DKM30093 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY 2

1.0POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

This topic explains the installation and safety procedure regarding electrical power
distribution system.
1.0 POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

1.1 Explain the general layout of Power Distribution System

The main elements of a marine distribution system are the main and emergency switchboards, power
panels / boards, motor controllers, lighting and small power panels / boards. The system is generally
designed such that under all normal conditions of operation, power is distributed from the main
switchboard. The distribution system is designed to keep cable costs to a minimum by distributing supply to
power panels located close to the user services.
The main switchboard is generally located near the center of the distribution system and this is normally the
main engine room or machinery control room. These locations are normally below the ship's waterline or
below the uppermost continuous deck of the ship i,e. the bulkhead or main deck.
Consequently, in the event of a lire or flooding it is likely that the main generators and switchboard would
be disabled, For shipboard installations specific protective systems are required to shut down all ventilation
systems and all fuel oil systems in the event of a fire.

The function of a distribution system is the generated electrical power to every item of consumer equipment
connected to it. Probably the most obvious element in the system is the main distribution center, i.e. the
ship's main switchboard. The main board supplies bulk power to motor group starter boards (often part of
the main board), section boards and distribution boards.
Protection, e.g. circuit-breakers and fuses, strategically placed throughout the system automatically
disconnects a faulty circuit within the network.
The distribution system is the means by which the electrical power produced by the generators is delivered
to the various motors, lighting, galley services, navigation aids, etc. which comprise the ship's electrical
load. Transformers interconnect the high voltage and low voltage distribution sections of the system.
Simple transformers efficiently step-up or step-down a.c. voltages where required.
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The electrical energy is routed through the main switchboard, then distributed via cables to section and
distribution boards then ultimately to the final load consumers. The main electrical load is divided into
essential and non-essential services. Essential services are those required for the safety of personnel and
for the safe navigation and propulsion of the ship. They include certain supplies to navigational aids,
communications, machinery spaces, control stations and steering gear. The essential services may be
supplied directly from the main switchboard or via section boards or distribution boards.

The operational state of a distribution system is indicated by the monitors for power, voltage, current and by
protection relays for overcurrents and earth-faults at each main control centre. Study the electrical power
diagrams for your own ship to see if you can relate them to the actual equipment they represent.
The vast majority of ships have an alternating current (a.c.) distribution system in preference to a direct
current (d.c.) system. The required electrical services are broadly considered as main and emergency
supplies.

Three-phase a.c. is effectively converted into rotary mechanical power in simple and efficient induction
motors. A ship's electrical distribution scheme generally follows shore practice. This allows normal industrial
equipment to be used onboard ship after being "marinised", where necessary, to withstand the rigours of a
sea-life (e.g. it must withstand the vibration, humidity, high temperature, ozone, sea-water, etc.
encountered in various parts of the ship).

The majority of ships have a 3-phase d.c., 3-wire, 440 V insulated-neutral system. This means that the
neutral point of star-connected generators is not earthed to the ship's hull. For continental European
vessels, a 380 V, 3-phase system is common. Lighting and low power single-phase supplies usually
operate at the lower voltage of 220 V a.c. although 110 V a.c. is also used. These voltages are derived
from step-down transformers connected to the 440 V system. The frequency of an a.c. power system can
be 50 Hz or 60 Hz. In Europe and most of the world the national frequency is 50 Hz but is 60 Hz in North
America and in a few other countries. The most common power frequency adopted for use on board ships
and offshore platforms is 60 Hz. This higher frequency means that motors and generators run at higher
speeds with a consequent reduction in size for a given power rating.

Ships with very large electrical loads have generators operating at high voltages (HV) of 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV and
even 11 kV. Such high voltages are economically necessary in high power systems to reduce the size of
current, and hence reduce the size of conductors and equipment required. Operating at such high voltages
is becoming more common as ship size and complexity increase, e.g. for large cruise liners.
Offshore oil and gas production platforms operate at up to 13.8 kV, where equipment weight saving is
important. Distribution systems at these high voltages usually have their neutral points earthed through a
resistor or earthing transformer to the ship's hull.

1.1.1 Explains the basic purposes of switches, circuit breakers and fuses
The circuit-breakers and switches are the means of interrupting the flow of electric current, and the fuses
and relays protect the distribution system from the damaging effects of large fault currents.
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• A switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or
diverting it from one conductor to another. The mechanism of a switch may be operated directly by a
human operator to control a circuit (for example, a light switch or a keyboard button), may be operated
by a moving object such as a door-operated switch, or may be operated by some sensing element for
pressure, temperature or flow. Switches are made to handle a wide range of voltages and currents;
very large switches may be used to isolate high-voltage circuits in electrical substations.
An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and would have no limits on voltage or
current rating. It would have zero rise time and fall time during state changes, and would change state
without "bouncing" between on and off positions.
Practical switches fall short of this ideal; they have resistance, limits on the current and voltage they
can handle, finite switching time, etc. The ideal switch is often used in circuit analysis as it greatly
simplifies the system of equations to be solved, but this can lead to a less accurate solution.
Theoretical treatment of the effects of non-ideal properties is required in the design of large networks
of switches, as for example used in telephone exchanges.

• A fuse is a type of low resistance resistor that acts as a sacrificial device to provide overcurrent
protection, of either the load or source circuit. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that
melts when too much current flows through it, interrupting the circuit that it connects. Short
circuits, overloading, mismatched loads, or device failure are the prime reasons for excessive
current. Fuses can be used as alternatives to circuit breakers.
FUSE is a low resistance device which is placed in the circuit for protection. Under faulty
conditions when the current becomes more than the desired value, then due to the increase in
temperature the fuse wire melts and breaks, thus breaking the circuit. These are used for lower
power ratings and can be used only once, after that it has to be replaced with a new one.

A fuse interrupts an excessive current so that further damage by overheating or fire is prevented.
Wiring regulations often define a maximum fuse current rating for particular circuits. The time and
current operating characteristics of fuses are chosen to provide adequate protection without needless
interruption. Slow blow fuses are designed to allow harmless short term currents over their rating while
still interrupting a sustained overload. Fuses are manufactured in a wide range of current and voltage
ratings to protect wiring systems and electrical equipment. Self-resetting fuses automatically restore
the circuit after the overload has cleared, and are useful in environments where a human replacing a
blown fuse would be difficult or impossible, for example in aerospace or nuclear applications.
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• A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical
circuit from damage caused by excess current from an overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to
interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be
replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation.
Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect low-current circuits or
individual household appliance, up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits. The
generic function of a circuit breaker, RCD or a fuse, as an automatic means of removing power from a
faulty system is often abbreviated as OCPD (Over Current Protection Device).

CIRCUIT BREAKER also solves the same purpose i.e. it breaks the circuit when the fault
occurs. These are used for large ratings and in the power systems and auxiliaries. CB also has
the capability to re-close after the fault is through i.e. when the system gets healthy. The CB has
two parts/contacts one is static and the other is moving (the one responsible for making or
breaking the contacts). When the contacts of CB separate, then it said to have tripped. Tripping
of the circuit breaker has to be very fast so as to avoid the arc formation between the two
contacts, otherwise it will defeat the purpose of installing the CB. The trip signal is given to the
CB by another protective device called as an ELECTRICAL RELAY. CB’s are categorized on the
basis of the power ratings and the medium used to extinguish the arc formed during the breaking
of the contacts.

The circuit breaker must first detect a fault condition. Once a fault is detected, the circuit breaker contacts
must open to interrupt the circuit; this is commonly done using mechanically stored energy contained within
the breaker, such as a spring or compressed air to separate the contacts. Circuit breakers may also use the
higher current caused by the fault to separate the contacts, such as thermal expansion or a magnetic field.
The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also withstand
the heat of the arc produced when interrupting (opening) the circuit. Contacts are made of copper or copper
alloys, silver alloys and other highly conductive materials. When a high current or voltage is interrupted,
an arc is generated. The length of the arc is generally proportional to the voltage while the intensity (or
heat) is proportional to the current. This arc must be contained, cooled and extinguished in a controlled
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way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different
techniques are used to extinguish the arc including:
• Lengthening or deflecting the arc
• Intensive cooling (in jet chambers)
• Division into partial arcs
• Zero point quenching (contacts open at the zero current time crossing of the AC waveform, effectively
breaking no load current at the time of opening. The zero crossing occurs at twice the line frequency;
i.e., 100 times per second for 50 Hz and 120 times per second for 60 Hz AC.)
• Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits.

Arc interruption

Low-voltage miniature circuit breakers (MCB) use air alone to extinguish the arc. These circuit breakers
contain so-called arc chutes, a stack of mutually insulated parallel metal plates that divide and cool the arc.
By splitting the arc into smaller arcs the arc is cooled down while the arc voltage is increased and serves as
an additional impedance that limits the current through the circuit breaker. The current-carrying parts near
the contacts provide easy deflection of the arc into the arc chutes by a magnetic force of a current path,
although magnetic blowout coils or permanent magnets could also deflect the arc into the arc chute (used
on circuit breakers for higher ratings). The number of plates in the arc chute is dependent on the short-
circuit rating and nominal voltage of the circuit breaker.

FRAME OF MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER

The frame of miniature circuit breaker is a molded case. This is a rigid, strong, insulated housing in which
the other components are mounted. Miniature circuit breaker construction is very simple, robust and
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maintenance free. Generally a MCB is not repaired or maintained, it just replaced by new one when
required. A miniature circuit breaker has normally three main constructional parts. These are:

Working Principle Miniature Circuit Breaker

There are two arrangement of operation of miniature circuit breaker. One due to thermal effect of over
current and other due to electromagnetic effect of over current. The thermal operation of miniature circuit
breaker is achieved with a bimetallic strip whenever continuous over current flows through MCB, the
bimetallic strip is heated and deflects by bending. This deflection of bimetallic strip releases mechanical
latch.

As this mechanical latch is attached with operating mechanism, it causes to open the miniature circuit
breaker contacts. But during short circuit condition, sudden rising of current, causes electromechanical
displacement of plunger associated with tripping coil or solenoid of MCB. The plunger strikes the trip lever
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causing immediate release of latch mechanism consequently open the circuit breaker contacts. This was
a simple explanation of miniature circuit breaker working principle.

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OPERATING MECHANISM OF MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER
The operating mechanism of miniature circuit breaker provides the means of manual opening and closing
operation of miniature circuit breaker. It has three-positions "ON," "OFF," and "TRIPPED". The external
switching latch can be in the "TRIPPED" position, if the MCB is tripped due to over-current. When manually
switch off the MCB, the switching latch will be in "OFF" position. In close condition of MCB, the switch is
positioned at "ON". By observing the positions of the switching latch one can determine the condition of
MCB whether it is closed, tripped or manually switched off.

TRIP UNIT OF MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER

The trip unit is the main part, responsible for proper working of miniature circuit breaker. Two main types
of trip mechanism are provided in MCB. A bimetal provides protection against over load current and an
electromagnet provides protection against short-circuit current.

Operation of Miniature Circuit Breaker

There are three mechanisms provided in a single miniature circuit breaker to make it switched off. If we
carefully observe the picture beside, we will find there are mainly one bi - metallic strip, one trip coil and
one hand operated on - off lever. Electric current carrying path of a miniature circuit breaker shown in the
picture is like follows. First left hand side power terminal - then bimetallic strip - then current coil or trip coil -
then moving contact - then fixed contact and - lastly right had side power terminal. All are arranged in
series.
If circuit is overloaded for long time, the bi - metallic strip becomes over heated and deformed.
This deformation of bi metallic strip causes, displacement of latch point. The moving contact of the MCB is
so arranged by means of spring pressure, with this latch point, that a little displacement of latch causes,
release of spring and makes the moving contact to move for opening the MCB.
The current coil or trip coil is placed such a manner that during short circuit fault the mmf of that coil causes
its plunger to hit the same latch point and make the latch to be displaced. Hence the MCB will open in
same manner. Again when operating lever of the miniature circuit breaker is operated by hand, that
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 means when we make the MCB at off position manually, the same latch point is displaced as a result
moving contact separated from fixed contact in same manner. So, whatever may be the operating
mechanism, that means, may be due to deformation of bi - metallic strip, due to increased mmf of trip coil or
may due to manual operation, actually the same latch point is displaced and same deformed spring is
released, which ultimately responsible for movement of the moving contact.
When the the moving contact separated from fixed contact, there may be a high chance of arc. This arc
then goes up through the arc runner and enters into arc splitters and is finally quenched. When we switch
on an MCB, we actually reset the displaced operating latch to its previous on position and make the MCB
ready for another switch off or trip operation.

1.1.2 Describes briefly the principle of the various types of closing mechanism of circuit breakers

The circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed contacts and moving contacts. In normal "ON" condition of
circuit breaker, these two contacts are physically connected to each other due to applied mechanical
pressure on the moving contacts. There is an arrangement stored potential energy in the operating
mechanism of circuit breaker which is released if switching signal is given to the breaker.
The potential energy can be stored in the circuit breaker by different ways like by deforming metal spring,
by compressed air, or by hydraulic pressure. But whatever the source of potential energy, it must be
released during operation. Release of potential energy makes sliding of the moving contact at extremely
fast manner.
All circuit breaker have operating coils (tripping coils and close coil), whenever these coils are energized by
switching pulse, and the plunger inside them displaced. This operating coil plunger is typically attached to
the operating mechanism of circuit breaker, as a result the mechanically stored potential energy in the
breaker mechanism is released in forms of kinetic energy, which makes the moving contact to move as
these moving contacts mechanically attached through a gear lever arrangement with the operating
mechanism.
After a cycle of operation of circuit breaker the total stored energy is released and hence the potential
energy again stored in the operating mechanism of circuit breaker by means of spring charging motor or air
compressor or by any other means. Till now we have discussed about mechanical working principle of
circuit breaker. But there are electrical characteristics of a circuit breaker which also should be considered
in this discussion of operation of circuit breaker.

Types of Circuit Breaker

According different criteria there are different types of circuit breaker.

According to their arc quenching media the circuit breaker can be divided as-

1. Oil circuit breaker.

2. Air circuit breaker.
3. SF6 circuit breaker.
4. Vacuum circuit breaker.
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 According to their services the circuit breaker can be divided as-
1. Outdoor circuit breaker
2. Indoor breaker.

According to the operating mechanism of circuit breaker they can be divided as-
1. Spring operated circuit breaker.
2. Pneumatic circuit breaker.
3. Hydraulic circuit breaker.

According to the voltage level of installation types of circuit breaker are referred as-
1. High voltage circuit breaker.
2. Medium voltage circuit breaker.
3. Low voltage circuit breaker.

Introduction of circuit breakers

All electric circuits needs a switching device and also a protective device. Switchgear is the general term
covering a wide range of equipment connected with switching and protection. A circuit breaker is a
switching and circuit interrupting device. A circuit breaker serves two purposes:

(i) Switching on and off during normal operation for maintenance etc.
(ii) Switching during abnormal conditions- short circuits, earthing etc. to protect the associated equipment.

In short, a circuit breaker is a sort of automatic switch which can interrupt the fault currents. Two important
parts of a circuit breaker that need consideration are:

(i) Arc extinction system

(ii) Relay for operation

Arc Extinction in circuit breakers:

Whenever a circuit carrying current is interrupted by a circuit breaker an

arc is inevitably formed between the contacts which prolongs the current interrupting process for a duration
ranging from 10 to 100 or more milliseconds. Since arc is produced in every circuit breakers, therefore
suitable energy dissipating device must be incorporated in the design of circuit breaker. Unless carefully
controlled, arc can lead to danger of fire or explosion.
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The arc consists of a column of ionized gas i.e. gas in which the molecules have lost one or more of their
negative electrons, leaving positive ions. The negative electrons are attracted towards the positive contact
and being light, more towards it very rapidly. The positive ions attracted towards the negative contact. Due
to electron movement the current flows. The ionization process is accompanied by the emission of light and
heat. Also some portion of power is dissipated as heat. The temperature of arc may be as high as 60000 C.

Methods of arc extinction in circuit breakers :

Two methods commonly used are:

(i) High resistance interruption :

In this the arc is controlled in such a way that its resistance is caused to increase rapidly, thereby reducing
the current until it falls to a value that is insufficient to maintain the ionization process. The arc resistance
may be increased by

(a) Arc lengthening

(b) Arc cooling
(c) Arc splitting

(ii) Low resistance interruption :

In this the arc resistance is kept low, in order to keep the arc energy to a minimum and use is made of a
natural or artificial current zero when the arc extinguishes itself and is then prevented from re striking.

Protection of contacts of circuit breakers :

During arcing mechanical as well as electrical erosion of contacts occurs. Therefore the resistance to
erosion by arching is the important property of contact materials. In case of dc circuits the process of
erosion is represented by loss of material from one contact and the deposition of part of this material on to
the other contact. However, in case of ac circuits there is no marked direction of transfer, as either contact
becomes successively positive and negative.

There are two distinct forms of protections which may be employed with the object of reducing the rate of
erosion of contacts by arcing thereby prolonging their useful life.

(a) Arc dispersion in circuit breakers :

In this the destructive effects of the arc are minimized, using one of the following methods:

1. Oil immersion of contacts

2. Multiple break contacts
3. De ionization of arc path
4. Magnetic blow out of arc
5. Blast principle using air, oil, gas or water.
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(b) Arc prevention in circuit breakers:

In this the occurrence or arc is prevented by reducing the current and voltage below the minimum arcing
values or reducing its destructive effects as far as possible. The principle devices used to quench circuits of
this kind are :

(i) Discharge resistance

(ii) Rectifiers
(iii) Condensers

Circuit breakers:

These are heavy-duty devices capable of interrupting comparatively large electric currents safely. They are
designed not only to carry and interrupt the normal load currents flowing in circuit but also to interrupt any
abnormally high current that may flow under fault conditions such as short circuit. Circuit breakers are
constructed mechanically strong enough to withstand the forces set-up by enormous short-circuit currents.

The ability of a breaker to withstand short circuit forces is expressed in Volt-Amperes, i.e., product of
nominal circuit voltage and the short-circuit current for which the breaker is designed.

Specifications of circuit breakers:

1. Operating voltage of the circuit :

It determines the insulating requirements.
2. Normal operating or maximum load current :
It determines requirements of the normal or load-carrying parts.
3. Maximum abnormal or fault current that must be interrupted :
It determines the mechanical requirements of the breaker itself and of its supporting structure.

Commonly used insulations are:

l. Oil
2. Vacuum
3. Inert gas e.g. sulphur hexafluoride.

Principle of operation of Circuit Breakers :

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The circuit breaker actually makes a physical separation in the current-carrying or conducting element by
inserting an insulating medium sufficient to prevent current from continuing to flow. In so doing, the
persistence of an arc across the gap is prevented.

The circuit is usually opened by drawing out an arc between contacts until the arc can no longer support
itself. The arc formed when the contacts of a circuit breaker move apart to interrupt of a circuit is a
conductor made up of ionized particles of the insulating materials. Whenever voltages and currents are
large other forms of insulation are used in place or air to extinguish the arc as quickly as possible.

Whenever fault occurs in the circuit breaker, relay connected to the current transformer CT actuates and
closes its contacts. Current flows from the battery in the trip circuit As soon as the trip coil of the circuit
breaker gets energized the circuit breaker operating mechanism is actuated and it operates for the opening
mechanism.

Thus relay forms a vital part of a circuit breaker. Various types of relays used are given below:

Relay Operation

1.Differential relay Responds to vector difference between two or more similar electrical quantities.

Operates when the impedance between relay point and fault point is below a
2.Impedance relay
specified value.

Responds to increase in current. The relay operates when the current exceeds a
3.Over current relay
present level

Instantaneous
4. A quick operating relay (less than 0.2-second operating times).
relay

A relay without moving parts. In this the measurement is performed by a stationary

5.Static relay
circuit.

Types of Circuit Breakers:

Type Medium Range

Low voltage Up to l000

1.Air break C.B. Air at atmospheric pressure
V

2.Tank type oil circuit breaker Dielectric oil Up to 33 kV

36 kV, 1500 MVA

3.Minimum oil circuit breaker Dielectric oil
132 kV, 3000 MVA
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 Compressed air (pressure 20 to 30 132 kV, 220 kV
4.Air blast C.B.
atmospheres) 400 kV, 760 kV

132 k V, 220 kV
5.SF6 C.B. SF6 gas
400 kV, 760 kV.

6.Vacuum C.B. Vacuum 11 kV. 33 kV

High voltage direct current

7. Vacuum or SF6 ± 500 kV DC.
C.B.

1. Air circuit breakers :

An air circuit breaker employs air as the interrupting insulation medium. Of all the insulating media
mentioned, air is the most easily ionized and, hence, arcs formed in air tend to be serve and
persistent. The switching elements for an air current, breaker, consists of main and auxiliary contacts. The
auxiliary contacts open before the main contacts do, and the arc is drawn on them, thereby avoiding serve
pitting of the main contacts.

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2. Oil Circuit Breakers :

Oil circuit breakers have their contacts immersed in insulating oil. They are used to open and close high-
voltage circuits carrying relatively large currents in situations where air circuit breakers would be impractical
because of the danger of the exposed arcs that might be formed. When the contacts are drawn apart, the
oil covering them tends to quench the arc by its cooling effect and by the gases thereby generated, which
tend to "blow out" the arc. At the instant the contacts part, the arc formed at each contact not only displaces
the oil but decomposes it, creating gas and a carbon residue. If these carbon particles were to remain in
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place, as a conductor they would tend to sustain the arc formed. However, the violence of the gas and the
resulting turbulence of the oil disperse these particles and they eventually settle to the bottom of the tank.
The insulating oil normally used as a dielectric strength of around 30 kV per one tenth of an inch (compared
to a similar value of 1 kV for air). Oil is also an effective cooling medium.

3. Vacuum Circuit Breaker :

Here the contacts are drawn apart in a chamber from which air has been evacuated. The electric arc is
essentially an electric conductor made up of ionized air. Thus, if there is no air, theoretically the arc cannot
form. In practice, however, a perfect vacuum is not likely to be obtained. The small residual amount of air
that may exist permits only a small arc to be formed and one of only a very short direction. The same
vacuum however, will not dissipate the heat generated as readily as other insulating media. This type of
breaker has certain advantages in terms of its size and simplicity.

4. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) breaker :

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 This type of breaker is similar to the vacuum types of breaker except that the vacuum is replaced by an
inert non-toxic, odorless gas-sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). This gas, extinguished the arc so rapidly as almost
to prevent its formation. It is also excellent heat-dissipating characteristics, and its dielectric strength is very
much greater than that of oil. The breakers are constructed to modules capable of operation at voltages
from 34.4 kV at gas pressure of 45 psi to 362 kV at 240 psi. By connecting two or three such modules in
series, breaker capable of operating at 800 kV at 240 psi can be constructed with two-three-cycle
interrupting time. Features of sulphur hexafluoride interrupting module.

Terms associated with circuit breakers:

1. ARCING TIME :
Time between separation of circuit breaker contacts and Final current zero.
2. DEAD TIME :
Time between final current zero of first opening and contact touch during subsequent re closing.
3. DE IONIZING TIME :
Time for de ionizing the arc space after opening of circuit breaker.
4. FAULT CLEARING TIME :
Time between occurrence of fault and closing of tripping contacts or energizing of shunt trip release.
5. OPENING TIME :
Time between energizing of shunt trip release and opening of circuit breaker contacts.
6. RATED SHORT CIRCUIT BREAKING CURRENT :
The rated short circuit breaker current of a circuit breaker is the highest value of short circuit which a circuit
breaker is capable of breaking under specified conditions of recovery voltage and power frequency
recovery voltage.
7. RELAY TIME :
Time between occurrence.of fault and closure of relay contacts.

Working Principle of Air Circuit Breaker

The working principle of this breaker is rather different from those in any other types of circuit breakers. The
main aim of all kind of circuit breaker is to prevent the reestablishment of arcing after current zero by
creating a situation where in the contact gap will withstand the system recovery voltage.

The air circuit breaker does the same but in different manner. For interrupting arc it creates an arc voltage
in excess of the supply voltage. Arc voltage is defined as the minimum voltage required maintaining the arc.
This circuit breaker increases the arc voltage by mainly three different ways,

1. It may increase the arc voltage by cooling the arc plasma. As the temperature of arc plasma is
decreased, the mobility of the particle in arc plasma is reduced, hence more voltage gradient is required
to maintain the arc.
2. It may increase the arc voltage by lengthening the arc path. As the length of arc path is increased, the
resistance of the path is increased, and hence to maintain the same arc current more voltage is required
to be applied across the arc path. That means arc voltage is increased.
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3. Splitting up the arc into a number of series arcs also increases the arc voltage.

OPERATION OF ACB

The first objective is usually achieved by forcing the arc into contact with as large an area as possible of
insulating material. Every air circuit breaker is fitted with a chamber surrounding the contact. This chamber
is called 'arc chute'. The arc is driven into it. If inside of the arc chute is suitably shaped, and if the arc can
be made conform to the shape, the arc chute wall will help to achieve cooling. This type of arc chute should
be made from some kind of refractory material. High temperature plastics reinforced with glass fiber and
ceramics are preferable materials for making arc chute.

The second objective that is lengthening the arc path, is achieved concurrently with fist objective. If the
inner walls of the arc chute is shaped in such a way that the arc is not only forced into close proximity with it
but also driven into a serpentine channel projected on the arc chute wall. The lengthening of the arc path
increases the arc resistance.

The third technique is achieved by using metal arc slitter inside the arc chute. The main arc chute is
divided into numbers of small compartments by using metallic separation plates. These metallic separation
plates are actually the arc splitters and each of the small compartments behaves as individual mini arc
chute. In this system the initial arc is split into a number of series arcs, each of which will have its own mini
arc chute. So each of the split arcs has its own cooling and lengthening effect due to its own mini arc chute
and hence individual split arc voltage becomes high. These collectively, make the overall arc voltage, much
higher than the system voltage.

This was working principle of air circuit breaker now we will discuss in details the operation of ACB in
practice. The air circuit breaker, operated within the voltage level 1 KV, does not require any arc control
device. Mainly for heavy fault current on low voltages (low voltage level above 1 KV) ABCs with appropriate
arc control device, are good choice. These breakers normally have two pairs of contacts. The main pair of
contacts carries the current at normal load and these contacts are made of copper. The additional pair is
the arcing contact and is made of carbon. When circuit breaker is being opened, the main contacts open
first and during opening of main contacts the arcing contacts are still in touch with each other. As the
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current gets, a parallel low resistive path through the arcing contact during opening of main contacts, there
will not be any arcing in the main contact.
The arcing is only initiated when finally the arcing contacts are separated. The each of the arc contacts is
fitted with an arc runner which helps, the arc discharge to move upward due to both thermal and
electromagnetic effects as shown in the figure. As the arc is driven upward it enters in the arc chute,
consisting of splitters. The arc in chute will become colder, lengthen and split hence arc voltage becomes
much larger than system voltage at the time of operation of air circuit breaker, and therefore the arc is
quenched finally during the current zero (In this method the resistance kept low until current is zero).
Although this type of circuit breakers have become obsolete for medium voltage application, but they are
still preferable choice for high current rating in low voltage application.

4.1.3 Lists the ways in which a circuit breaker can be tripped.

A circuit breaker is designed to break circuits so that electrical shorts, faults or excessive power draw on a
system doesn't cause fires.
Manual Trip
Some molded case circuit breakers, especially larger breakers, can be manually tripped by pressing the
“PUSH TO TRIP” button on the face of the circuit breaker. When the button is pressed the tripper bar
rotates up and to the right. This allows the trip mechanism to “unlock” releasing the operating
mechanism.
The operating mechanism opens the contacts.
The “PUSH TO TRIP” button also serves as a safety device by preventing access to the circuit breaker
interior in the “ON” position. If an attempt is made to remove the circuit breaker cover while the contacts
are in the closed (“ON”) position, a spring located under the pushbutton causes the button to lift up and
the breaker to trip.

Manual trip mechanism

Overload Trip
Thermal-magnetic circuit breakers employ a bi-metalic strip to sense overload conditions. When sufficient
overcurrent flows through the circuit breaker’s current path, heat build up causes the bi-metalic strip to
bend. After bending a predetermined distance, the bi-metalic strip makes contact with the tripper bar
20

activating the trip mechanism.

 Thermal-magnetic circuit breakers employ a bi-metalic strip to sense overload conditions.

Circuit breaker contacts

A bi-metalic strip is made of two dissimilar metals bonded together. The two metals have different
thermal expansion characteristics, so the bi-metalic strip bends when heated. As current rises, heat also
rises. The hotter the bi-metalic becomes the more it bends. After the source of heat is removed, as when
the circuit breaker contacts open, the bi-metalic strip cools and returns to its original condition. This
allows a circuit breaker to be manually reset once the overload condition has been corrected.

Short Circuit Trip

As previously described, current flow through a circuit breaker’s blow-apart contacts creates opposing
magnetic fields. Under normal operating conditions, these opposing forces are not sufficient to separate
the contacts. When a short circuit occurs, however, these opposing forces increase significantly.

Short Circuit Trip

The current that flows through the contacts also flows through a conductor that passes close to the circuit
breaker’s trip unit. At fault current levels, the magnetic field surrounding this conductor provides sufficient
force to unlatch the trip unit and trip the breaker. The combined actions of magnetic fields forcing
21

contacts apart while simultaneously tripping the circuit breaker result in rapid interruption of the fault
current. In addition, because the magnetic forces are proportional to the current, the greater the fault
current, the shorter the time it takes to interrupt the current.

1.1.4 Explains the purpose of interlocks fitted to circuit breakers.

Most switchboards and motor control centres are fitted with a variety of electrical and mechanical safety
interlocking devices.
Their purposes are to protect against for example:
• Withdrawing the switching device while it is carrying load or fault current.
• Prevent the switching mechanism from being inserted when it is in its ‘on’ state.
• Opening of access doors or panels before setting the switching device in its ‘off’ state.
• Gaining physical access by human operators while the main conductors and contacts are
energised.
• Gaining access to the busbars when the switching devices have been withdrawn.
• To prevent earthing switches from being closed on to live circuits or busbars.
• Incorrect electrical operation of a complex process system in which various external
devices, motors, pumps, etc. are intimately related. For example a lubrication oil pump must be
running before the main drive motor is started on a pump or compressor.

Most of the above interlocks are mechanical latches, bolts and shutters.
The last category is electrical functions using wired relays or electronic logic. Electrical interlocking is
also used to ensure that certain closing and tripping functions take place in a particular sequence.

1.1.5 Lists the essential services which are supplied by electrical power
The distribution system is the means by which the electrical energy produced by the generators is
distributed to the various motors, lighting, galley services, navigation aids, etc. which comprise the ship's
electrical load.
Essential services are those required for the safety of personnel and for the safe navigation and
Propulsion of the ship. They include certain supplies to navigational aids, machinery spaces,
control stations and steering gear. The essential services may be supplied directly from the main
switchboard or via section boards or distribution boards

1.1.6 Explains the purpose of an emergency power supply

Emergency supply
An emergency electrical power service must be provided on board in the event of a main power failure.
Such a supply is required for emergency lighting, alarms, communications, watertight doors and other
services necessary to maintain safety and to permit safe evacuation of the ship.
Regulations require that the emergency power source be a generator, or batteries, or both. The emergency
power source must be self-contained and not dependent upon any other engine room power supply. A
battery when fully charged is obviously self-contained. An emergency generator must have an internal
22
combustion engine as prime mover and have its own fuel supply tank, starting equipment and switchboard
in the. near vicinity.

1.1.7 States the possible sources of emergency power supply and how they are brought into use.
The emergency power source must come into action following a total mains failure. Emergency batteries
can be arranged to be switched into service immediately following a main power failure.
Emergency generators can be hand cranked, but are usually automatically started by compressed air or a
battery to ensure immediate run-up following a main power failure.
Although regulations may permit a battery to be the sole source of emergency power, in practice a suitable
battery may be physically very large and hence a diesel driven generator is usually installed with its own
small starting battery or air-start supply. Other small batteries may also be installed to locally supply control
and communication equipment.
Emergency generator means a stationary combustion device, such as a reciprocating internal combustion
engine or turbine that serves solely as a secondary source of mechanical or electrical power whenever the
primary energy supply is disrupted or discontinued during power outages or natural disasters that are
beyond the control of the owner or operator of a facility. An emergency generator operates only during
emergency situations, for training of personnel under simulated emergency conditions, as part of
emergency demand response procedures, or for standard performance testing procedures as required by
law or by the generator manufacturer. A generator that serves as a back-up power source under conditions
of load shedding, peak shaving, power interruptions pursuant to an interruptible power service agreement,
or scheduled facility maintenance shall not be considered an emergency generator.

The emergency generator must be capable of being readily started in their cold condition at a temperature
of 0'C (32'F). If this is impracticable or if lower temperatures are likely to be encountered, heating
arrangements must be operational. The flash point of the fuel must be not less than 43ºC (110ºF) as the
generator is located above the uppermost continuous deck. This means that the fuel system can be
affected by solar radiation especially in tropical and equatorial climates. In other words, the mere selection
of such a fuel will alleviate the possibility of an unwarranted fire or explosion.
Each emergency generator arranged to be automatically started, is to be equipped with starting devices
with a stored energy capability for at least three consecutive starts. The source of stored energy is to be
protected from critical depletion (i.e., not to be depleted beyond a level where starting by manual
intervention is still possible) by the automatic starting system, unless a second independent means of
starting is provided. In addition, another source of energy is to be provided for an additional three starts
within thirty minutes unless manual starting can be demonstrated to be effective.

The stored energy for starting the emergency generator set is to be maintained at all times, as follows:

1. Electrical and hydraulic starting systems are to be maintained from the emergency switchboard.

2. If started by air, a dedicated air bottle and compressor is usually provided. Compressed air starting
systems may be maintained by the main or auxiliary compressed air receivers through a suitable
23
 non-return valve or by an emergency air compressor which, if electrically driven, is supplied from the
emergency switchboard.

3. All of these starting, charging and energy storing devices are to be located in the emergency
generator space; these devices are not to be used for any purpose other than the operation of the
emergency generating set. The air receiver of the emergency generator may also be supplied from
the main or auxiliary compressed air system through a non-return valve fitted in the emergency
generator space.

Operation
On passenger ships, regulations require that the primary emergency power supply be provided by a diesel
driven generator for up to 36 hours. (18 hours for non-passenger vessels).
In addition, an emergency transitional battery must also be installed to maintain vital services (mainly
lighting) for a short period - typically a minimum of 3 hours. This emergency battery is to ensure that a total
blackout cannot occur in the transitional period between loss of main power and the connection of the
emergency generator.

1.1.8 Draws a system diagram of a typical distribution system, showing:

a. main generators
b. emergency generators
c. shore supply
d. battery charging
e. 440 volt supply
f. 220 volt supply
g. circuit breakers
h. transformers

Fig. 2.2
A typical ship's distribution system is shown in Fig. 2.2. The system incorporates emergency power
supplies. There is no standard electrical supply arrangement, all ships differing in some respect. It will be
24
seen that both the main and the emergency consumers' are supplied by the main service generators during
normal operating conditions. In the event of an emergency, only the emergency services are supplied by
the emergency generator.
The emergency power system must be ready and available at all times. Such reliability requires special
care and maintenance. At regular intervals it must be tested to confirm that it does operate correctly. The
testing is normally carried out during the weekly emergency fire and boat drill practice sessions. The main
generators are not shut down but the emergency power sources are energised and connected to supply the
emergency services for the period of the practice session.

The regulations governing the emergency source of power are detailed in International Conventions, e.g.
SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea), National regulations, e.g. IEE Regulations for the
Electrical and Electronic Equipment of Ships (UK) and in the regulations of the Classification Societies such
as Lloyds, Det Norske Veritas, etc.

Transformers
Electrical generation on board ship is typically at 3-phase a.c., 440 V, 60 Hz while fixed lighting and other
low power loads are supplied with 220 V a.c. single-phase from very efficient
(typically > 90%) static transformer units. Ships with HV generation require 3-phase transformers to supply
the LV engine-room and accommodation subswitchboards e.g. using 6600/440 units.
The principle of operation of a single-phase transformer is simple. An applied a.c. voltage V1 to the primary
winding sets up an alternating magnetic flux in the laminated steel core.
The flux induces an emf in the secondary whose size is fixed by the ratio of primary and secondary turns in
the pair of phase windings (N1 and N2) to

The secondary voltage V2 is available to drive current through a load.

It is the load connected to the secondary that sets the size and power factor angle of the load current I2.
This is matched on the primary side from:

Transformers are rated in apparent power (VA or kVA) units.

25
1.1.9 By means of simple sketches, shows the difference between insulated systems and earthed-
neutral systems.

Fig. 1.1.9 Insulated and earthed neutral systems

1.2 Explain the of Insulation

One of the most important factors that can affect the performance and life span of an electrical equipment
onboard ship is an insulation resistance for internal and external wiring or cables. By knowing the
properties of the cables been used, insulation resistance can be determined which eventually give an
indication to the state of health of that particular machinery. By knowing how to prevent the deterioration in
cabling, maintained high level of cable healthy, this will eventually reduce the unnecessary cost due to
marine environment.
An insulator is a substance that will not allow free flow of electricity. In electrical apparatus, machines
and cables, insulation is used to:
1) Keep electric current in the conductors.
2) Prevent currents from taking leakage paths.
3) Prevent contact with other live wires.
26
Insulation resistance tests can only be carried out where it is possible to safely isolate the supply. All
electronic equipment susceptible to damage should be disconnected or alternatively the insulation
resistance test should be made between line and neutral conductors connected together and earth. Where
practicable the tests should be carried out on the whole of the installation with all switches closed and all
fuse links in place. Where this is not possible, the installation may be subdivided by testing each separate
distribution board one at a time. BS 7671 Table 61 states a minimum acceptable resistance value of 1
megohms. However, if the measured value is less than 2 megohms then further investigation is required to
determine the cause of the low reading. Where individual items of equipment are disconnected for these
tests and the equipment has exposed conductive parts, then the insulation resistance of each item of
equipment should be checked. In the absence of any other requirements, the minimum value of insulation
resistance between live components and the exposed metal frame of the equipment should be not less
than 1 megohms.

1.2.1 Explains what is meant by an insulator and the purpose of insulation

An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current. Insulating materials include paper,
plastic, rubber, glass and air. Vacuum is also an insulator, but is not actually a material. Most electrical
conductors are covered by insulation. Insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and separate
electrical conductors without allowing current through themselves. An insulating material used in bulk to
wrap electrical cables or other equipment is called insulation.
Any item that carries an electrical current is designed to do so safely and with some type of insulation. The
insulation limits the flow of current between the different conductors and between the conductors to ground.
It is therefore very important that the insulation has the opposite transfer properties of the conductor.
Conductors are usually metallic. The most common are copper or aluminium, both of which are known to
be very good conductors of electric current due to the metals’ high current carrying capacity and constant
thermal properties.
Insulation is usually made from a non-metallic material. The majority of electrical insulation is made of PVC,
plastic, or rubber. It should resist current and keep it within the path alongside the conductor. Many of the
best insulators are man-made.
In theory, insulation should not carry electrical current. However, in reality, there isn't a perfect insulating
material. Every kind of insulation offers resistance; usually, the material's resistance is very high, however,
it is not infinite. Obviously, the higher the resistance, the better the insulation capacity the material has.
Insulation resistance is a measure of opposition offered to the current by the insulating materials. The
insulation resistance is affected by moisture and dirt and therefore it is good indicator of deterioration of
insulation resistance from such causes.

1.2.2 Describes leakage in an insulated cable

For shielded cable, insulation is used to limit current leakage between the phase conductor and ground
or between two conductors of differing potential. As long as the leakage current does not exceed a
specific design limit, the cable is judged good and is able to deliver electrical energy to a load efficiently .
27
Cable insulation may be considered good when leakage current is negligible but since there is no perfect
insulator even good insulation allows some small amount of leakage current measured in microamperes.

This is the resistance measured during a test using a Megger Insulation Tester. Current flowing through
this resistance is measured when performing a DC Hipot Test as shown in Figure 1.

28
The electrical equivalent circuit of a good run of cable is shown in Figure 2. If the insulation were perfect,
the parallel resistance RP would not exist and the insulation would appear as strictly capacitance. Since
no insulation is perfect, the parallel or insulation resistance exists.
When the magnitude of the leakage current exceeds the design limit, the cable will no longer deliver
energy efficiently. See Figure 3.
All insulation deteriorates naturally with age, especially when exposed to elevated temperature due to
high loading and even when it is not physically damaged. In this case, there is a distributed flow o f
leakage current during a test or while energized.

1.2.3 Explains why the insulation resistance of large installations is normally relatively lower than
those of small installations
Open the hood of your car. You will see some thick cables running to the spark plugs. These have thin
copper inside thick insulation - this is because they need to contain up to 100,000 volts, but very low
current. Now look at the cables to the battery. Thick cables again, but this time thick copper, and thin
insulation. The insulation only has to cope with 12 volts, but when your starting the engine, over 100 amps
will flow, so thick copper.
Insulation resistance of electrical equipment is affected by many variables such as the equipment design; the
type of insulating material used, including binders and impregnating compounds; the thickness of the
insulation and its area; cleanliness, moisture and temperature. For insulation resistance readings to be a
conclusive measure of the condition of the equipment being tested, these variables must be taken into
consideration. After the equipment has been put into service, factors such as the design of the equipment,
the kind of insulating material used, and its thickness and area cease to be variables, allowing minimum
insulation resistance values to be established within reasonable tolerances. The variables that must be
considered after the equipment had been put into service, and at the time that the insulation resistance
measurements are being made, are cleanliness, moisture, temperature and mechanical damage (such as
fractures). The test, therefore, determines how effective the dielectric (insulation) is in resisting the flow of
electrical current. The actual resistance values can be higher or lower, depending upon such factors as the
temperature or moisture content of the insulation (resistance decreases in temperature or moisture). ... The
Megger insulation tester is essentially a high-range resistance meter (ohmmeter) with a built-in direct-
current generator.

1.2.4 Describes the factors which affect the value of insulation resistance
Wire and cable in use, its insulation resistance value is not constant, the impact of wire and cable insulation
resistance value of many factors, including four factors are the biggest impact, we will understand these
points, to ensure that our wire and cable can avoid these factors to operate normally.

❶Temperature effect
As the temperature increases, the insulation resistance coefficient decreases. This is due to an increase in
thermal motion, the generation and migration of ions. Under the action of voltage, the conduction current
29

formed by the ion movement increases and the insulation resistance decreases. Therefore, when in use,
we should try our best to let the wire and cable avoid the heat source. When the home installs the wire and
runs through the tube, we should also ensure that there is enough space to send out heat

❷The influence of electric field intensity

When the electric field intensity is in a relatively low range, the ionic mobility increases proportionally with
the increase of the electric field intensity. The ionic current and electric field intensity follow ohm's law.
When the electric field intensity is relatively high, with the increase of the electric field intensity, the ionic
mobility gradually changes from a linear relationship to an exponential one. When the electric field intensity
approaches the breakdown, a large amount of electron migration will occur, and the insulation resistance
coefficient will be greatly reduced.

❸Influence of humidity
Due to the great conductivity of water, the size of water molecules is much smaller than that of polymer
molecules. Under the action of heat, polymer macromolecules and constituent chains move relatively,
making water molecules can easily permeate into the polymer, increasing the conductive ions in the
polymer and reducing the insulation resistance.

❹The effect of material purity

Impurities in the material increase the conductive particles in the material and reduce the insulation
resistance. Therefore, to a certain extent the insulation resistance reflects the purity of the material and
verifies whether it meets the standard. In the production process of electric wire and cable, the process
does not strictly follow the operating rules, the mixed impurities and materials are affected by damp and
foaming, the deviation of insulation core or the outside diameter size is less than the standard, the
insulation layer or crack, the insulation scratch, etc. Will reduce the insulation resistance of the product.
Therefore, in order to check the insulation resistance, it is necessary to check whether there are any
problems in the process operation. In the use of electric wires and cables, measuring the change of
insulation resistance can also check the insulation damage to prevent accidents

1.2.5 Explains why the current-carrying capacity of a machine is governed by its insulation
During periods of idleness, absorption of moisture that condenses on the insulation occurs. Condensation
of moisture on electrical apparatus results when the surface temperature falls below the dew point.
So, if the temperature within the machine is kept several degrees higher than the ambient, condensation
will not take place.

Therefore, it is safer to check insulation resistance before starting a machine which has been idle for a long
time. Space heaters should be used to keep the insulation dry during idling time. Electric lamps can also be
placed on the housing of machines to prevent the condensation of moisture and tarpaulin covering may be
used to conserve heat and reduce the amount of energy required.
Propulsion generators and motors for shipboard use have built in heaters for this purpose. Controllers for
deck winches are similarly equipped.
30
1.2.6 Describes what is meant by insulation resistance and explains how it often deteriorates
Insulation is affected by many factors such as:

MOISTURE
Moisture absorbed in the windings or condensed on the surface of insulation results in a decrease in the
measured values of insulation resistance.
Failure of stator insulation due to dampness is a major problem with marine motors.

DUST AND DIRT DEPOSITS

Accumulation of dust and dirt in machines has two effects:
On INSULATION, particularly on surfaces between exposed live parts of opposite polarity and between live
parts and earthed metal housing, it forms a low resistance path foe leakage current i.e. TRACKING.
Surface deposits can thus reduce insulation resistance.
A Earthed fixing clamp.
B Insulation material
C Surface deposit of moisture, oil, dirt etc. on insulation.
D Current carrying conductor
E Flow of leakage current (also called tracking).

Tracking may in time carbonize the surface deposits and eventually cause an insulation failure and burnt
out.

HEAT DISSIPATION
Dust and dirt prevent dissipation of heat from the insulation windings. A thick layer of dust will reduce heat
dissipation and result in very high temperatures. Ventilation ducts become clogged with dirt, thereby
restricting free flow of ventilation air.
Low heat dissipation increases the machine temperature and causes thermal degrading of insulation i.e.
insulation oxidizes and becomes brittle. Insulation failure ultimately occurs.

OIL AND GREASE

Contamination by oil and grease from the motor bearings is often a cause of insulation failure. Broken or
missing bearing covers, over greasing cause grease to escape along the shaft and deposit on insulation.
Oil and grease prevent heat dissipation and cause dust and dirt to settle on the insulation windings.
31
EFFECT OF AGEING
The insulation used in electrical machinery does not last forever. It gradually deteriorates. This is affected
by many factors such as temperature, electrical and mechanical stresses, vibration, moisture, dirt,
chemicals etc. Some varnishes tend to harden with age to such an extent that cracks are formed and
moisture is admitted.

EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPRATURE VIBRATION ON INSULATION MATERIAL

The majority of insulation material cannot withstand temperatures in excess of 100 ºC. All electrical
equipment heats up when carrying load current with consequent rise in temperature. Excessive
temperatures tend to dehydrate and oxidize the insulation, making it brittle and disintegrate under vibration
and shock.

OPERATING TEMPERATURE OF INSULATION

The insulation used in electrical machinery does not last forever. It gradually deteriorates, slowly at low
temperatures and more rapidly at higher temperatures. The greater the load, the higher the temperature
and shorter the life. Thus the question of how hot a machine may safely be operated can be answered by
only how long a life is desired for the machine.

1.2.7 Describes the materials and general physical characteristics of insulation materials and the
factors and conditions which cause deterioration
Heat is the prime cause which leads to electrical insulation deterioration. Some possible causes of heat
generation in the electrical insulation are as follows:

• Heat is generated in the electrically stressed insulation, due to dielectric loss and conduction currents.
• Heat is imparted to insulation by the neighbouring current carrying parts

Now if we look at the dissipation of heat from the insulation, then heat is lost in insulator by conduction,
convection and radiation. Special cooling facility is provided wherever necessary. As the resistivity of some
dielectric materials decreases with increase in temperature whereas the loss angle increases. Thermal
equilibrium implies a stable temperature at which the heat lost is equal to heat gained. If thermal stability is
lost (say, due to inadequate cooling), the temperature rises indefinitely, leading to insulation failure.
Every 10°C rise in temperature above the limit, reduces the insulation resistance as well as its expected life
by around half. At prolonged high temperature, the organic insulating materials start to dry and become brittle,
which leads to build up of tracks.

Following are the main causes of electrical insulation deterioration:

Formation of Track
Tracking is formation of permanent conducting path along the surface of insulator. Following are the causes
of track formation in electrical insulation:
• Degradation of surface due to sparking.
• Presence of conduction film along the surface of insulator due moisture, dirt, salt layer, etc.
32
 • Mechanism of sparking along the surface arising due to breaking of leakage currents along the
surface.

Presence of Oxygen and Humidity

Some organic and inorganic insulation material oxidise in presence of oxygen, ozone particularly when
exposed to light. Polyethylene oxidises when exposed to bright sun-light. Rubber oxidises and cracks when
exposed to light.
Some materials absorb moisture and lose electrical and mechanical strength under humid conditions due to
hydrolysis, polythelene, cellulose esters, other polyesters are typical examples of such materials. Thus
oxygen and moisture lead to insulation deterioration.

Excess Electrical Stress

Electrical Stress is one of the most important reason for insulation deterioration. The discharge occurs on the
surface or within the insulator wherever the stresses exceed breakdown value. The surface discharge is
caused by higher electrical stresses than permitted value.

Chemical Deterioration
The stability of organic insulation material increases with time and temperature. Paper losses its mechanical
strength within a few days at temperature of the order of 150°C, even if it is protected from moisture and air.
Oxygen and moisture cause rapid deterioration at such temperatures.
Moisture causes deterioration of transformer oil and other insulation materials whether solid / liquid / gaseous.
Moisture creates special problems in enclosed equipment. The moisture gets condensed on insulator surface
and cause flashover.
At temperature of 400-500°C, mica products slowly deteriorates, both electrically and mechanically.

Mechanical Stress
Some components are weak in tensile load, some are weak on impact load, and therefore components may
fail due to excessive mechanical stresses. Vibration are unavoidable at many places in industries and this is
one of the main reason for insulation failure.

Incompatibility of Dielectric Material

Incompatibility means not suitable to be used together. Some dielectric materials are not suitable in particular
assemblies because of their incompatibility with surrounding materials. For example, some synthetic
materials deteriorate rapidly when placed adjacent to current carrying copper at temperature of about 80° C.
Thus compatibility is one thing which must be taken care while selecting the material for insulation.

1.2.8 States the maximum temperature which common insulation materials can withstand and the
maximum ambient air temperature used in design
When subjected to a high enough voltage, insulators suffer from the phenomenon of electrical breakdown.
When the electric field applied across an insulating substance exceeds in any location the threshold
breakdown field for that substance, the insulator suddenly becomes a conductor, causing a large increase
33
in current, an electric arc through the substance. Electrical breakdown occurs when the electric field in the
material is strong enough to accelerate free charge carriers (electrons and ions, which are always present
at low concentrations) to a high enough velocity to knock electrons from atoms when they strike
them, ionizing the atoms. These freed electrons and ions are in turn accelerated and strike other atoms,
creating more charge carriers, in a chain reaction. Rapidly the insulator becomes filled with mobile charge
carriers, and its resistance drops to a low level. In a solid, the breakdown voltage is proportional to the band
gap energy. When corona discharge occurs, the air in a region around a high-voltage conductor can break
down and ionise without a catastrophic increase in current. However, if the region of air breakdown extends
to another conductor at a different voltage it creates a conductive path between them, and a large current
flows through the air, creating an electric arc. Even a vacuum can suffer a sort of breakdown, but in this
case the breakdown or vacuum arc involves charges ejected from the surface of metal electrodes rather
than produced by the vacuum itself.
In addition, all insulators become conductors at very high temperatures as the thermal energy of the
valence electrons is sufficient to put them in the conduction band.

The following are brief explanations of those insulation techniques.

i) Class-Y insulation: Withstands a temperature of up to 90°C; typically made of cotton, silk,
or paper
ii) Class-A insulation: Withstands a temperature of up to 105°C; reinforced Class-Y
materials with impregnated varnish or insulation oil
iii) Class-E insulation: Withstands a temperature of up to 120°C
iv) Class-B insulation: Withstands a temperature of up to 130°C. This has a form that
inorganic material is hardened with adhesives. This is the first insulator using this structure.
v) Class-F insulation: Withstands a temperature of up to 155°C; for example, made of
Class-B materials that are upgraded with adhesives, silicone, and alkyd-resin varnish of
higher thermal endurance
vi) Class H insulation: Withstands a temperature of up to 180°C; for example, made of
inorganic material glued with silicone resin or adhesives of equivalent performance
vii) Class-C insulation: Withstands a temperature of up to 180°C or higher; made of 100%
inorganic material

As explained above, electrical insulation is classified with its maximum allowable temperature.
By adopting an insulation technique of higher thermal endurance, electric instruments can be
downsized.
34
 Table 1.34. Typical Insulating Materials for Use at Temperatures Higher Than Ambient

Approximate Normal
Maximum Bulk
Operating Density
Material Physical Forms Type Temperature kg/m3
Aluminium silicate Loosefill (Loosefill Fibrous 1260 80 to 100
materials should be
packed to densities to
suit the application
and thermal
conductivity
required.)
Spray-applied Fibrous 1260 150 to
250
Blanket felt Fibrous 1260 50 to 150
Paper Fibrous 1260 200
Ropes Fibrous 1260 100 to
150
Calcium silicate Plastic composition Granular 1000 160 to
320
Slabs/lags Granular 1010 160 to
320
Preformed pipe Granular 800 190 to
sections 260
Cellular glass Slabs and pipe Cellular 400 130 to
sections 160
Insulating Plastic composition Granular 1000 250 to
compositions 1100
Magnesia Plastic composition Granular 310 180 to
220
Preformed slabs Granular 310 180 to
220
Preformed pipe Granular 310 180 to
sections 220
Mineral wool Rigid slabs/lags Fibrous 230 15 to 100
(glass)
Preformed pipe Fibrous 400 60 to 100
sections
Flexible mats Fibrous 230 15 to 35
Lamella mat Fibrous 230 20 to 40
Mineral wool (rock) Loose wool Fibrous 850 20 to 150
35
 Approximate Normal
Maximum Bulk
Operating Density
Material Physical Forms Type Temperature kg/m3
Resin-bonded Fibrous 750 20 to 200
slabs/lags
Inorganically bonded Fibrous 1100 80 to 150
Slabs/lags Fibrous 230 Up to 45
Preformed pipe Fibrous 850 90 to 130
sections
Flexible mats Fibrous 850 30 to 48
Wired mattresses Fibrous 230 140
Lamella mat Fibrous 650 240 to
250
Mineral wool Sprayed Fibrous 650 100 to
/cement/binder 300
Perlite Loosefill (Loosefill Granular 870 40 to 150
materials should be
packed to densities to
suit the application
and thermal
conductivity
required.)
Preformed slabs and
sections
Phenolic rigid foam Preformed slabs and Cellular 120 35 to 200
pipe sections and
foamed in situ
Polyurethane rigid Preformed slabs and Cellular 110 30 to 160
foam pipe sections,
sprayed, and foamed
in situ
Polyethylene Preformed pipe Cellular 80 30 to 40
sections
Polyisocyanurate Preformed slabs and Cellular 140 30 to 60
rigid foam pipe sections and
foamed in situ
Polyurethane Blanket, slab, and Cellular 70 30 to 65
flexible foam pipe sections
Silica, microporous Loosefill (Loosefill Fibrous 1000 50
materials should be
packed to densities to
suit the application
and thermal
conductivity
36

required.)
 Approximate Normal
Maximum Bulk
Operating Density
Material Physical Forms Type Temperature kg/m3
Blanket felt Fibrous 1000 50 to 500
Cloth tapes Fibrous 1000 500 to
800
Opacified aerogel, Granular 950 200 to
slatted 300
Stainless steel Plain and dimpled foil Reflective 760 -
Synthetic rubber Flexible preformed Granular 105 60 to 100
pipe sections, flexible
slabs, and rolls
Vermiculite Loosefill (Loosefill Granular 1100 50 to 150
materials should be
packed to densities to
suit the application
and thermal
conductivity
required.)
Preformed slabs and
sections
Vermiculite/cement Granular 1100 320
Vermiculite/sodium Granular 1100 450
silicate
Note: Temperatures shown are maximum continuous operating temperatures depending on product type.
Reference should always be made to manufacturers’ literature before specifying. The limiting temperatures
of any facing material should also be checked.

1.2.9 Explains why the ventilation and cooling of insulation is essential.

Insulation resists electrical leakage, prevents the wire's current from coming into contact with other
conductors and preserves the material integrity of the wire by protecting against environmental threats
such as water and heat. The safety and effectiveness of the wire depend on its insulation.
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