Introduction to Electronics & Electrical Engineering

Unit-2
Digital Electronics
Customized By: Dr Mukesh Kumar
Assistant Professor
ECE Department
 Outline
Looping
• Number Systems
o Binary, Octal, Decimal, Hexa-decimal, Binary arithmetic operations
• Binary Codes
• Boolean Algebra
• Logic Gates
o AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR
Number System
Section - 1
Common Number Systems

System Base Symbols Used by Humans? Used in Computers?

Decimal 10 0, 1, … 9 Yes No
Binary 2 0, 1 No Yes
Octal 8 0, 1, … 7 No No
Hexa- 0, 1, … 9,
decimal 16 No No
A, B, … F

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 4

Conversion among Bases
 Possibilities

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

 Example

2510 = 110012 = 318 = 1916

Base

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 5

Decimal to Binary
 Technique
 Divide by two, keep track of the remainder
 The remainders read from bottom to top give the equivalent binary integer number.
 Example - 1  Example - 2
12510 = ?2 2 125 1
0.687510 = ?2 integer fraction
2 62 0
2 31 1 0.6875 x 2 = 1.3750 1 + 0.3750
2 15 1 0.3750 x 2 = 0.7500 0 + 0.7500
2 7 1 0.7500 x 2 = 1.5000 1 + 0.5000
2 3 1 0.5000 x 2 = 1.0000 1 + 0.0000
2 1 1
0 0.687510 = 0.10112
12510 = 11111012
# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 6
Binary to Decimal
 Technique
 Multiply each bit by 2n, where n is the “weight” of the bit
 The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right. Finally, Add the results.
 Example - 1  Example - 2
1010112 = ?10 11.112 = ?10
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 . 1 1

1 x 2 5 + 0 x 24 + 1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20 1 x 21 + 1 x 20 + 1 x 2-1 + 1 x 2-2
32 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 2 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.25

1010112 = 4310 11.112 = 3.7510

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 7
Decimal to Octal
 Technique
 Divide by eight, keep track of the remainder
 The remainders read from bottom to top give the equivalent octal integer number.
 Example - 1  Example - 2
12510 = ?8 0.687510 = ?8
8 125 5 integer fraction
8 15 7
0.6875 x 8 = 5.5000 5 + 0.5000
8 1 1
0.5000 x 8 = 4.0000 4 + 0.0000
0

12510 = 1758 0.687510 = 0.548

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 8

Octal to Decimal
 Technique
 Multiply each digit by 8n, where n is the “weight” of the digit
 The weight is the position of the digit, starting from 0 on the right. Finally, Add the results.
 Example - 1  Example - 2
7248 = ?10 43.258 = ?10
7 2 4 4 3 . 2 5

7 x 82 + 2 x 81 + 4 x 80 4 x 81 + 3 x 80 + 2 x 8-1 + 5 x 8-2
448 + 16 + 4 32 + 3 + 0.25 + 0.0781

7248 = 46810 43.258 = 35.328110

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 9

Decimal to Hexa-Decimal
 Technique
 Divide by sixteen, keep track of the remainder
 The remainders read from bottom to top give the equivalent hexadecimal integer number.
 Example - 1  Example - 2
123410 = ?16 0.0312510 = ?16
16 1234 2 integer fraction
16 77 13=D
0.03125 x 16 = 0.5000 0 + 0.5000
16 4 4
0.5000 x 16 = 8.0000 8 + 0.0000
0

123410 = 4D216 0.0312510 = 0.0816

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 10

Hexa-Decimal to Decimal
 Technique
 Multiply each digit by 16n, where n is the “weight” of the digit
 The weight is the position of the digit, starting from 0 on the right. Finally, Add the results.
 Example - 1  Example - 2
ABC16 = ?10 43.2516 = ?10
A B C 4 3 . 2 5

A x 162 + B x 161 + C x 160 4 x 161 + 3 x 160 + 2 x 16-1 + 5 x 16-2

10 x 162 + 11 x 161 + 12 x 160 64 + 3 + 0.125 + 0.0195
2560 + 176 + 12

ABC16 = 274810 43.2516 = 67.144510

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 11

Octal to Binary
 Technique
 Convert each octal digit to a 3-bit equivalent binary representation
 Example Octal Binary
7058 = ?2 0 000
7 0 5 1 001
2 010
3 011
111 000 101
4 100
7058 = 1110001012 5 101
6 110
7 111

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 12

Binary to Octal
 Technique
 From given fractional point, group bits in threes to right and group bits in threes to left
 If, left with less than 3 bits at the end then stuff 0s to make it group of three
 Convert to octal digits
 Example
1011010.1112 = ?8
001 011 010 . 111

1 3 2 7

10110101112 = 132.78

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 13

Hexa-Decimal to Binary
 Technique
 Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-bit equivalent binary representation
 Example Hexa-Decimal Binary Hexa-Decimal Binary
10AF16 = ?2 0 0000 8 1000
1 0001 9 1001
1 0 A F
2 0010 A 1010
3 0011 B 1011
0001 0000 1010 1111 4 0100 C 1100
5 0101 D 1101
10AF16 = 10000101011112
6 0110 E 1110
7 0111 F 1111

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 14

Binary to Hexa-Decimal
 Technique
 From given fractional point, group bits in fours to right and group bits in fours to left
 If, left with less than 4 bits at the end then stuff 0s to make it group of four
 Convert to hexadecimal digits
 Example
101101.01112 = ?16

0010 1101 . 0111

2 D 7

10110101112 = 2D.716

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 15

Octal to Hexa-Decimal
 Technique
 Convert Octal to Binary
 From given fractional point, group bits in fours to right and group bits in fours to left
 Convert Binary to Hexa-Decimal
 Example
10768 = ?16
1 0 7 6

001 000 111 110

0010 0011 1110

2 3 E
10768 = 23E16
# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 16
Hexa-Decimal to Octal
 Technique
 Convert Hexa-Decimal to Binary
 From given fractional point, group bits in threes to right and group bits in threes to left
 Convert Binary to Octal
 Example
1F0C16 = ?8
1 F 0 C

0001 1111 0000 1100

000 001 111 100 001 100

0 1 7 4 1 4
1F0C16 = 174148
# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 17
Binary Addition & Subtraction
 Rules for binary addition  Rules for binary subtraction
0+0=0 0–0=0
0+1=1 1–1=0
1+0=1 1–0=1
1 + 1 = 10 i.e. 0 0 – 1 = 1, with
with a carry of 1 a borrow 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 10 1 1 10
1 1 0 1 . 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 . 0 1 10

+ 0 1 1 1 . 0 1 1 - 0 1 1 1 . 1 1 1

1 0 1 0 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 . 0 1 1

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 18

Binary Multiplication & Division
 Multiplication  Division
10111 110 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 . 1
x 000
10011
1 0 11
1 0 1 1 1 110
1010
1 0 1 1 1 110
0 0 0 0 0 1001
0 0 0 0 0 110
11 0
1 0 1 1 1 110
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 000

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 19

Signed Binary Numbers
 Two ways of representing signed numbers:
 1) Sign-magnitude form, 2) Complement form.
 Most of computers use complement form for negative number notation.
 1’s complement and 2’s complement are two different methods in this type.

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 20

1’s Complement
 1’s complement of a binary number is obtained by subtracting each digit of that binary number
from 1.
 Example

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1

- 1 1 0 1 - 1 0 1 . 0 1

0 0 1 0 0 1 0 . 1 0
(1’s complement of 1101) (1’s complement of 101.01)

Shortcut: Invert the numbers from 0 to 1 and 1 to 0

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 21
2’s Complement
 2’s complement of a binary number is obtained by adding 1 to its 1’s complement.
 Example

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1

- 1 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 . 0 1

0 0 1 1 0 1 0 . 1 0

+ 1 + 1

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 . 1 1
(2’s complement of 1100) (2’s complement of 101.01)
Shortcut: Starting from right side, all bits are same till first 1 occurs and
then invert rest of the bits
# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 22
Representation of negative number in 2’s complement form
 Express -65.5 in 12 bit 2’s complement form.

2 65 1 0.5 x 2 = 1.0
2 32 0 So, result in 12-bit binary is as follows:
2 16 0 65.510 = 01000001.10002
2 8 0 For negative number, we have to
2 4 0 convert this into 2’s complement form

2 2 0 -65.510 = 10111110.10002
2 1 1
0

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 23

Accuracy in Binary Number Conversion
Example
 Convert (0.252)10 to binary with an error less than 1%.
Solution
 Absolute value of allowable error is found by calculating 1% of the number
𝐸𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 0.01 𝑋 0.252 = 0.0025210

 Maximum error due to truncation is set to be less than allowable error by solving from 𝐸10 =
2−𝑛 . This equation is written as
2−𝑛 < 0.00252

 Inverting both sides of the inequality

2𝑛 > 397

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 24

Accuracy in Binary Number Conversion
 Taking log of both sides and solving for 𝑛
𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 = log 397
log 397
𝑛= = 8.63 ≈ 9 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑙𝑜𝑔 2

 This indicates that the use of 9 bits in the binary number will guarantee an error less than 1%.
 So the conversion is carried out to 9 places which results in

0.25210 = 0.0100000012

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 25

9’s Complement
 9’s complement of a decimal number is obtained by subtracting each digit of that decimal
number from 9.
 Example

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 . 9 9

- 3 4 6 5 - 7 8 2 . 5 4

6 5 3 4 2 1 7 . 4 5
(9’s complement of 3465) (9’s complement of 782.54)

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 26

10’s Complement
 10’s complement of a decimal number is obtained by adding 1 to its 9’s complement.
 Example

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 . 9 9

- 3 4 6 5 - 7 8 2 . 5 4

6 5 3 4 2 1 7 . 4 5

+ 1 + 1

6 5 3 5 2 1 7 . 4 6
(10’s complement of 3465) (10’s complement of 782.54)

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 27

Subtraction using 9’s complement & 10’s complement
 Using 9’s complement
 Obtain 9’s complement of subtrahend
 Add the result to minuend and call it intermediate result
 If carry is generated then answer is positive and add the carry to Least Significant Digit (LSD)
 If there is no carry then answer is negative and take 9’s complement of intermediate result and place
negative sign to the result.

 Using 10’s complement

 Obtain 10’s complement of subtrahend
 Add the result to minuend
 If carry is generated then answer is positive, ignore carry and result itself is answer
 If there is no carry then answer is negative and take 10’s complement of intermediate result and place
negative sign to the result.

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 28

Subtraction using 9’s complement (Examples)
 Example - 1
745.81 – 436.62

7 4 5 . 8 1 7 4 5 . 8 1
9’s complement
- 4 3 6 . 6 2 + 5 6 3 . 3 7

3 0 9 . 1 9 1 3 0 9 . 1 8
+ 1

3 0 9 . 1 9

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 29

Subtraction using 9’s complement (Examples)
 Example - 2
436.62 - 745.81

4 3 6 . 6 2 4 3 6 . 6 2
9’s complement
- 7 4 5 . 8 1 + 2 5 4 . 1 8

- 3 0 9 . 1 9 6 9 0 . 8 0
9’s complement

- 3 0 9 . 1 9

As carry is not generated, so take 9’s

complement of the intermediate
result and add ‘ – ‘ sign to the result

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 30

Subtraction using 10’s complement (Examples)
 Example - 1
745.81 – 436.62

7 4 5 . 8 1 7 4 5 . 8 1
10’s complement
- 4 3 6 . 6 2 + 5 6 3 . 3 8

3 0 9 . 1 9 1 3 0 9 . 1 9

Ignore the carry

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 31

Subtraction using 10’s complement (Examples)
 Example - 2
436.62 - 745.81

4 3 6 . 6 2 4 3 6 . 6 2
10’s complement
- 7 4 5 . 8 1 + 2 5 4 . 1 9

- 3 0 9 . 1 9 6 9 0 . 8 1
10’s complement

- 3 0 9 . 1 9

As carry is not generated, so take 10’s

complement of the intermediate result
and add ‘ – ‘ sign to the result

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 32

Subtraction using 1’s complement & 2’s complement
 Using 1’s complement
 Obtain 1’s complement of subtrahend
 Add the result to minuend and call it intermediate result
 If carry is generated then answer is positive and add the carry to Least Significant Digit (LSD)
 If there is no carry then answer is negative and take 1’s complement of intermediate result and place
negative sign to the result.

 Using 2’s complement

 Obtain 2’s complement of subtrahend
 Add the result to minuend
 If carry is generated then answer is positive, ignore carry and result itself is answer
 If there is no carry then answer is negative and take 2’s complement of intermediate result and place
negative sign to the result.

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 33

Subtraction using 1’s complement (Examples)
 Example - 1
68.75 – 27.50

6 8.7 5 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0. 1 1 0 0
1’s complement
- 2 7.50 + 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0. 0 1 1 1

+ 4 1.25 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1. 0 0 1 1
+1

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1. 0 1 0 0

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 34

Subtraction using 1’s complement (Examples)
 Example - 2
43.25 - 89.75

4 3.2 5 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1. 0 1 0 0
1’s complement
- 8 9.75 + 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0. 0 0 1 1

- 4 6.50 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1. 0 1 1 1
1’s complement

0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0. 1 0 0 0

As carry is not generated, so take 1’s

complement of the intermediate
result and add ‘ – ‘ sign to the result
# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 35
Subtraction using 2’s complement (Examples)
 Example - 1
68.75 – 27.50

6 8.7 5 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0. 1 1 0 0
2’s complement
- 2 7.50 + 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0. 1 0 0 0

+ 4 1.25 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1. 0 1 0 0

Ignore Carry bit

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1. 0 1 0 0

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 36

Subtraction using 2’s complement (Examples)
 Example - 2
43.25 - 89.75

4 3.2 5 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1. 0 1 0 0
2’s complement
- 8 9.75 + 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0. 0 1 0 0

- 4 6.50 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1. 1 0 0 0
2’s complement

0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0. 1 0 0 0

As carry is not generated, so take 2’s

complement of the intermediate
result and add ‘ – ‘ sign to the result

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 37

Binary Codes
Section - 2
8421 BCD Code (Natural BCD Code)
 Each decimal digit, 0 through 9, is coded by 4-bit binary number
 8, 4, 2 and 1 weights are attached to each bit
 BCD code is weighted code
 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110 and 1111 are illegal codes
 Less efficient than pure binary
 Arithmetic operations are more complex than in pure binary
 Example

Decimal 1 4

BCD 0001 0100

Binary 1110

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 39

Binary Codes

Decimal Binary BCD Decimal Binary BCD

0 0 0000 8 1000 1000

1 1 0001 9 1001 1001
2 10 0010 10 1010 0001 0000
3 11 0011 11 1011 0001 0001
4 100 0100 12 1100 0001 0010
5 101 0101 13 1101 0001 0011
6 110 0110 14 1110 0001 0100
7 111 0111 15 1111 0001 0101

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 40

BCD Addition
 Example - 1

1 1 1
2 5 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1

+ 1 3 + 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1

3 8 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0

No carry, no illegal code. So, this is

the correct sum.

Rule: If there is an illegal code or carry is generated as a result of addition,

then add 0110 to particular that 4 bits of result.
# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 41
BCD Addition
 Example - 2
1 111
679.6 0110 0111 1001 .0110
+ 536.8 + 0101 0011 0110 .1000

1216.4 1011 1010 1111 .1110 All are illegal codes

+0110 +0110 +0110 +.0110 Add 0110 to each

10001 10000 10101 1.0100 Propagate carry

+1 +1 +1 +1
0001 0010 0001 0110 .0100 Corrected sum

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 42

BCD Subtraction
 Example - 1

3 8 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0

- 1 5 - 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

2 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

No borrow. So, this is the correct

difference.

Rule: If one 4-bit group needs to take borrow from neighbor, then subtract
0110 from the group which is receiving borrow.
# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 43
BCD Subtraction
 Example - 2

206.7 0010 0000 0110 .0111

- 147.8 - 0001 0100 0111 .1000
58.9 0000 1011 1110 .1111 Borrows are present
-0110 -0110 -.0110 Subtract 0110

0101 1000 .1001 Corrected difference

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 44

Excess Three (XS-3) Code
 Excess Three Code = 8421 BCD + 0011(3)
 XS-3 code is non-weighted BCD code
 Also known as self complementing code
 0000, 0001, 0010, 1101, 1110 and 1111 are illegal codes
 Example

Decimal 1 4

BCD 0001 0100

XS-3 0100 0111

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 45

XS-3 Addition
 Example
247.6 0101 0111 1010 .1001
+ 359.4 + 0110 1000 1100 .0111
Rule: Add 0011 to
607.0 1011 1111 10110 1.0000 Carry generated
group which
+1 +1 Propagate carry generated carry and
Subtract 0011 to
1011 10000 0111 .0000
group which do not
+1 generated carry
1100 0000 0111 .0000
- 0011 +0011 +0011 +.0011
Corrected Sum in
1001 0011 1010 .0011 XS-3

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 46

XS-3 Subtraction
 Example

57.6 1000 1010 .1001 Rule: Subtract 0011 to

- 27.8 - 0101 1010 .1011 group which
generated borrow and
29.8 0010 1111 .1110 Add 0011 to group
+0011 -0011 -.0011 which do not
generated borrow
0101 1100 .1011

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 47

Gray Code
 Only one bit changes between each pair of successive code words (Unit distance code).
 Gray code is a reflected code.
 Gray codes are designed recursively using following rules:
 1-bit Gray code has two code words, 0 and 1.
 The first 2n code words of an (n+1)-bit Gray code equal the code words of n-bit gray code, written in order
with a leading 0 appended.
 The last 2n code words of an (n+1)-bit Gray code equal the code words of n-bit gray code, but written in
reverse order with a leading 1 appended.

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 48

 Gray Code
Decimal 4-bit Binary
1-bit 2-bit 3-bit 4-bit
0 00 000 0000 0 0000
1 01 001 0001 1 0001
11 011 0011 2 0010
10 010 0010 3 0011
110 0110 4 0100
111 0111 5 0101
101 0101 6 0110
100 0100 7 0111
1100 8 1000
1101 9 1001
1111 10 1010
1110 11 1011
1010 12 1100
1011 13 1101
1001 14 1110
1000 15 1111
# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 49
Binary to Gray and Gray to Binary Conversion
 Conversion of n-bit Binary number (B) to Gray Code (G) is as follows:

𝐺𝑛 = 𝐵𝑛 𝐺𝑛−1 = 𝐵𝑛 ⨁ 𝐵𝑛−1 𝐺𝑛−2 = 𝐵𝑛−1 ⨁ 𝐵𝑛−2 … 𝐺1 = 𝐵2 ⨁ 𝐵1

 Example: Convert (1001)2 to Gray Code.

Binary 1 ⨁ 0 ⨁ 0 ⨁ 1

Gray 1 1 0 1

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 50

Gray to Binary Conversion
 Conversion of n-bit Gray Code (G) to Binary Number (B) is as follows:

𝐵𝑛 = 𝐺𝑛 𝐵𝑛−1 = 𝐵𝑛 ⨁ 𝐺𝑛−1 𝐵𝑛−2 = 𝐵𝑛−1 ⨁ 𝐺𝑛−2 … 𝐵1 = 𝐵2 ⨁ 𝐺1

 Example: Convert Gray code 1101 to Binary.

Gray 1 1 0 1

⨁ ⨁ ⨁

Binary 1 0 0 1

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 51

Error-Detecting Codes
 Noise can alter or distort the data in transmission.
 The 1s may get changed to 0s and 0s to 1s.
 Because digital systems must be accurate to the digit, errors can pose a serious problem.
 Single bit error should be detect & correct by different schemes.
 Parity, Check Sums and Block Parity are few examples of error detecting code.

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 52

Parity
 Parity bit is the simplest technique.
 There are two types of parity – Odd parity and Even parity.
 For odd parity, the parity is set to a 0 or a 1 at the transmitter such that the total number of 1
bits in the word including the parity bit is an odd number.
 For even parity, the parity is set to a 0 or a 1 at the transmitter such that the total number of 1
bits in the word including the parity bit is an even number.
 For example, 0110 binary number has “1” as Odd parity and “0” as Even parity.
 Detect a single-bit error but can not detect two or more errors within the same word.
 In any practical system, there is always a finite probability of the occurrence of single error.
 E.g. In an even-parity scheme, code 10111001 is erroneous because number of 1s is odd(5),
while code 11110110 is error free because number of 1s is even(6).

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 53

Check Sums
 Simple parity can not detect two errors within the same word.
 Added to the sum of the previously transmitted words
 At the transmission, the check sum up to that time is sent to the receiver.
 The receiver can check its sum with the transmitted sum.
 If the two sums are the same, then no errors were detected at the receiver end.
 If there is an error, the receiving location can ask for retransmission of the entire data.
 This type of transmission is used in teleprocessing system.

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 54

Block Parity

01011011 0 01011011 0 01011011 0

10010101 1 10010101 1 10010101 1
01101110 0 01100110 0 01101110 0
11010011 0 11010011 0 10000011 0
10001101 1 10001101 1 10001101 1
01110111 1 01110111 1 01110111 1
Parity Row 01110110 0 01110110 0 01110110 0

Parity Column

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 55

Error Correcting Code
 7-bit Hamming Code is widely used error  How to detect error?
correcting code, containing 4 bits of data and  Example: Received data = 1001001
3 bits of even parity.
P1 P2 D3 P4 D5 D6 D7 = 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
 Pattern: P1 P2 D3 P4 D5 D6 D7
P1 D3 D5 D7 = 1 0 0 1 (No Error)
 Group - 1: P1D3D5D7
P2 D3 D6 D7 = 0 0 0 1 (Error)
 Group - 2: P2D3D6D7
P4 D5 D6 D7 = 1 0 0 1 (No Error)
 Group - 3: P4D5D6D7
 The error word is 0 1 0 = 210.
 Example: Data = 1101
 Complement the 2nd bit (from left).
P1 P2 D3 P4 D5 D6 D7 = P1 P2 1 P4 1 0 1
 Correct code is 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
P1 D3 D5 D7 = 1 1 1 1
P2 D3 D6 D7 = 0 1 0 1
P4 D5 D6 D7 = 0 1 0 1
 7-bit Hamming Code is 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 56
Boolean Algebra
Section - 3
Boolean Algebra Laws
 AND laws  OR laws
1. 𝐴 ∙ 0 = 0 𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑤 1. 𝐴 + 0 = 𝐴 𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑤
2. 𝐴 ∙ 1 = 𝐴 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐿𝑎𝑤 2. 𝐴 + 1 = 1 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐿𝑎𝑤
3. 𝐴 ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐴 3. 𝐴 + 𝐴 = 𝐴
4. 𝐴 ∙ 𝐴ҧ = 0 4. 𝐴 + 𝐴ҧ = 1

 Commutative laws  Associative laws

1. 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴 1. 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)
2. 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∙ 𝐴 2. 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵 ∙ 𝐶)

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 58

Boolean Algebra Laws
 Distributive laws  Redundant Literal Rule
1. 𝐴 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 1. 𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵ҧ =𝐴+𝐵
2. 𝐴 + 𝐵𝐶 = (𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴 + 𝐶) 2. 𝐴 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵

 Idempotent laws  Absorption laws

1. 𝐴 ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐴 1. 𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴
2. 𝐴 + 𝐴 = 𝐴 2. 𝐴(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝐴
 De Morgan’s Theorem
1. 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴ҧ𝐵ത
2. 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത

Break the line change the sign

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 59
Proof of 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 𝐴ҧ 𝐵ത 𝐶ҧ
L.H.S. R.H.S.

A B C A+B+C A+B+C ഥ
A ഥ
𝐁 𝐂ത Aഥ B
ഥCത
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
From truth table, it is clearly visible that L.H.S. = R.H.S. Hence, the complement of a
sum of variables is equal to the product of their individual complements.
# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 60
Proof of 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത + 𝐶ҧ
L.H.S. R.H.S.

A B C ABC ABC ഥ
A ഥ
𝐁 𝐂ത ഥ+B
A ഥ + Cത
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
From truth table, it is clearly visible that L.H.S. = R.H.S. Hence, the complement of a
product of variables is equal to the sum of their individual complements.
# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 61
Reducing Boolean Expression (Example – 1)
 Reduce the expression 𝑓 = 𝐴 + 𝐵[𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵 + 𝐶ҧ 𝐷]

𝑓 = 𝐴 + 𝐵[𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵 + 𝐶ҧ 𝐷]
ҧ
𝑓 = 𝐴 + 𝐵[𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵𝐷 + 𝐶𝐷] (Distributive law)
𝑓 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵𝐵𝐷 + 𝐵𝐶𝐷 ҧ (Distributive law)
𝑓 = 𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐵𝐷 + 𝐵 𝐶𝐷 ҧ (A.A = A)
𝑓 = 𝐴(1 + 𝐵𝐶) + 𝐵𝐷(1 + 𝐶)ҧ
𝑓 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝐷 (1 + A = 1)

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 62

Reducing Boolean Expression (Example – 2)
ҧ
 Reduce the expression 𝑓 = 𝐴[𝐵 + 𝐶(𝐴𝐵 ҧ
+ 𝐴𝐶)]

ҧ
𝑓 = 𝐴[𝐵 + 𝐶(𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶)] ҧ
ҧ
𝑓 = 𝐴[𝐵 + 𝐶(𝐴𝐵𝐴 ҧ
𝐶)] (De-Morgan’s law)
𝑓 = 𝐴[𝐵 + 𝐶(ҧ 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵)(
ത 𝐴ҧ + 𝐶)] (De-Morgan’s law)
𝑓 = 𝐴[𝐵 + 𝐶(ҧ 𝐴ҧ𝐴ҧ + 𝐴𝐶 ҧ + 𝐵ത 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵𝐶)]
ത (Distributive law)
𝑓 = 𝐴[𝐵 + 𝐶ҧ 𝐴ҧ + 𝐶ҧ 𝐴𝐶 ҧ + 𝐶ҧ 𝐵ത 𝐴ҧ + 𝐶ҧ 𝐵𝐶]
ത (Distributive law)
𝑓 = 𝐴[𝐵 + 𝐶ҧ 𝐴ҧ + 0 + 𝐶ҧ 𝐵ത 𝐴ҧ + 0] (A.A’ = 0)
𝑓 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶ҧ 𝐴ҧ + 𝐴𝐶ҧ 𝐵ത 𝐴ҧ (Distributive law)
𝑓 = 𝐴𝐵 + 0 + 0 (A.A’ = 0)
𝑓 = 𝐴𝐵

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 63

Logic Gates
Section - 4
Logic Gates
 Most basic logical unit of the digital system is gate circuit.
 Types of gate circuits are as follows
1. AND Gate
2. OR Gate
3. NOT Gate (Inverter)
4. NOR Gate
5. NAND Gate
6. XOR Gate
7. XNOR Gate

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 65

1. AND Gate
 AND Gate has an output which is normally at logic level “0” and only goes “HIGH” to a logic
level “1” when ALL of its inputs are at logic level “1”

2-input AND Gate Truth Table Logic Notation

A A B C 𝐶 =𝐴∙𝐵
B C
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 66

2. OR Gate
 OR Gate or Inclusive-OR gate has an output which is normally at logic level “0” and only goes
“HIGH” to a logic level “1” when one or more of its inputs are at logic level “1”.

2-input OR Gate Truth Table Logic Notation

A A B C 𝐶 =𝐴+𝐵
B C
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 67

3. NOT (Inverter) Gate
 NOT gate has an output which is always opposite to input level.

Inverter Gate Truth Table Logic Notation

A C 𝐶 = 𝐴ҧ 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = 𝐴′
A C
0 1
1 0

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 68

4. NOR Gate
 NOR Gate is an OR gate followed by an inverter.
 NOR Gate has an output which is normally at logic level “1” and only goes “LOW” to a logic level
“0” when one or more of its inputs are at logic level “1”.

2-input NOR Gate Truth Table Logic Notation

A B C ′
A 𝐶 = 𝐴+𝐵
C
B 0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 69

5. NAND Gate
 NAND Gate is an AND gate followed by an inverter.
 NAND Gate has an output which is normally at logic level “1” and only goes “LOW” to a logic
level “0” when ALL inputs are at logic level “1”.

2-input NAND Gate Truth Table Logic Notation

A A B C 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∙ 𝐵)′
B C
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 70

6. Exclusive-OR (X-OR) Gate
 X-OR gate that has 1 state when one and only one of its two inputs assumes a logic 1 state and
has 0 state when all of its input are same.
 Also known as anti-coincidence gate or inequality detector.

2-input XOR Gate Truth Table Logic Notation

A A B C 𝐶 =𝐴⨁𝐵
C
B 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 71

7. Exclusive-NOR (X-NOR) Gate
 X-NOR gate that has 1 state when all of its input are same and has 0 state when one of its input
has 0 state and other input is 1 state.
 Also known as coincidence gate or equality detector.

2-input XNOR Gate Truth Table Logic Notation

A A B C 𝐶 =𝐴⨀𝐵
C
B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 72

NAND as Universal Gate

(AB)’ ((AB)’)’ = AB
A A’ A
B
NOT using NAND AND using NAND

A’
A
(A’B’)’ = (A+B)
B
B’
OR using NAND

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 73

NOR as Universal Gate

(A+B)’ ((A+B)’)’ = A+B

A
A A’
B
NOT using NOR OR using NOR

A’
A
(A’+B’)’ = AB
B
B’
AND using NOR

# 3130704 (DF)  Unit 1 – Fundamentals of Digital systems and Logic families 74