24 hours in
a shelter away from sun and winds. The hollow blocks thus hardened are cured
in a curing yard to permit complete hydration for at least 21 days. When the
hollow blocks are cured by immersing them in a water tank, water should be
changed at least every four days.

The greatest strength benefits occur during the first three days and valuable
effects are secured up to 10 or 14 days. The longer the curing time permitted
the better the product.

• Drying

Concrete shrinks slightly with loss of moisture. It is therefore essential that

after curing is over, the blocks should be allowed to dry out gradually in shade
so that the initial drying shrinkage of the blocks is completed before they are
used in the construction work. Hollow blocks are stacked with their cavities
horizontal to facilitate thorough passage of air.

Generally, a period of 7 to 15 days of drying will bring the blocks to the desired
degree of dryness to complete their initial shrinkage. After this the blocks are
ready for use in construction work
 • Cubing

The racks of cured blocks are rolled out of the kiln, and the pallets of blocks
are unstacked and placed on a chain conveyor. The blocks are pushed off the
steel pallets, and the empty pallets are fed back into the block machine to
receive a new set of molded blocks. If the blocks are to be made into split-face
blocks, they are first molded as two blocks joined together. Once these double
blocks are cured, they pass through a splitter, which strikes them with a heavy
blade along the section between the two halves. This causes the double block to
fracture and form a rough, stone-like texture on one face of each piece.

The blocks pass through a cuber which aligns each block and then stacks
them into a cube three blocks across by six blocks deep by three or four blocks
high. These cubes are carried outside with a forklift and placed in storage for
shipping or transportation.

USAGE OF CONCRETE BLOCK

Concrete mortar was used by the Romans as early as 200 B.C. to bind shaped
stones together in the construction of buildings. During the reign of the Roman
emperor Caligula, in 37-41 A.D., small blocks of precast concrete were used as
a construction material in the region around present-day Naples, Italy. Much of
the concrete technology developed by the Romans was lost after the fall of the
Roman Empire in the fifth century.

These early blocks were usually cast by hand, and the average output was about
10 blocks per person per hour. Today, concrete block manufacturing is a highly
automated process that can produce up to 2,000 blocks per hour.

It was not until 1824 that the English stonemason, Joseph Aspdin developed
Portland cement, which became one of the key components of modern concrete
and concrete blocks. The first hollow concrete block was designed in 1890 by
Harmon S. Palmer in the United States. After 10 years of experimenting,
Palmer patented the design in 1900. Palmer's blocks were 20.3 cm (8 in) by
25.4 cm (10 in) by 76.2 cm (30 in), and they were so heavy they had to be
lifted into place with a small crane.

Concrete block, when built in tandem with concrete columns and tie beams and
reinforced with rebar, is a very common building material for the load-bearing
walls of buildings, in what is termed concrete block structure (CBS)
construction.

Suburban houses typically employ a concrete foundation and slab with a

concrete block wall on the perimeter. Hollow blocks used to lay down the
foundation, have a concrete footing that has been poured deep and wide enough
to accommodate the load of the blocks and the building. The blocks are placed
just like bricks, in a pattern that overlaps to help interlock them together. This
ensures that the foundation is strong and stable. Since the blocks are hollow
inside, re-bar is placed inside to connect the blocks to the footing for addition
stability. Other common uses for concrete block wall is interior fire-rated
partition walls, and exterior backup wall for attachment of building envelope
systems and façade.