Book Database Management System

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
P. SREELATHA
MCA., (Ph.D)
Dr. M. SREEDEVI
Ph.D
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
© P. SREELATHA
Dr. M. SREEDEVI
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Page design & Cover :

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Edition: Feb. 2023
ISBN 978-93-90284-70-2
 Price : 200/ -
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Content
UNIT – I - 04
Overview of Database Management System
UNIT – II - 13
File Base Vs Database Systems
UNIT – III - 39
Entity-Relationship (ER) Model
Chapter – II - 58
Extended Entity Relationship Modeling (EE-R Model)
Chapter – III - 68
Relational Data Modeling
Chapter – IV - 77
Normalization of Database Tables
UNIT – IV - 92
Structured Query Language.
Chapter – I
Introduction to Structure Query Language (SQL)
UNIT – V - 116
Procedural Language / SQL (PL/SQL)
Chapter – 1
Introduction of PL/SQL

UNIT – I
Overview of Database Management System
Chapter – 1
Introduction of Database System
==============***********===============
(Q). Define what is Data, Information and Information
Processing?
 Basic Concepts and Definition: -
 DATA
 INFORMATION
Data:-
Def.1: - Data referred to “Collection of the Facts &
Figures”.
Def. 2: - Data referred to “known facts” that could be
recorded and stored on computer media.
Ex: In a student table, the data would include facts
such as student name, age, address, and marks.
Def. 3: - Data are “Raw Facts”. The word raw indicates
that the facts have not yet been processed to reveal their
meaning.
Def. 4: - “Data consist of facts, text, graphics, images,
sound and video segments that have meaning in
the users environment”.
Information: -
The terms data and information are closely related,
and in fact are often used Interchangeably.
Def 1: - “Information is a process of meaningful of
Data is known as Information”.
Example: - India won the match against Australia by
100 runs.
Def 2: - “Data that have been processed in such a
way as to increase the knowledge of the person who uses the
data”. The Information also consists as collection of images,
graphics, etc.
Information Life Cycle: -
To convert data into information is to summarize them

or otherwise process and present them for human
interpretation.
(Q). Explain the Quality of Information? (or) Discuss
Information Age?
Quality of Information is one of the most important
assets. By Quality of Information, we mean information that
is Accurate, Timely and Relevant are the three key attributes
of information.
Today databases may contain either data or
information (or both). In this “Information Age” the information
must maintain the quality. By Quality Information we mean
information that is
1. Accuracy
2. Timeliness
3. Relevancy
1. Accuracy: It means that the information is free from
mistakes and errors. Or providing correct information. It means
that information is clear and accurately reflects the meaning
of data on which it is based.
2. Timeliness: It means that the recipients can get
the information when they need it. The information should
maintain time frame.
3. Relevancy: Relevancy means the use of a piece of
information for particular objects. It specifically for the
recipient what, why, where, who and how.
(Q) Define Database and Database Management Systems?
Database: -
Def: “Database is defined as an organized collection
of related data”.
By organized we mean that the data are structured so
as to be easily stored, manipulated, and retrieved by users.
In the database data contain in the form of “Tables” or
“Tuples” (Rows & Columns).
Metadata: -
Def. 1: “Metadata are data that describe the properties
or characteristics of other data”.
Some of these properties include data definitions, data
structures and rules or constraints. Metadata show the data
item name, the data type, length, minimum and maximum
allowable values and brief description of each data item.
Ex: some sample metadata for the Class Roster are
listed in the following table.
Metadata allow database designers and users to

understand what data exist, what the data mean and what
the fine distinctions are between seemingly similar data items.
Def. 2: “The database contains the data you have
collected and “data about data” known as Metadata”.
Database Management System: -
Def. 1: “A Database Management System (DBMS) is a
collection of programs (software) that allow users to store
and access the data and work a database for easy manipulation
of data”.
EX: dbase, oracle
Def. 2: A database management system (DBMS) is a
collection of programs that manages the database structure
and controls access to the data stored in the database.
(Q) Define Data Hierarchy?
Data Hierarchy refers to the systematic organization
of data, often in a hierarchical form. Data Organization
involves Bit, Byte, Filed, Record, File and Database.
· BIT: - All data is stored in the computer s memory in
the form of Binary digits or Bits. A bit can be
either „ON or „OFF represented „1 or „0 .
· Byte: - Bytes is a collection of 8 bits. One byte can
represent on character.
· Field: - Field is a group of characters. A single filed or
data filed can hold a single fact or attribute of an entity.
· Record: - Record is a group of related fields holding
all the information about one entity.
· File: - File is a collection of related records.
· Database: - “Database is defined as an organized
collection of related data”.
(Q) What is Database? Define various Database Operations
on Database?
Database: - “Database is defined as an organized
collection of related data”.
By organized we mean that the data are structured so
as to be easily stored, manipulated, and retrieved by users.
In the database data contain in the form of “Tables” or
“Tuples” (Rows & Columns).
Database Operations: - The most commonly used operations
performed on the databases are:
· Insertion: - To add new data into the database.
· Selection: - To view or retrieves the stored data.
· Updation: - To modify or edit the existing data.
· Deletion: - To remove or delete the existing data from
the database.
· Sorting: - To arrange the data in a desired order either
ascending or descending.
· Searching: - To find out the piece of data from the
database.
(Q) List of few Database Applications?
Today, database systems are widely used to manage
large bodies of information. Some of the important database
applications are:
· Banking: - For customer information, accounts and
loans and banking transactions.
· Universities: - For student information, course
registrations, results generated.
· Airlines: - For reservation and schedule information.
Airlines were among the first to use database in a
geographically distributed manner and terminals situated
around the world accessed the central database system
through phone lines and other data networks.
· Credit Card Transactions: - For purchases on Credit
cards and generation of monthly statement.
· Sales: - For customer, product and purchase information.
· Telecommunication: - For keeping records of calls
made, generating monthly bills, maintaining balances on
prepaid calling cards and storing information about the
communication networks.
· Manufacturing: - For tracking production of items in
factories, inventories of items in warehouses, stores and
orders for items.
· Human Resource: - For information about employees,
salaries and payroll taxes etc.
(Q) Discuss Manual Database Vs Computerized Database?
Manual Database Computerized Database
Manual Dat abase is the record keeping systems in Computerized Database is a database that can be
which human being manage the whole datab ase managed or accessed by computers.
without the support of computers.
A Manual Database is like a filling cabinet and is A Computerized Database is stored in a computer
very slow and clumsy at organizing information. and is very fast at organizing information and
grouping related data.
In M anual Database system, information must be A Computerized Database will typically allow users
fou nd by hand rater than electr onically. Someone to search the enTier d atabase for spec ific
looking for information in a manual dat abase may information in seco nds.
have to spend hours searching for a particular
piece of data, wh ich is a very time consuming job.
Less Reliable. More Reliable.
Manual Dat abase system has slow processing Computerized Database system has very fast
speed. It takes a lot of time to p erform various processing speed. It can handle various database
database operations like: searching, sor ting etc. operations like: searching, sorting etc on time.
Manual Database systems can be very complexand Computerized Database system are more accurate
inaccurate. and east to process.
In Manual Database, it?s very difficult to handle a Computers have huge storage capacity. So a
large volume of dat a. computerized database system can easily handle a
large amount of data.
Difficult to modify or update manual database. Easily to modify and update in database.
(Q) What is Database Management System (DBMS)? Define

Objectives of DBMS?
Database Management System: -
Def. 1: “A Database Management System (DBMS) is a
collection of programs (software) that allow users to store and access
the data and work a database for easy manipulation of data”.
EX: dbase, oracle
Def. 2: A Database Management System (DBMS) is a
collection of programs that manages the database structure
and controls access to the data stored in the database.
Objectives of DBMS: - The major objectives of
Database Management System (DBMS) are:
· Data Availability: - Data availability refers to the fact
that the data are made available to large variety of users in a
meaningful format at reasonable cost so that the users can
easily access the data.
· Data Integrity: - Data Integrity refers to the
completeness, correctness and consistency of data. It ensures
that data entered into the database must be complete,
accurate, valid and consistent. Integrity is related to the
quality of data, which is maintained with the help of integrity
constraints. These constraints are the rules that are designed
to keep data consistent and correct.
· Data Security: - Data Security refers to the fact that
only authorized users can access the data. Data Security can
be enforced by Username and Passwords. If two separate
users are accessing a particular data at the same time, the
DBMS must not allow them to make conflicting changes.
· Data Independence: - Database Management System
(DBMS) supports the concepts of data independence since it
represents a system for managing data separately from the
programs that use the data. DBMS allows the user to store,
update and retrieve data in an efficient manner.
(Q) Define various Evaluation of Database Management
System (DBMS)?
File-Based Systems was the predecessor to the
Database Management System (DBMS). The chronological
order of development of DBMS is as follows:
1. Flat-File System (1960 -1980)
2. Hierarchical Data Model (1970 – 1990)
3. Network Data Model (1970- 1990)
4. Relational Data Model (1980 – Present)
5. Object-Oriented DBMS (OODBMS) (1990 - Present)
6. Object-Relational DBMS (ORDBMS) ( 1990 –
Present)
7. Data Warehouses (1980 – Present)
8. Web – Enabled (1990 – Present)
· Early 1960 Charles Bachman at GE created the first
generation purpose DBMS Integrated Data Store (IDS). It
created the basis for the Network Model which was
standardized by CODASYL (Conference on Data System
Language).
· Late 1960 IBM developed the IMS (information
Management System). IMS used an alternate model, called
the Hierarchical Data Model.
· 1970 E.F.Codd. from IBM created the Relational Data
Model.
· 1976 Peter Chen presented Entity-Relational Data
Model.
· 1980 SQL developed by IBM, became the Structured /
Standard Query Language for Database.
· 1980 and 1990 IBM, Oracle, Informix and other
developed powerful DBMS.
(Q) Explain Classification of Database Management System
(DBMS)?
The DBMS can be classified into different categories
on the basics of several criteria such as the “Data Models,
they are using Number of Users, they are Number of Sites
and they are Purpose to serve”.
1. Based on Data Models: - Depending on the Data
Model they use, the DBMS can be classified as Hierarchical,
Network and Relational Model.
· Hierarchical Model: - The Hierarchical Model DBMS
organizes “The data records in a Tree Structure”. Therefore
hierarchical of “Parent – Child Relationships”. In this model
database, a parent record may have more than one child, but
a child always has only one parent. This is called a “One-to-
Many Relationship”.
· Network Model: - The Network Model DBMS
organizes “The data records linked to one another through
pointers”. Which is an association between two records? A
Network Database is similar to a Hierarchical Database
except that each child can have more than one parent record.
This is called a “Many-to-Many Relationship”.
· Relational Model: - The Relation Model DBMS
organizes “The data records in the form of the Table and
Relationships” among the tables are set using common fields.
It is simple in nature because data is simply represented in
Tabular format.
2. Based on Number of Users: - Depending on the
Number of users the DBMS supports it is divided into two
categories namely, Single-User System and Multi-user System.
· Single-User System: - In Single-User System, the
Database resided on one computer and is only accessed by
one user at a time. The user may design, maintain and write
programs for accessing and manipulation the database
according to the requirements.
· Multi-User System: - In Multi-User System, multiple
users can access the database simultaneously. In multi-user
DBMS, the data is both integrated and shared.
3. Based on Number of Sites: - Depending on the number
of sites over which the database is distributed, it is divided
into two types namely Centralized and Distributed Database
Systems.
· Centralized Database Systems: - The Centralized
Database Systems run on a single computer system. Both the
Database and DBMS software s reside at a single computer
site. The user interacts with the centralized systems through
a dummy terminal connected to it for information retrieval.
· Distributed Database Systems: - In Distributed
Database Systems, the database and DBMS software s are
distributed over several computers located at different sites.
The computers communicate with each other through various
communication media such as high-speed networks.
4. Based of Purpose: - Depending on the purpose the
DBMS servers, it can he classified as General and Specific
purpose. It can however be designed for as airlines or railway
reservation.

UNIT – II
File Base Vs Database Systems
==============***********===============
Basic File Terminology: -
Data:
Data are “Raw facts”. The word raw indicates that the
facts have not yet been processed to reveal their meaning.
Databases today are used to store objects such as
documents, photographic images, sound, and even video
segments. So the following is broadened definition
Ex: - Such as a telephone number, a birth date, a
customer name, and a year-to-date (YTD) sales value.
Field:
A character or group of characters (alphabetic or
numeric) that has specific meaning. A field is used to define
and store data.
Record:
A logically connected set of one or more fields that
describes a person, place, or thing.
File:
A collection of related records. For example, a file
might contain data about vendors of ROBCOR
Company, or a file might contain the records for the
students currently enrolled at S.V. University.
Each file in the system used its own application
programs to store, retrieve, and modify data. And each file
was owned by the individual or the department that
commissioned its creation.
(Q) Defied Drawbacks of File-Based System? (or) Explain
Demerits Traditional Database System? (or) Explain the File
Processing System (FPS) (or)
Discuss Problems / Disadvantages / Demerits of File
Processing System (FPS)?
Early day s commercial data processing system
involves considerable amount of work compression of File
Processing Systems (FPS). In the conventional file handling
system the data is stored in the form of records and files.
Each file is a collection of records and records is a group of
data fields which are logically related.
Demerits / Disadvantages of File Processing Systems (FPS):
- There are listed below of demerits of File Processing
Systems (FPS):
1. Data Redundancy.
2. Data Inconsistency.
3. Difficult in Data Accessing.
4. Limited Data Sharing.
5. Lengthy Development Times.
6. Excessive Program Maintain.
7. No Data Security.
1. Data Redundancy (Duplicate of Data): - “Data
Redundancy means Duplicated of Data” (or) “Repeated the
same information in several places called Data Redundancy”.
The Duplicate of data is wasteful additional storage space.
Unfortunately duplicate of the data and files often results is
loss of data integrity (unique). The Data Redundancy leads to
higher stooge and access cost. Moreover, the same
information may be duplicated in several files, this duplication
of data over several files is known as data redundancy.
Example: - The same data item may have different
names in different files (or) the same name may be used for
different data items in different files. The Address and
Telephone number of a particular customer
may appear in a file that consists of Saving account records
and in a file that consists of Checking account records. This
redundancy leads to higher storage & excess cost also leads
to inconsistency.
2. Data Inconsistency: Data Inconsistency means
different copies of the same data are not matching. That
means different versions of same basic data are existing. This
occurs as the result of update operations that are not updating
the same data stored at different places.
3. Difficult in Data Accessing: - It is not easy to retrieve
information using a conventional file processing system.
Convenient and efficient information retrieval is almost
impossible using conventional file processing system.
4. Limited Data Sharing: - Each application has its own
private files with little opportunity to share data outside their
own applications. A requested report may require data from
several incompatible files in separate systems.
5. Lengthy Development T imes: - With the File
Processing System (FPS), there is little opportunity to leverage
previous development efforts. Each new application requires
the developer to start from design by designing new file
formats and descriptions. The length development times
required are often inconsistency with today s fast business
environment.
6. Excessive Program Maintain: - The preceding factors
create a heavy program maintenance load. Organizations that
rely on traditional file processing system. In fact as much as
80% of the total information system development budget may
be devoted to program maintenances in such organization.
7. No Data Security: - It is one of the major
disadvantages of File Processing Systems (FPS). In FPS we
can t give the security to the data, that means the data can
be accessed several users.
(Q) Define DBMS Approach?
In order to remove all the limitation of a File-Based
Systems, a new approach was required that must be more
effective. So the concept of database was introduced. This
approach is know as Database Approach / DBMS Approach.
Characteristics of DBMS Approach: -
· It is central repository of shared data. It allows several
users to access the database concurrently.
· A fundamental feature of the database approach is
that the database system does not only contain the data but
also the complete definition and description of these data.
These descriptions are basically details about the extent, the
structure, the type and the format of all data and additionally,
the relationship between the data. This kind of stored data is
called “Metadata” (Data about Data).
· Data should be correct with respect to the real world
entity that they represent.
· Data should be protected from unauthorized access.
· Data in a database exist permanently until it is not
explicitly deleted.
Drawbacks of DBMS Approach: -
· Database Management Systems can be difficult to set-
up and operate.
· Database Management Systems can be more
expensive to purchase and operate.
· Recovery is more complex.
· Initial training required for all programmers and users.
(Q). Explain the Database approaches?
(or)
Discuss Role and Advantages / Merits of Database
Approaches System?
The Database Approach number of advantages
compare to File Processing System. The primary advantage is
listed below:
1. Program Data Independent.
2. Minimal Data Redundancy.
3. Improved Data Consistency.
4. Improved Data Accessibility and Responsibility.
5. Improved Data Sharing.
6. Increased Productivity of Application Development
/ Reduced Program Maintains.
7. Improved Quality of Data.
8. Enforcement Standards.
9. Improved High Data Security.
1. Program-Data Independence: - The separation of
data descriptions from the application programs that use the
data is called data independence. With the database
approach, data descriptions are stored in a central location
called the repository. This property of database systems allows
an organization s data to change and evolve (within limits)
without changing the application programs that process the
data.
2. Minimal Data Redundancy:- The design goal with the
database approach is that previously separate data files are
integrated into a single, logical structure. Each primary fact
is recorded in only one place in the database.
3. Improved Data Consistency: - By eliminating (or
controlling) data redundancy, we greatly reduce the
opportunities for inconsistency.
Ex: If a customer address is stored only once, we
cannot disagree on the stored values. Also, updating data
values is greatly simplified when each value is stored in one
place only. Finally, we avoid the wasted storage space.
4. Improved Data Accessibility and Responsiveness: -
With a relational database, end users without programming
experience can often retrieve and display data.
Example: - select * from student where
student_id=999;
5. Improved Data Sharing: - A database is designed as
a shared corporate resource. Authorized internal and external
users are granted permission to use the database, and each
user is provided one or more user views to facilitate this use.
6. Increased Productivity of Application Development
: - A major advantage of the database approach is that it
greatly reduces the cost and time for developing new business
applications. From the above all factors, as a result program
maintenance can be significantly reduced in a modern
database environment.
7. Improved Data Quality: - The database approach
provides a number of tools and processes to improve data
quality.
8. Enforcement Standards: - When the database
approach is implemented with full management support, the
database administration function should be granted single-
point authority and responsibility for establishing and
enforcing data standards. These standards will include naming
conventions, data quality standards, and uniform procedures
for accessing, updating, and protecting data.
9. Improve High Data Security: - By Using Database to
provide the high data security in terms of passwords.
(Q) Explain the Range of Database Approaches?(or)
Explain Types of Databases?
A DBMS can support many different types of
databases.
Database can be classified according to number of
users, the database locations and the expected type and
extent of use.
Types of Databases
According to According to According to

Number of Users Database Locations Expected types and extent of use
Single Users Multi-users Centralized DB Distributed DB Operational DB Data Warehouses
Personal 1. Workgroup Database

Database 2. Department Database
3. Enterprise Database
4. Internet, Intranet & Extranet DB
The Range of Database Application can be divided into 5
Categories of each type there are
1. Personnel Database.
2. Work-Group Database.
3. Departmental Database.
4. Enterprise Database.
5. Internet, Intranet, Extranet Database.
(I). ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF USERS: -
1. Personnel Database: - “The Personnel Database is
designed to support one user”. For example consider a
personnel computer (PC) the data in PC can accessed by only
one user at a time, this type of database are called Personnel
Database. The Personnel Database is designed to support
one user simple database application that store customer
information and details of contacts. Only one user can be
worked at a time with Personnel Database.
Example: - Personnel Computers Desktop or Laptops
with the database.
2. Work-Group Database: - “A Work Group is a relatively
Small Team of people who collaborate on the same project or
application”. A work group typically comprises less then 25
persons. Each member in the work group having desktop
computers, each computer connected to the database servers
through LAN (Local Area Network). So each member of a work
group can share the database from server.
In this above Diagram each member of the work group

has a computer and the computer is linked by LAN (Local Area
Network). The Database is stored and a central device called
the Database Server, which is also connected to the network.
Thus each members of the work group has access to the
shared data different developers.
3. Departmental Database: - “An organization divided
into number of functional units, each functional unit is called
as a Department”. For Example consider an Organization, it
divided into Personnel Department, Marketing Department,
Manufacturing Department and Accounting Department etc.
Generally Department is the larger than the Work-Groups. The
Departments consists more than 25 and less than 100 persons.
The Departmental Database is designed to support
the various functions and activities of a department. The
Departmental Database is accessed by only the members of
the department.
4. Enterprise Database: - The term „Enterprise means
collection of all departments in that organization. So the range
or scope of the Enterprise Database is the enTier organization.
An Enterprise Database does, how ever, support information
needs from many departments. The evolution of Enterprise
Database has resulted in two major developments.
I. ERP Systems (Enterprise Resource Planning).
II. Data warehouse implementation.
· ERP System (Enterprise Resource Planning): - It is a
Business Management Database System; it integrated all
functional of the enterprise, such as Manufacturing, Sales,
Finance, Marketing, Inventory, and Accounting etc. ERP System
are software application that provide the data necessary for
the enterprise to examine and manage its activates.
· Data warehouse: - Data warehouse collect their
content from the various operational databases, including
Personnel, Work-Group & Departmental Databases.
5. Internet, Intranet, and Extranet Database: -
Internet: - The Internet is a worldwide area network
(WAN) that connects users of multiple platforms through an
interface known as Web Browser or Global Network any body
can access the data.
Intranet: - Use of Internet protocols to “establish
access to company data and information that is limited to the
organization”.
Extranet: - Uses the Internet protocols to “establish
limited access to company data information by the
company s customers & employees”.
Summary of Database Applications: -
Type of No. of Typical architecture Typical size of
Database Users database
Personal DB 1 Desktop/Laptop Megabytes
computer
Workgroup DB 5-25 Client/server Megabytes-Gigabytes
(two-tier)
Department DB 25-100 Client/server Gigabytes
(three-tier)
Enterprise DB >100 Client/server(Distributed or Gigabytes- Terabytes
parallel server
Internet No limited Client/server(Distributed or Gigabytes- Terabytes
parallel server
(II). According to Database Locations: -

1. Centralized Database: -Location might also be used
to classify the database. For example, a database that
supports data located at a single site is called a centralized
database.
2. Distributed Database: -A database that supports data
distributed across several different sites is called a distributed
database.
(III). According to Expected type and Extent of use: -
1. Operational Database: - A database that s designed
primarily to support a company s day-to-day operations is
classified as an operational database (sometimes referred to
as a transactional or production database).
2. Data Warehouse: - A data warehouse focuses
primarily on storing data used to generate information
required to make tactical or strategic decisions. Such decisions
typically require extensive “data massaging” (data
manipulation) to extract information to formulate pricing
decisions, sales forecasts, market positioning, etc. most
decision support data are based on historical data obtained
from operational databases.
Additionally, the data warehouse can store data
derived from many sources. To make it easier to retrieve such
data, the data warehouse structure is quite different from
that of a transaction oriented database.
(Q) Explain the File-Based Systems Vs Database System?
File-Based Systems Database Systems
In File-Based System, each application has its A Database System has a collection of interrelated
own private data files. files and set of application programs to access and
modify these files.
It is used in small systems which require new filesto It is use in large systems which interrelated many
represent it. files.
It is cheaper to design. It is relatively expensive to design.
It has simple structure. Its structure is relatively complex.
Data Isolated. Data can be shared.
Recovery / Backup is simple. Recovery / Backup is more complex.
Multiple user access to the information is difficult Allow multiple users to access the database at
to provide. same time.
(Q) Define Various Data Models in DBMS?

“A Model is a representation of reality, „Real-World
Entity objects and events and their associates”.
The Data model is a set of concepts that can be used
to describe the data such as data type and length, relationships
and consistency constraints. Data models provide necessary
data abstraction hiding the details of the data storage. That
is, the main purpose of the data model is to provide a level of
abstraction.
A data model is a relatively simple representation,
usually graphical, of more complex real- world data structures.
In general terms, a model is an abstraction of a complex real-
world data environment. Within the database environment, a
data model represents data structure and their characteristics,
relations, constraints, and transformations.
“A data model is a blueprint of the data and its
relationships used by the system. The plan created by an
architect for a building is an example of a blue print”.
The reasons for developing a data model are as follows:
· Models are abstractions that portray the essentials
of a complex problems or structure by filtering out non-
essential details, thus making the problem easier to
understand.
· Models help us visualize, understand, organize,
complex things thereby promoting cleaner designs and
making creation easy.
The following table is traces the Evolution of the major
Data Models: -
Generation Periodof Models Examples Comments
Year
First 1960?s – File Systems VMS / VSAM Used mainly on IBM Mainframes Systems.
1980?s Managed records, not relationships.
Second 1970?s – Hierarchical & IMS, ADABAS, Early database systems Navigations
1990?s Network. IDS-II. palaces. IBM developed IMS (Information
Management System).
Third Mid-1980 Relational DB2, Oracle, MS E.F. Codd, From IBM created the Relational,
– Present Data Model SQL-Server, Conceptual simplicity Entity Relationship
MySQL. (ER) modeling and support for relational
data modeling.
Fourth Mid 1980 Object Net Objectivity / SQL developed by IBM, became the
– present Oriented (OO) DB / DB2 / Structures / Standard Query Language.
and Extended Oracle 10g.
Relational
Fifth 1980?s – Data Data Support complex data extended relational
present Warehousing Warehousing products support objects and data
warehousing.
Present 1990?s – Web-Enabled Cartelized IBM, Oracle, Informix and other developed
present database powerful DBMS.
There are basically three types of data models:-
1. Record-based logical Models. (a). Hierarchical Model.
(b). Network Data Model. (c). Relational Data Model.
2. Object-bases logical Models. (a). Entity-Relationship
Model. (b). Object-Oriented Model.
3. Physical Models.
1. Record-based logical Model: - Record-based logical
model is based on the notation of data stored as a set of records.
Each record consists of a set of fields and each field is of fixed
length. There are mainly three types of models namely
Hierarchical Model, Network Model and Relational Model.
(a) Hierarchical Model:
The hierarchical database management system is the
oldest among the database architectures. A hierarchical DBMS
assumed hierarchical relationships between data, that is,
parent – child relationship. In this model, data is arranged in
a top-down structure that resembles an inverted tree or
genealogy chart.
Data is mapped to different nodes of this tree, and
they are related in nested, one-to-many relationships. Data
at the top node is called the root, data in the nodes at the
bottom most layer are called leaves, and data in the nodes at
the intermediate levels have one parent node, and one or
several child nodes. The hierarchical database management
system is best applied when the conceptual data model also
resembles a tree, and when most data access begins at the
root. An example of Hierarchical database management
system is IMS (Information Management System) DBMS.
(b) Network Data Model:
The Network Model is formally defined in 1971 in the
Conference on Data System Languages (CODASYL).
The network data model was created to represent
complex data relations more effectively than the hierarchical
model, to improve database performance, and to impose a
database standard. To help establish database standards, the
Conference on Data System Languages (CODASYL) created
the Database Task Group (DBTG). The DBTG was defining
standard specifications for an environment that would
facilitate database creation and data manipulation. Finally
DBTG report contains three database components.
 A schema data definition language (DDL), which enable
the database administrator to define schema components.
 A DDL allows the application programs to define
database components that will be used by the application.
 A DML manages the data in the database.
In the network model, a collection of records
maintained network database system in M:M relationships.
Network model allows a record to have more than one parent.
(c) Relational Data Model:

The Relational Data model was introduced in 1970 by
E.F Codd at IBM. The Relational Database Management
Systems are relatively new form historical perspective and
built from theoretical consideration of the data structures by
E.F.Codd s.
The relational model produced an automatic
transmission database and it is implemented through a very
sophisticated Relational Database Management System
(RDBMS), which performs the same basic functions provided
by the hierarchical and network DBMS systems, in addition to
a host of other functions that make the relational database
model easier to understand and implement.
Examples of RDBMS are Oracle, Sybase, Informix,
Microsoft SQL Server, MySql, DB2 and PostgreSQL.
The RDBMS represents data and relationships among
data by a collection of table, each of which had a number of
columns with unique names. The concept of tables and rows
and columns is extremely simple and easy to understand.
Tables are related to each other through the sharing
of a common attribute. For example, the CUSTOMER table
contains a sales agent s number that is also contained in the
AGENT Table.
The relational data model s rise to control is its

powerful and efficient language i.e SQL. The RDBMS uses
SQL to translate user queries into instructions for retrieving
the requested data. Any SQL- based relational database
application involves three components.
· The end-user interface: the interface allows the end
user to interact with data.
· A collection of tables stored in the database: In a
relational database, all data are perceived to be stored in
tables.
· SQL Engine: SQL engine executes all queries, or data
requests. The end user uses SQL to create table structures
and to perform data access and table maintenance.
The most important advantage of the RDBMS is its
ability to hide the complexities of the relational model from
the end user and it manages all of the physical details.
A relational database provides a much higher degree
of data independence than hierarchical and network
databases. In relational databases, tables are not hard-linked
to one another. Columns can be added to tables, tables can
be added to the database and new data relationship can be
added with little or no restructuring of the tables.
Main differences between Relational Model and Non-
Relational Model (Network & Hierarchical Model):-
Relational Model Non-Relational Model
Relationship defined by data content. Relationships maintained by pointers.
Any data item is always directly addressable. Access to data through predefined paths.
Very flexible at logical level. A structural change very difficult, through it is
not impossible.
Conceptually simple data structures. Inherently complicated data structures.
No significances in order of rows. Ordering of records significant.
No such restriction supports and maintained by Accessing programs require procedural and
standard set of operations. navigation capability.
2. Object-based logical Models: - In Object-based

logical model database is structured in the form of objects of
several types. It allows specifying data constraints separately.
These models are used in describing data at the
conceptual and view levels of abstractions. Some of the most
widely known data models that fall under this category are:
Entity-Relationship Model and Object-Oriented Model data
model.
(a) Entity-Relationship Model:
Peter Chen first introduced the ER model in 1976; it
was the graphical representation of entities and their
relationships in a database structure. The main constructs of
the ER Model are Entities and their attributes, and the
Relationships between the entities.
ER models are normally represented in an entity
relationship diagram (ERD), which uses graphical
representations to model database components. The ER model
is based on the following components.
· Entity: An entity is represented in the ERD by a
rectangle, also known as an rectangle box. The name of the
entity written in the center of the rectangle with capital letters.
· Attributes: Each entity is described by a set of
attributes that describes particular characteristics of the
entity. Attribute in the ERD by oval.
· Relationships: Relationships describe associations
among the data. Most relationships describe association
between two entities. The ER model uses the term connectivity
to label the relationship types.
(b) Object –Oriented Data Model (OODM):
Object –oriented Data model consists of objects. Each
object contains attributes and methods, which operate on the
attributes. Each attributes values stores in the form of
variables and methods are written as a block of code. The
two or more objects communicate each other using object
methods. Each object is identified with a unique identifier to
distinguish with other objects. The OODM is the basis for the
object- oriented database management system (OODBMS).
The OO data model is based on the following components.
· An object is an abstraction of a real-world entity.
· Attributes describe the properties of an object.
· Objects that share similar characters are grouped in
classes. A class is a collection of similar objects with shared
structure (attributes) and behavior (methods). The class
methods like finding a selected PERSON s name, changing a
PERSON s name or printing a PERSON s address
· Classes are organized in a class hierarchy. The class
hierarchy resembles an upside-down tree in which each class
has only one parent. For example, the CUSTOMER class and
the EMPLOYEE class share a parent PERSON Class.
· Inheritance is the ability of an object within the class
hierarchy to inherit the attributes and methods of the classes.
Object-oriented data models are typically using Unified Modeling
Language (UML) class diagrams. This language is based on object
oriented concepts that describes a set of diagrams and symbols
that can be used to graphically model a system.
Let us use a simple invoice problem, in this case,
invoices are generated by customers, each invoice references
one or more lines, and each line represents an item purchased
by customers.
3. Physical Data Model: - The Physical Data Model
captures the data at the lowest level that are used for
database-system implementation. These concepts are mainly
meant for computer specialists, but not for the end users.
Here data is represented as record formats, records orderings
and access paths.
Example: - Unifying Model and Frame-Memory Model.
(Q) Explain Enterprise Database System? (or)
Components / Elements of Database System?
Def: - “An Enterprise is a group of people with a
common goal to achieve the signal task and enterprise is act
as a signal entity”. (Or) “The Enterprise is considered as
systems and all the departments are its subsystems”.
The term database system refers to an organization of
components that define and regulate the collection, storage,
management, and use of data within a database environment.
From a general management point of view, the database system
is composed of the five major parts shown in figure below.
1. Hardware
2. Softwares
3. People
4. Procedures
5. Data
1. Hardware:
Hardware refers to all of the system’s physical devices;
for example, computers (microcomputers, mainframes,
workstations, and servers), storage devices (hard disk, floppy
disk), network devices (hubs, switches, routers, fiber optics),
and other devices it also includes the Input/Output devices
(keyboard, mouse, scanner, printer), processors, main memory
etc. which are used for storing and retrieving the data in a
faster and efficient manner.
2. Software:
The software part consists of DBMS which acts as a bridge
between the user and the database. Although the most readily
identified software is the DBMS itself, to make the database system
function fully, three types of software are needed:
 Operating system software
 DBMS software, and
 Application programs and utilities.
 Operating system software managers all hardware
components and makes it possible for all other software to
run on the computers. Examples of operating system software
include Microsoft Windows, Linux, Mac OS, UNIX, and MVS.
 DBMS software manages the database within the
database system. Some examples of DBMS software include
Microsoft Access and SQL Server, Oracle Corporation s Oracle,
and IBM s DB2.
 Application programs and utility software are used to
access and manipulate data in the DBMS and to manage the
computer environment in which data access and manipulation
take place.
3. People:
The peoples/ users are who manage the database and
perform different operations. On the basis of primary job
functions, five types of users can be identified in a database
system:
1. Systems administrators,
2. Database administrators
3. Database designers,
4. Systems analysts and programmers,
5. End users.
 Systems administrators oversee the database system
s general operations.
 Database administrators, also known as DBAs, manage the
DBMS and ensure that the database is functioning properly.
 Database designers design the database structure.
They are, in effect, the database architects. If the
database design is poor, even the best application
programmers and the most dedicated DBA s cannot produce
a useful database environment. Because organizations strive
to optimize their data resources. The database designer s job
description has expended to cover new dimensions and
growing responsibilities.
 Systems analysts and programmers design and
implement the application programs. They design and create
the data entry screens, reports, and procedures through which
end users access and manipulate the database s data.
 End users are the people who use the application
programs to run the organization s daily operations. For
example, salesclerks, supervisors, managers, and directors
are all classified as end users.
4. Procedures:
Procedures are the instructions and rules that govern
the design and use of the database system. Procedures play
an important role in a company because they enforce the
standards by which business is conducted within the
organization and with customers.
5. Data:
The word data covers the collection of facts stored in
the database.
(Q) Explain DBMS Architecture? (or) Three-Level
Architecture of DBMS? (or) Types of Schema?
The major purpose of database system is to provide
users with an abstract view of the system. The system hides
certain complex details from the users like “how data is stored
and shows only those database records to the user which he/
she demands”. This is called as “Data Abstraction”.
The term Abstraction means the amount of detail you
want to hide. In the same manner, the database can also be
viewed from different levels of abstraction to reveal different
levels of details. From bottom-up manner, we may find that
there are Three-Levels of abstraction in the Database.
1. External Level: - (Users View only)

· In this database view, maximum detail about the
database will be hidden from the user.
· At External-Level, only the restricted portion of the
database is available to the end users, because an end user
does not need to know everything about the structure of the
enTier database, rather than the amount of details he/she
needs to works with.
· It implements “Highest Level of Data Abstraction”.
2. Conceptual Level: - (Logical View)
· This view will provide some more details about the
database to the users like Structure or Schema detail of the
database.
· Conceptual Level describes “What Data are Stores in
the Database and What Relationships exit among those data”.
· It implements “Middle Level of Data Abstraction”.
3. Internal Level: - (Physical / Storage View)
· It can provide the Internal Level view of “The Actual
Physical Storage of the Data”.
· It can also describe the data type of these data items,
the memory size of the items in the storage media.
· It defines the “Location of the Data” (physical
address) of the items in the storage device.
· It implements “Lowest Level of Data Abstraction”.
Logical Data Independence Vs Physical Data Independence
in DBMS Architecture: -
Logical Data Independence Physical Data Independence
It is concerned with the Structure of the Data. It is concerned with Storage of the Data.
It is concerned with the Conceptual Schema. It is concerned with the Internal Schema.
It is very difficult as the retrieving of data is It is easy to retrieve.
very much dependent on the Logical Structure.
(Q) Explain Types / Classified of Database Architecture?

Database Architecture essentially the location of all
the pieces of information that make up the database
application. The Database Architecture can be broadly
classified into following types:
1. Single-Tier Architecture.
2. Two-Tier Architecture.
3. Three-Tier Architecture.
4. N-Tier Architecture.
(I). Single-Tier Architecture: -
· Single-Tier Architecture consists of a Single Computer
that contains a Database and a Front-End access the
Database.
· Single-Tier Architecture is equivalent of running an
application on a Personal Computer (PC).
· All required components to run the application are
located within it.
· User Interface, business logic and data storage are
all located on the same machine.
Advantages: -
· A Single-Tier System requires only one stand-alone
computer.
· It also requires only one installation of proprietary
software.
Disadvantages: -
· May be used by only one user at a time.
· A Single-Tier system impractical for an organization
which requires two or more users to not interact with the
organizational data store at the same time.
(II). Two-Tier Architecture: -
· Two-Tier Architecture consists of two systems, a Client
and Server.
· The database is stored on the Server, and the interface
used to access the database is installed on the Client.
· The Client being the First Tier and the Server being
the Second Tier.
· The Client requests services directly from Server.
Therefore Client communicates directly with the Server without
help of other tools.
Advantages: -
· Easy to implements on both sites.
· Tools are relatively inexpensive.
· The Two-Tier Client and Sever provides much more
attractive Graphical User Interface (GUI) applications that
were possible with earlier technology.
· Two-T ier Architecture maintains a persistent
connection between the Client and Server/ Database.
· Offers a great deal of flexibility and simplicity in
management.
Disadvantages: -
· Since actual data processing of data takes places on
the remote / server side. The data has to be transported over
the networks. This leads to the increased network stress.
(III). Three-Tier Architecture: -
In Three-Tier Architecture, the Client requests are
handled by intermediate servers which coordinate the
execution of the Client request with subordinate Servers. It
adds Middleware (Middle Tier), which provides a way for
clients of DBMS to access data from another DBMS.
Three-Tier Architecture.
1. First-Tier (The Client Tier): - In this tier Client send
the request for the information. The main responsibility of
this tier is to receive user events and to control the user
interface and presentation of data. As most of the software
is removed from the Client, the Client is called “Thin Client”.
2. Second-Tier (Application Server / Middle Tier): -
The complex application logic is loaded her and available to
the Client Tier on request from Client. This tier can protect
direct access of data.
3. Third-Tier (Database Server Tier): - The Third tier
contains the data that is needed for the application therefore
this tier is responsible for the data storage. This server mostly
operates on a relational database.
Advantages: -
· It improved Scalability and Integrity.
· The Middle Tier can ensure that only valid data is
allowed to be updated in the database.
· It provides high security. The Client does not have
direct access to the database.
· Load balancing is easier with the separation of the
core business logic from the database server.
· The need for less expensive hardware because the
Client is „Thin†.
· The added modularity makes it easier to modify or
replace one tier without affecting the other tier.
Disadvantage: -
· More complex than Two-Tier Client-Server computing
model.
· The Client does not maintain a persistent database
connection.
· A separate proxy server may be required.
· Network traffic will be increase, if a separate proxy
server is used.
(IV). N-Tier Architecture: -
In Three-Tier Architecture, each Server (Application
Server and Database Server) perform a specialized task or
service. A server can therefore use services from other servers
in order to provide its own service. The Three-Tier Architecture
is potentially an N-Tier Architecture.
Advantages: -
· Overall performance has been improved.
· The business logic is centralized.
· Enhanced security level is obtained.
· Provides many services to many Clients.
· Enhanced scalability and availability.
Disadvantage: -
· Much more complicated to design than Two-Tier and
Three-Tier models.
· Load balancing is harder.
· More difficult to maintain software.
· The overall cost of the software and hardware is
usually high.
(Q) Define DBMS Vendors and their Products?
Some of the popular DBMS Vendors and their
corresponding products are listed following:

UNIT – III
Entity-Relationship (ER) Model
==============***********===============
(Q) Explain Data Model Basic Building Blocks?
The basic building blocks of all data models are
Entities, Attributes, Relationships and Constraints.
Entity: - An entity is a person, place, object events, in
the user environment about which the organization to maintain
of data.
Example: -
Place : Rompicherla, Piler, Tirupati, Hyderabad etc.
People : Students, Employees, Workers etc.
Objects : Automobiles, Machine, Building etc.
Events : Sales, Registration, Renewal etc.
Attribute: - An attribute is a property or
characteristics of an Entity Type.
Example: -
STUDENT : Student_Id, Student_Name, Course.
EMPLOYEE : Emp_Id, Emp_Name, Payroll, Skills.
Relationship: - “A relationship type is a meaningful
association between (or among) entity types”.
Constraints: - constraints are a condition or restriction
placed on the data.
(Q) Introduction of Entity Relationship Models (E-R
Models)?
An Entity Relationship Model is a detailed, logical
representation of the data for an organization or for a business area.
The Entity Relationships Models is expressed in teams
of Entities, the relationships among those entities and the
attributes of both the entities and their relationships.
An Entity Relationship Model is normally expressed
as an entity relations diagrams, which is a graphical
representations of Entity Relationships Models.
Definitions: -
1. Entity: - An entity is a person, place, object events,
in the user environment about which the organization to
maintain of data.
Example: -
Place : Rompicherla, Piler, Chittoor, Hyderabad etc.
People : Students, Employees, Workers etc.
2. Entity Type: - A Collection of entities that shared a
common property or characteristics.
3. Entity Instance: - A single occurrence of the entity
type is called as Entity Instances.
Example: -
Entity Type: EMPLOYEE Attributes:
Emp_Name Varchar (20)
Emp_Number Varchar (10)
DOB Date
Two Instances of EMPLOYEE
(1) Emp_Name: ABCD (2) Emp_Name: WXYZ
Emp_Number : 101010 Emp_Number : 202020
DOB : 19-08-1992 DOB : 20-09-1990
Rules: -
1. If a naming attribute we can use initial capital letter
followed by lower case letters.
2. If an attribute name consists two words we can use
underscore ( _ ) character to connected two words.
3. In naming entity we can use only user case.
4. Attribute: - An attribute is a property or
Example: -
(Q). What are the Components of an E-R Model?
The overall logical structure of a database can be
expressed graphically by an E-R Diagrams. Such a diagram
consists of major components listed below.
· Ellipses : It represents Attributes.
· Rectangles : It represents Entity Sets.
· Lines : It represents links attributes to entity sets of
relations.
· Diamonds : It represents Relationships.
· Double Ellipse : It represents Multivalued attributed.
· Dashed Ellipse : It represents Derived attributes.
· Double Lines : It indicates total participation of an
entity in a relationship set.
(Q). What are the Entity Relationship Modeling Symbols?
(Q) What is Attribute? Explain the types of Attributes

in E – R Model?
Attribute: - An Attribute is a property or
Example: -
Ternary
Types of Attributes: - The following types of attributes
are used in an E – R Model.
1. Simple Attribute.
2. Composite Attribute.
3. Multivalued Attribute.
4. Derived Attribute.
1. Simple Attribute: - A Simple or Atomic attribute is
an attribute “That can t be broken down into smaller
components”. The Simple Attribute is represented as an Ellipse
symbol.
2. Composite Attribute: - An Attribute “That can be

broken down into some small parts”
Example: - The most common example is „Address ,
which can be usually broken down into following components
like Street_Address, City, Sate and Pincode.
Address
Street_Address City State Pincode
3. Multivalued Attribute: - An attribute “that may

take on more than one values for a given entity instance”. We
indicate a multivalued attribute with an ellipse with double
lines. The following symbol is represented Multivalued
attribute.
Example: - The Employee entity type having the

following attributes
EMPLOYEE: Emp_Id, Emp_Name, Skill.
In above three attributes the last attribute named as
„Skill . That may take on more than one value. Of course some
employee may have more than one skills like (c, Java, VB,
BDBMS, etc).
4. Derived Attribute: - A Derived Attributer is an

attribute “Whose values be calculated” from related attribute
values. We indicate a derived attribute in an E – R Model by
using an “Ellipse with a dashed line”.
Example: - To calculate the Salary an Employee.
EMPLOYEE: Emp_Id, Emp_Name, Salary.
In this above E – R Model „Salary is a derived attribute it

can calculated like Hourly based, Daily based or Monthly base.
Attributes and types symbols used in E – R Model.
Null Attribute: - A Null Value is used when an entity

does not have a value for an attribute. Null can also designate
that an attribute value is unknown. An unknown value may be
either missing or not known. Such types of attribute are called
as Null Attribute.
Identifier Attribute: - “An Identifier is an attribute
(or combination of attribute) that uniquely identifies
individual instances of an entity type”.
Example: - STUDENT entity type introduced as Stud_Id,
Stud_Name. Here „Stud_Id is Identifier attribute, because
Stud_Name is not a candidate identifier since many students
have the same name. We underline identifier names on the E
– R Model shown in figure.
Stud_Id Stud_Name
EMPLOYEE
Composite Identifier: - “An Identifier that is consists
of a composite attribute”.
Example:- Consider as a FLIGHT entity that attributes
are Flight_Id, Flight_Number, Date, Number_of_Passengers.
Here candidate identifier is „Flight_Id and also uniquely
identify the Flight_Number that second identifiers is called
as a Composite Identifiers. Here the primary candidate
identifier (Flight_Id) is must be underline and second identifier
(Flight_Number) no need to indicate an underlines.
Flight_Number Date Number_of_Passenger
Flight_Id
FLIGHT
Multivalued Attribute: - An attribute “that may take on

more than one values for a given entity instance”. We indicate a
Multivalued attribute with an ellipse with double lines. The
following symbol is represented Multivalued attribute.
Special Guidelines of Naming & Defining Attribute: -

In addition to the general guidelines for naming data
object. There are few special guidelines for naming attributes
which are
· An attribute name is a noun (such as Customer_Id,
Age, Production, Price).
· An attribute name should be Unique. No two attributes
of the same entity type may have the same name.
· Each attribute name should be follow a standard
formats.
(Q) Explain the Entity, Entity Type, Entity Instances and
Types of Entity s in E – R Model?
1. Entity: - An entity is a person, place, object events,
in the user environment about which the organization to
maintain of data.
Example: -
Place : Rompicherla, Piler, Chittoor, Hyderabad etc.
People : Students, Employees, workers etc.
2. Entity Type: - “A Collection of entities that shared
a common property or characteristics”. An Entity type is always
singular we can use capital letters for the entity name. In E –
R Model the Entity is representing as a following symbol.
3. Entity Instance: - “A single occurrence of the entity

type is called as Entity Instances.”
Example: -
Entity Type: EMPLOYEE Attributes:
Emp_Name Varchar(20)
Emp_Number Varchar(10)
DOB Date
Two Instances of EMPLOYEE
(1) Emp_Name : ABCD (2) Emp_Name : WXYZ
Emp_Number : 101010 Emp_Number : 202020
DOB : 19-08-1992 DOB : 20-09-1990
Types of an Entity Types in E – R Model: -
The following various types of entities can used in E-R diagram.
1. Weak Entity.
2. Strong Entity.
3. Associate Entity.
1. Weak Entity: - “An entity type whose existence
depends on some other entity” is known as Weak Entity. A
Weak Entity type has no business meaning in the E-R Diagram.
The Weak Entity is representing as a double rectangular box.
Example: -
Consider the following example. Here „COUSTOMER
is a entity it having two attributes like Cust_Name,
Cust_Ac_No and „TRANSATION is a another entity it having a
two attributes like Deposit, Withdrawn.
Cust_Name Deposit Withdrawn

Cust_Ac_No
TRANSATION
CUSTOMER Has
2. Strong Entity: - “An Entity that exists independently

of other entity type” is known as a Strong Entity. It means it
does not dependent another entity. The Strong Entity is
representing as a solid rectangular box.
Example: -
A PERSON is an Entity it s having two attribute like
Name, Age. Another entity is EMPLOYEE it s having two
attributes like Emp_Id, Emp_Name.
In this above example the entity EMPLOYEE is a Strong

Entity. It does not dependent on any other entity.
3. Associative Entity: - “An Associative Entity is an
entity type that associates the instances of one or more entity
types and contains attributes that are peculiar to the
relationship between those entity instances”.
The associative entity is represented with the diamond
relationship symbol enclosed with in the entity box.
Example: -
An EMPLOYEE entity is having attributes Emp_Id,
Emp_Name. A COURSE having the attributes is Course_Id,
Course_Title. Another entity as CERTIFICATE having the
attributes like Cert_No, Date_Comp. Now the relations
between 3 entities by using associative entity are as following.
EMPLOYEE : Emp_Id, Emp_Name.
CERTIFICATE : Cert_No, Date_Comp
COURSE : Course_Id, Course_Title.
In this above example the entity CERTIFICATE is an
associative entity. Because we can use this entity as entity
type of relationship.
Entity and types of symbols used in E – R Model: -
S. No Entity Symbols in E-R Model Description
1
Weak Entity
Strong Entity
2
3 Associative Entity
Special Guidelines to Naming & Defining Entity: -

In addition to the general guidelines for naming data
object. There are few special guidelines for naming entity
which are
· An Entity name is a singular noun (Such as EMPLOYEE,
CUSTOMER, FLIGHT)
· An Entity type name should be specific to the
organization.
· An Entity type name should be concise (concise means
giving a lot of information with a few words). So entity name
is a minimum as possible as meanings.
· An abbreviation or short name should be specified for
each entity type name.
Example: - Emp_Dept instead of Employee_Department.
· The entity name should be small be same on all E-R
Diagram which the entity type appears.
(Q) Explain the Relationship s and explain the Degree of
Relationships?
Relationship: - “A relationship type is a meaningful
association between (or among) entity types”. A relationship
type is denoted by a “diamond symbol” contain the name of
the relationship.
Relationship Instances: - “An association between (or

among) entity instances where each relationship instances
includes exactly one entity from each participating entity
types”.
Associative Entity: - “An entity type that associates
the instances of the one or more entity types and contains
attributes that are peculiar to the relationship between those
entity instances”.
Degrees of Relationships: - “The number of entity
types that participate in a relationship”. The three mostly
common relationships of degrees in E-R Model there are
1. Unary Relationship (Degree 1)
2. Binary Relationship (Degree 2)
3. Ternary Relationship (Degree 3)
Symbols of Relationship Degrees: -
1. Unary Relationship: - “A Relationship between the

instances of a single entity type” is known as a Unary
Relationship. Unary relationship also called as a „Recursive
relationships.
Under this Unary Relationship we have
1. One – to – One.
2. One – to – Many.
· One – to – One: - An entity is „A is associated with at
most one entity in „B , and an entity is associated with at
most one entity in „A .
A B
A1 B1
A2 B2
A3 B3
Example (1):- Consider as a E-R Diagram it having a

one entity and one relationship it s their one-to- one.
PERSON
Is_Married_to
· One – to – Many: - An entity is „A is associated with

any number of entity in „B , and entity in „B how ever can be
associated with at most one entity in „A .
A B
A1 B1
A2 B2
A3 B3
one entity and many relationship it s their One-to-many.
EMPLOYEE
COMPANY
Has
In this above example each Company has one or many

employees. But each employee is employed by only one
Company. This type of relationship is called as One-to-Many
relationships.
2. Binary Relationship: - “A relationship between the
instances of two entity types”. Is known as a Binary
Relationship.
Under this Binary Relationship we have
1. One – to – One.
2. One – to – Many.
3. Many – to – One.
4. Many – to – Many.
· One – to – One: - An entity is „A is associated with at
most one entity in „B , and an entity is associated with at
most one entity in „A .
A B
A1 B1
A2 B2
A3 B3
Example (1):- Consider as E-R Diagram it having a one

entity and one relationship it s their one-to-one.
In this above example every Passenger most process a

Ticket, and each Ticket must bee belong to only one Passenger.
Example (2): - Consider as a following entity having
the attributes
CUSTOMER : Cust_Id, Cust_Name, City, Street.
ACCOUNT : Acct_No, Balance.
A relationship set customer account (Cust_Acct) may
be one-to-one relationship. A customer having only one
account Number in a bank.
Cust_Id Cust_Name Acct_No Balance
CUSTOMER Cust_Acct ACCOUNT
City Street One-to-one relationship between Customer and Account.
· One – to – Many: - An entity is „A is associated with

any number of entity in „B , and entity in „B how ever can be
associated with at most one entity in „A .
A B
A1 B1
A2 B2
A3 B3
one entity and many relationship it s their One-to-many.
DEPARTMENT
MANAGER
Has
In above example one Manager has responsible for

many Department responsibility of their company.
the attributes
be one-to-many relationship. A customer having several
accounts types in one bank.
· Many – to – One: - An entity is „A is associated with

at most one entity in „B and entity in „B how ever can be
associated with any number of entities in „A .
A B
A1 B1
A2 B2
A3 B3
many entity and one relationship it s their Many-to-one.
BROWED
BOOKS
Issues
In above example Books is a Entity and Browed is a

another entity. One student can issued number of books in
library.
the attributes
be many-to-one relationship. Many customers having only one
accounts types in one bank. (Joint Account)
· Many – to – Many: - An entity is „A is associated

with any number of entity in „B , and entity in „B
how ever can be associated with any number of entities in „A
A B
A1 B1
A2 B2
A3 B3
many entity and many relationship it s their Many-to-many
In this above example each Lecture to teach one or more

subjects. One subject can be dealing or lecturing one or more lectures.
In this method we called as a Many-to-Many relationship.
the attributes
be many-to-many relationship. In a bank many customers
having many accounts.
Cust_Id Cust_Name Acct_No Balance
CUSTOMER Cust_Acct ACCOUNT
City Street Many-to-Many relationship between Customer and Account.
3. Ternary Relationship: - “A Simultaneous

relationship among the instances of three entity types” is
known as Ternary Relationship. A business situation that leads
to a ternary relationship is shown below.
Example: - Consider a following entity set having the
attributes.
Entities : VENDOR, PARTS, WAREHOUSE.
Attributes : Shipping_Mode, Unit_Cost.
Relationship : Supplies.
PARTS
Supplies WAREHOUSE
VENDOR
Shipping_Mode Unit_Cost
In this example VENDOR can Supplies various PARTS

to WAREHOUSE. The relationship Supplies is used to record
the specific Parts that are supplied by a given Vendor to a
particular Warehouse.

CHAPTER-II
Extended Entity Relationship Modeling

(EE-R Model)
==============***********===============
Introduction: -
In order to design the complete structure of any organization,
ER-Modeling symbols are not sufficient. So new features are added
to ER-Model to provide more accurate structure to the ER-Model.
And E-R Model renamed as an “Enhanced / Extended Entity
Relationship Modeling (EE-R Model)”.
There are new features is like an
1. Supertype.
2. Subtype.
3. Generalization.
4. Specialization.
5. Attribute Inheritances.
6. Aggregation.
(Q) How to Representing Supertype / Subtype? Give one
example?
Definition of Supertype: - “A generic entity type that
has a relationship with one or more subtype”.
Definition of Subtype: - “A Sub-grouping of the
entities in an entity type that is meaningful to the organization
and that share common attributes or relationships distinct
from other sub-groupings”.
Basic Concepts and Notation of Supertype / Subtype: -
Note: -
1. The Supertype is connected with a line to a Circle
in which in term is connected by a line to each Subtypes that
have been define.
2. The (U – Shape) is indicated connecting a Subtype.
3. Here all attributes are shared by all entity are
associated with Supertype.
4. Attributes are unique to a particular subtype,
associated with subtype.
Example: - The following example shows a
representation of the EMPLOYEE Supertype with its three
subtypes using EER-Notations. Consider the following entities
set having the attributes.
Supertype: EMPLOYEE : Emp_No, Emp_Name,
Address.
Subtype:HOURLY_EMPLOYEE : Emp_No, Emp_Name,
Address, Hourly_Rate.
SALARY_EMPLOYEE : Emp_No, Emp_Name, Address,
Annual_Salary.
CONTRACT_EMPLOYEE : Emp_No, Emp_Name,
Address, Cont_Number, Billing_Rate.
In that above all of the EMPLOYEE types several
attributes in common namely Emp_No, Emp_Name, Address.
In addition each type has one are more attribute distinct from
the attributes of the types.
In the above figure shows a representation of the

EMPLOYEE Supertype with the 3 subtypes using EER- Notation.
Attributes shared by all EMPLOYEE are associated with the
EMPLOYEE entity type. Attributes that are peculiar to each
subtype are included with that subtype only.
Specialization Hierarchy: - Entity Supertype and
Subtype are organized in a specialization hierarchy, which
depicts the argument of higher-level entity Supertype (parent
entities) and lower-level entity subtype (child entity).
Specialization Hierarchy formed by an EMPLOYEE
Supertype and there three entity subtypes PILOT, MECHANIC
and ACCOUNTANT. The specialization hierarchy reflects the
1:1 relationship between EMPLOYEE and its subtype.
The relationships depicted within the specialization
hierarchy are sometimes described in terms of “ is-a”
relationships. For example a Pilot is an Employee, a Mechanic
is an Employee and an Accountant is an Employee. However
a specialization hierarchy can have many levels of supertype /
subtypes relationship, that is, you can have a specialization
hierarchy in which a Supertype has many subtypes, in turn one
of the subtype is the Supertype to other lower-level subtypes.
A Specialization Hierarchy provides the means to:
· Support Attributes Inheritances.
· Define a special Supertype attribute know as the
subtype discrimination.
· Define disjoint / overlapping constraints and complete
/ partial constraints.
Supertype: EMPLOYEE : Emp_Id, Emp_Name, Address.
Subtype: PILOT : Emp_Id, Emp_Name, Address,
License, Ratings.
MECHANIC : Emp_Id, Emp_Name, Address, Type.
ACCOUNTANT : Emp_Id, Emp_Name, Address, Category.
Fig: - Specialization Hierarchy.

In that above all the EMPLOYEE types several
attributes in common namely Emp_Id, Emp_Name, Address.
Emp_Id Emp_Name Address
EMPLOYEE Supertype
PILOT Subtype
Type License Ratings
In the above figure shows a representation of the

EMPLOYEE Supertype with the 3 subtypes using EER- Notation.
Attributes shared by all EMPLOYEE are associated with the
EMPLOYEE entity type. Attributes that are peculiar to each
subtype are included with that subtype only.
(Q) Representing Generalization and Specialization with
examples?
Introduction: - There are two processes namely
Generalization and Specialization. There are serve as mental
model in developing Supertype and subtype relationships.
Generalization: - “The process of defining amore
general entity type from a set of more specialized entity type”.
(OR)
“Generalization is the process in which subtype are
grouped into Supertype”.
This generalization is a follows “Bottom-Up” (Deriving
supertype from subtype) approaches. Generalization and
Specialization are interdependent on each other and available
in on E-R Model. But it is not possible to distinguish
Generalization and Specialization separately.
Example: - Pigeon, Sparrow and Crow can all be generalized

as „Birds .
Example: - Consider the three entity types having the attributes

is as follows.
· TRUCK : Vehicle_Id, Vehicle_Name, Capacity, Price,

Cab_Type, Make, Model, Engine_Displace.
· CAR : Vehicle_Id, Vehicle_Name, No_of_Passengers,
Price, Engine_Displace, Make, Model.
· MOTOR CYCLE : Vehicle _Id, Vehicle_Name, Price,
Make, Model, Engine_Displace.
In this stage, the data modeler intends to represent
these separately on E-R diagrams.
Fig: - Three entity types TRUCK, CAR, MOTOR CYCLE

Here Vehicle_Id is the Identifier of attribute and
Vehicle_Name is the Composite attribute like Make & Model.
This more general entity type (named as VEHICLE)
together with the resulting Supertype and subtype
relationship. Generalization to „VEHICAL . Supertype.
Fig: - Generalization to VEHICAL Supertype

The entity CAR has the specify attribute
No_of_Passengers, while TRCUK has two specify attributes
like Capacity, Cab_Type. Thus generalization allowed us to
group entity types along with their common attributes and at
the same time preserves specific attributes that are peculiar
to each subtype.
“Notices that the entity type MOTOR CYCLE is not
includes in the relationship. Because it doesn t satisfied the
conditions for a subtype”. We will notice that only attributes
of MOTOR CYCLE are those that are common to all „VEHICAL
. There are no specifying attributes are MOTER CYCLE.
Specialization: - “The process of defining one or more
subtypes of the Supertype / subtype and forming Supertype /
subtype relationships”.
(OR)
“Specialization is a process in which Supertype can
be de-composed into smaller subtypes”. Supertype is located
at the top position and it is divided into further subtypes.
These subtypes are located under the Supertype. So
Specialization follows “Top-Down” (Deriving subtype from
Supertype) approach.
A
a1 a2 a3 a4
Specialization is the top-down process of identifying

lower-level, more specific entity subtypes from higher-level
entity Supertype. Specialization is based on grouping unique
characteristics and relationships of the subtypes.
Example: - Take a group „Person . A person has name,
date of birth, gender, etc. these properties are common in all
persons, human beings. But in a company, persons can be
identified as Employee, Employer, Customer or Vender based
on what role they play in the company. Similarly, in a college
database, persons can be specialized as Lecturer, Student or
a Staff based on what role they play in college as entities.
It is to be observed that the „Student and „Lecturer
inherit some of the attributes of the„Person .
PERSON
IS-A
PERSON
PERSON
Example: - Suppose an entity type named as „PART

together with several of its attributes. The identifier is Part_No
and other attributes included Description, Unite_Price,
Location, Qty_on_Hands, Routing_Number and Supplier (the
last attributes is multivalued since there may be more than
one supplier with associated Unit_Price for a part).
PART : Part_No, Description, Qty_on_Hands, Location,
Routing_Number(product Mgf Number), Supplier, Unit_Price,
Supplier_Id.
Unit_Price Supplier_Id
Description
Supplier
Part_No Routing_Numbers
Qty_on_Hands
PART Location
Fig: - Specialization of Entity type PART

There are two possible sources for PART: Some are
„Manufactured internally, while others are „Purchased from
outside suppliers. Some are attributes are apply to the all
parts, regardless of source. Thus Routing_Number applies only
to „Manufacture part, while Supplier_Id and Unit_Price apply
only to „Purchased part. These factors suggest that PART
should be specialized by defining the subtypes MANUFACTURE
PART and PURCHASED PART.
Fig: - Specialization to MANUFACTURED PART and

PURCHASED PART
(Q) Explain Aggregation and Composition? With an
example?
Aggregation: - Aggregation is a process when relation
between two entities is treated as a single entity.
Example: The relation between Center and Course entities is
acting as a single entity in relation with entity Visitor.
Center Offer Course
enquire
Visitor
Composition: - It implies a relationship between the

entities where the Child entity cannot exit independent of
the Parent entity.
Example: - House (parent entity) and Room (child
entity). Room does not exit separate to a House.
CHAPTER-III
Relational Data Modeling
==============***********===============
RELATIONAL DATA MODEL: -
Dr. E. F. Codd First introduces the relational data model
in 1970.
“The relational data model represents data in the form of
tables.”
The relational model is based on mathematical theory
and therefore has a solid theoretical foundation.
The relational data model consists of the following
three components
1. Data Structure: Data are organized in the form of
tables with rows and columns.
2. Data manipulation: Powerful operations (using the
SQL language) are used to manipulate data stores in the
relations.
3. Data Integrity: Facilities are included to specify
business rules that maintain the integrity of data when they
are manipulated.
RDBMS Terminology: -
Fo rmal Relation al term Informal eq uivalent
Relation Table
Tuple Row, Reco rd
Attribute Colum n, Field
Cardinality No. of Rows
Degree No. of c olum ns
Domain Set o f legal values
Primary key Unique identification
(Q) What is a Relation? Explain the different representation
methods of relations with example?
Relation: - “A relation is a table in DMBS a relation
consider as set of rows and columns”. Every relation must
consist named columns and unnamed rows.
Properties of Relationship: -
1. Every ration contains named columns and unnamed rows.
2. Table attributes must be unique names.
3. Table names must be unique.
4. The values in the cells should be „atomic .
Representation of a relation: -
Normally a relation may be represented in two possible
methods.
1. Textual Representation.
2. Graphical Representation.
1. Textual Representation: - In this representation
total table structure like name of the table and its attributes
etc., are expressed in text format. In textual representation
the name of the table followed by attributes with in
parenthesis.
Syntax: - Table name ( Attribute name 1, Attribute
name 2, Attribute name n)
Example: - EMPLOYEE ( Emp_Id, Emp_name, Salary,
Dept_No).
2. Graphical Representation: - In this representation
name of the table takes place on the top position and
attributes placed with in connected rectangles.
(Q). Explain the Characteristics / Properties of Relational

Data Model? Properties of Relations or Characteristics of
Relational Table: -
We have defined relations as two-dimensional tables
of data. However, not all tables are relations. Relations have
several properties that distinguish them from non-relational
tables. We summarize these properties below.
1. A table is perceived as a two-dimensional structure
composed of rows and columns.
2. Each relation (or table) in a database has a unique
name.
3. An entry at the intersection of each row and column
is automatic (single valued). There can be no multi-valued
attributes in a relation.
4. Each row is unique; no two rows in a relation are
identical.
5. Each attribute (or column) within a table has a
unique name.
6. The sequence of columns (left or right) is
insignificant. The columns of a relation can be interchanged
without changing the meaning or use of the relation.
7. The sequence of rows (top to bottom) is
insignificant. As with column, the rows of a relation may be
interchanged or stored in any sequence.
8. All values in a column must conform to the same
data format. For example, if the attribute is assigned an
integer data format, all values in the column representing
that attribute must be integers.
(Q) Explain the Relational Keys?
We must able to store and retrieve of a rows in a
relation database on the values that in a row, to achieve this
goal every relation must have some types of keys. Those keys
are called as relational keys. The relational keys are following.
 Super Key.
 Candidate Key.
 Primary Key.
 Composite Key.
 Foreign Key.
1. Super Key: - An attribute (or Combination of
attributes) that uniquely identifies each row in a table.
2. Candidate Key: - A minimal super key that is one
that does not contain a subset of attributes that is itself a
super key. (OR) A candidate key can be described as a super
key without redundancies, that is, a minimal super key.
Example: Using this distinction, note that the
composite key.
STU_NUM, STU_LNAME
is a super key, but it is not candidate key because
STU_NUM by itself is a candidate key! The combination
STU_LNAME, STU_FNAME, STU_INT, STU_PHONE might also
be a candidate key, as long as you discount the possibility
that two students share the same last name, first name, initial,
and phone number.
3. Primary Key: - “A Primary key is an attribute (or
Combination of attributes) that Uniquely Identifies each row
in a relation”. We designate a primary key by using Underlining
the attribute name,
Example: - The primary key for the relation EMPLOYEE
is Emp_Id. In shorthand notation express this relation as
following.
EMPLOYEE (Emp_Id, Name, Dept_Name, Salary).
4. Composite Key: - “A Composite key is a primary key
that consists of more than one Primary key or attribute” is
called as a Composite key.
Primary Key
Example: - Consider as the STUDENT (Stu_Id, Name, Marks, Ranks)
Composite Key
5. Foreign Key: - The Foreign key must represented the
relationship between two tables. This is accomplished or
provide through using Foreign key.
“A Foreign Key is an attribute in a relational database
that several primary keys of another relation in the same
database. The attribute name is „Dept_Number is a Foreign
Key. It can represent in a notations by using “Dashed
Underline” of the attribute.
Example: - It consider as a two different tables in a
database like EMPLOYEE & DEPARTMENT
EMPLOYEE1 (Emp_ID, Emp_Name, Emp_salary, Deptno)

DEPARTMENT (Deptno,Dep_Name, Location)
This attribute Deptno is a foreign key in EMPLOYEE1.
It allows a user to associate any employee with the
department to which he or she is assigned. The foreign key
represented in a notation by using a “Dashed Underline”.
Properties of Relations: -
We have defining relations as two-dimensional tables
of data. However not all tables are relations. Relations have
several properties that distinguish them from non-relation
tables. We summarized these properties below.
 Each relation (or table) in a database has a unique
name.
 An entity intersection of each row and column is an
automatic value (atomic).
 There can be no multivalued attributes in a relation.
 Each row is unique; no two rows in a relation are
identical.
 Each attribute within a table has a unique name.
(Q) Explain the Integrity Constraints (or) Rules?
The Integrity Constraints the relational data model
includes several types of constraints (or) business rules, the
purpose is to facilitate maintaining the accuracy and integrity
of data in the database.
The major types of integrity constraints are
1. Domain Constraints.
2. Entity Integrity.
3. Referential Integrity.
4. Action Assertion.
1. Domain Constraints: - “All of the values that appear
in a column of a relation must be taken from the same domain”.
A domain usually consists of the following components
like Domain Name, Meaning, Data type, size (or length), and
allowable values or allowable ranges. The following table
shows the domain definition
Attr ibu te Domain Name Descriptio ns D omain Data type & Size
C ust_Id Customer_Ids Set of all possible Cu stomers I d?s C haracters : size 5
C ust_Nam e Customer Nam e Set of all po ssible C ustom ers Names C haracters : size 20
Date Data Set of all p ossible d ates C haracters : m m-dd -yy
Pro duct_P ric e Produ ct Prices Set of all po ssible p rices of product C haracters : Size 6 digits
Pro duct Finish Produ ct Finish es Set of all po ssible finishes of prod uct C haracters : Size 12
2. Entity Integrity: - The Entity Integrity rule is
designed to assure that “Every relation has a primary key”
and that the data values for that primary key are all valid. In
particulars, it guarantees that every “primary key attributes
is not a null”. The entity integrity rule states the following
“No Primary key attribute may be Null”.
3. Referential Integrity: - “In the relational data model
associations between tables are defined through the use of
Foreign Key”.
For Example: the association between the CUSTOMER
and ORDER tables is defined by including the Cust_Id attribute
as a foreign key in ORDER.
CUSTOMER (Cust_Id, Cust_Name, Address, City, State)
ORDER (Order_Id, Order_Date, Cust_Id)
A referential integrity constraint is a rule that maintains
consistency among the rows of two relations. The rule states
that if there is a foreign key in one relation, either each foreign
key value must match a primary key values in another relation
or the foreign key value must be null.
4. Action Assertions: - Business rules and introduced
a new category of business rules we called action assertions.
Example a typical action assertion might state the following
“A student may purchase a bus pass for the one year only if
that person is a Cat card holder”.
(Q) Define E. F. Codd s Rules on Data Models?
Dr. E .F. Codd s Rules: - Dr. E .F. Codd s the famous
mathematician has for introduce 12 rules for the relational
model. For database commonly known as Codd s rules. The
rules mainly define what is required for a DBMS for it to be
considered relational, i.e an RDBMS there is also one more
rule. Which specifies the relational model should use the
relational way to manage the database. The E.F.Codd s defines
12 rules for relational database, which any database should
satisfy in order to be regarded as relational database.
1. The Information Rule.
2. Guaranteed Access Rule.
3. Systematic Treatment of Null-Values.
4. The data description rule.
5. The Comprehensive data sub-language rule.
6. The view updating rule.
7. High Level Insert Update and Delete.
8. Physical Data Independence.
9. Logical Data Independence.
10. Integrity Independence.
11. Distribution Independence.
12. Non-Sub Version Rule.
1. The Information Rule: - All information in the
database should be represented in one and only one way that
is the form of “Rows & Columns” or tuples.
2. Guaranteed Access Rule: - Any data must be
accessible with no ambiguity. This is achieved in DBMS using
the „Primary Key value and column name.
3. Systematic Treatment of Null Values: - Any missing
information in a table is represented as a Null value. Support
for Null values in a RDBMS must be consists on Independent
of Database.
4. The data description rule: - The rule requires that
a description of the database or metadata should be store in
data dictionary that is part of RDBMS.
5. The Comprehensive data sub-language rule: - This
rule status that an RDBMS must be completely manages the
rule through SQL include DDL, DML and DCL.
6. The view updating rule: - These rule states that
all views that are theoretically updatable and are also
updatable by the system. This rule is very restricted senses.
7. High Level Insert, Update and Delete: - The system
is able to „Insert, Update and Deleted operations fully . It can
also perform the operations on multiple rows simultaneously.
8. Physical Data Independence: - These rule states
that application programmers remain logically unimpaired
when any changes are made in either the storage
representation of data.
9. Logical Data Independence: - These rules states
that application programs remain logically unimpaired when
information preserving changes of any kind that theoretically
permit are made in base table.
10. Integrity Independence: - All the integrity
constraints like Primary key, Composite Key etc., must be
separately from application programs and stored in the
catalogs.
11. Distribution Independence: - These rule states
that a distributed database must look to theuser or the
application as a centralized database. Applications programs
and interactive user should not be required to knows where
data whenever data are physically centralized or distributed.
12. Non-Subversions rules: - These rule states that s
if an RDBMS supports a low level language (record-at-a-time)
that permits.

CHAPTER-IV
Normalization of Database Tables
==============***********===============
(Q) what is Normalization? Explain in details with an
suitable examples?
Definition: - “Normalization is a process for evaluating
and correcting table structures, to minimize the data
redundancies by reducing the data anomalies”.
(OR)
“Normalization is the process of decomposing
relations with anomalies to produce smaller, well-structured
relations”.
Normalization is primary a tool to validate and improve
a logical design, so that is satisfies certain constraints that
“avoid unnecessary duplication of data”. Normalization works
through a series of steps called Normal Forms. We have
different types of Normal Forms there are.
Types of Normalizations: - In relational model all
Normal Forms are broadly classified into two types.
1. Basic Normal Forms  1 NF, 2 NF & 3 NF.
2. Advanced Normal Form  BCNF, 4 NF & 5NF.
Steps in Normalizations: -
· First Normal Form (1 NF)  “Any Multi-valued
attributes have been removed”, so there is a single at the
intersection of each row and column of the table.
· Second Normal Form (2 NF)  “Any Partial Functional
Dependencies have been removed”.
· Third Normal Form (3 NF)  “Any Transitive
· Boyce Codd Normal Form (BCNF)“Any remaining
anomalies that result from functional dependencies have been
removed”
· Fourth Normal Form (4 NF)  “Any Multi-valued
· Fifth Normal Form (5 NF)  “Any remaining
anomalies have been removed”.
Needs of Normalization: -
The tables are the basic building block in the database
design process. Every table has its own structure. In some
cases even a good database design contains a poor table
structure to identify these tables and convert them as good
tables. We need normalization.
The Poor table structure contains anomalies. The main
need of Normalization is to reduce the anomalies. We have 3
types of data anomalies, there are
1. Insert Anomalies.
2. Update Anomalies.
3. Delete Anomalies.
1. Insert Anomalies: - If you insert any row in a
relation, the remaining rows are affected then we can say
that the relation has Insert Anomalies.
2. Update Anomalies: - If you update any value in a
relation, then remaining values in the relation are
unnecessarily affected. Then we can say that there is an Update
Anomalies.
3. Delete Anomalies: - If you delete any row in a
relation the remaining rows in a relation are unnecessarily
deleted then we can say that there is a Delete Anomalies.
Normalization Process: - The main objective of
Normalization process is to break the tables and create new
tables. This process contains the following characteristics.
 Each table represents the single subject.
 No data item will be unnecessarily stored in more than
one table.
 All Non-Keys attributes are dependents of the Primary
Key.
 Each table doesn t contain Insertion, Update &
Deletion Anomalies.
Multi-Value Attributes: - A Single Attribute contain
the more than one values in the relational table. is known as
Multi-Value Attribute or Repeating Groups.
Functional Dependencies and Keys: -
Definition: - “A Functional Dependency is a constraints
between two attributes or two sets of attributes” The
functional Dependency of “B on A” is represented by an arrow,
as follows A à B. Here „A is determination and „B is the
dependency.
Example: - 1. Consider the relation COURSE (Emp_Id,
Course_Title, Date_Completed). We represent the functional
dependency in this relation as follows.
Emp_Id, Course_Title à Date_Completed.
Determination: - “The attribute on the Left-hand side
of the arrow in a functional dependency is called as a
Determination”.
Candidate Key: - “A Candidate key is an attributes or
combination of attributes that uniquely identify a row in a
relation” The Candidate key must satisfy the following
properties.
· Unique Identification: - For each row the value of the
key must uniquely identify that row.
· Non-Redundancy: - No attributes in the key can be
deleted without destroying the properties of unique
identification.
Representation of Functional Dependencies: - We
represent the functional dependencies for a relation using
the notations shown in the following.
Example 1: - Show the representation for EMPLOYEE 1
The Horizontal line in the example portrays the

functional dependencies. And vertical line drops from the
primary key (Emp_Id) and connects to this line. Vertical arrows
then point to each of the non-key attributes that are functionally
dependent on the primary key.
Example 2: - Consider the example EMPLOYEE 2.
There are two functional dependencies in this relation.
1. Emp_Id : Name, Dept_Name, Salary.
2. Emp_Id, Course_Title : Date_Completed.
The primary key of EMPLOYEE 2 is a composite key
neither Emp_Id nor Course_Title uniquely identifies a row in
this relation.
Transitive Dependency: - “A Transitive Dependency

in a relation is a Functional Dependency between two (or more)
non-key attributes”.
If any three attributes contains following Functional
Dependencies is as A  B BC and CA.it automatically
exits. This type of Functional Dependency is known as
„Transitive Dependencies .
Example: - Consider the relation SALES (Cust_Id,
Name, Salesperson, Region)
In that above relation the following Functional
Dependencies can exits
1. Cust_Id  Name.
2. Cust_Id  Salesperson
3. Salesperson  Region
The Functional Dependencies in the SALES relation are

shown graphically Boyce Codd Normal Form (BCNF): -
Definition: - The Boyce Codd Normal Form (BCNF) is
based on the Functional Dependency in a relation. A relation in
BCNF. “iff (if and only if) every determine is a Candidate Key”.
1. First Normal Form: - “A Relation First Normal Form
(1 NF) if it contains „No-Multivalued attribute has remove”.
This First property of a relation is that the value at the
intersection of each row and column must be „atomic . Thus
a table contains Multivalued attributes or repeating groups
is not a relation.
Multivalued attribute from a table: - A given
EMPLOYEE may have taken more than one Course the
attributes Course_Title and Date_Competed are mutivalue,
table with repeating groups.
EMPLOYEE 1
Emp_Id Name Dept_Name Salary Course_Title Date_of_Complete
100 ReddyPrasad Info Systems 55000 Java 19 / 06 / 2009
Dot Net 10 / 07 /2010
201 Perumal Finance 45000 Tax Acc 12 / 08 / 2009
104 Abdulla Marketing 30000 SCAN 12 / 08 / 2009
VC++ 04 / 02 / 2010
106 Krishna Accounting 25000 ***** *******
166 Rakesh Finance 15000 VC++ 16 / 06 / 2009
SCAN 12 / 08 / 2009
Here the Employee with Emp_Id s „100 , „104 & „166

has taken two courses. But Emp_Id„106 has no any
course_Title & Date_Completed values are Null.
Eliminating Multivalued attributes: - EMPLOYEE1
Emp_Id Name Dept_Name Salary Course_Title Date_of_Complete
100 ReddyPrasad Info Systems 55000 Java 19 / 06 / 2009
100 ReddyPrasad Info Systems 55000 Dot Net 10 / 07 / 2010
201 Perumal Finance 45000 Tax Acc 12 / 08 / 2009
104 Adbulla Marketing 30000 SCAN 12 / 08 / 2009
104 Abdulla Marketing 30000 VC++ 04 / 02 / 2010
106 Krishna Accounting 25000 ***** *******
166 Rakesh Finance 15000 VC++ 16 / 06 / 2009
166 Rakesh Finance 15000 SCAN 12 / 08 /2009
In this above table we remove the Multivalued

attributes by using „atomic property (replacing or copying
the same values in above row).
The above table is satisfying the atomic property. But
we did not identify the any primary key in the table.
(II). Conversion To Second Normal Form: -
Second Normal Form: - “Any Partial Functional
A relation is in Second Normal Form (2 NF) “If it is first
normal form and every non-key attribute is fully functionally
dependent on the primary key”.
Example: - EMPLOYEE 2 is an example of a relation
that “is not in second normal form”. The primary key for this
relation is the composite key Emp_Id, Course_Title. Therefore
the non-key attributes Name, Dept_Name and salary is
functionally dependent on part of the primary key (Emp_Id)
but not on Course_Title.
EMPLOYEE 2
Em p_Id Name D ept_Nam e Salary C ourse_ Title Date_of_ Complete
1 00 ReddyPrasad I nfo Systems 550 00 Java 19 / 06 / 2009
Dot Net 10 / 07 /201 0
201 Rakesh Finance 45000 T ax Acc 12 / 08 / 2009
1 04 Abdulla Marketing 30000 SCAN 12 / 08 / 2009
VC+ + 04 / 02 / 2010
1 06 Krishna Accounting 250 00 ***** ** *** **
1 66 Rakesh Finance 150 00 VC+ + 16 / 06 / 2009
SCAN 12 / 08 / 2009
These dependencies are show graphically in figure.

EMPLOYEE 2 is decomposed into the following two relations.
1. EMPLOYEE 1 ( Emp_Id, Name, Dept_Name, Salary)
2. E_COURSE (Emp_ID, Course_Title, Date_Completed)
EMPLOYEE 1 relation satisfies condition 1 and is in second
normal form. E_COURSE relation satisfies condition 3 above
and is also in second normal form.
Sample data for EMPLOYEE 2
EMPLOYEE 2
Emp_Id Name Dept_Name Salary
100 ReddyPrasad Info Systems 55000

201 Rakesh Finance 45000
104 Abdulla Marketing 30000
106 Krishna Accounting 25000
166 Rakesh Finance 15000
Sample data for E_COURSE
E_COURSE
Em p_Id Cou rse_Title D ate_o f_C om plete
100 Java 19 / 06 / 2009
100 Dot Net 10 / 07 / 2010
201 Tax Acc 12 / 08 / 2009
104 SC AN 12 / 08 / 2009
104 VC ++ 04 / 02 / 2010
166 VC ++ 16 / 06 / 2009
166 SC AN 12 / 08 /200 9
In the above table Emp_Id „106 has deleted. Because
the Employee has not taken any Course.
(III). Conversion to Third Normal Form: -
Transitive Dependency: - “A Transitive Dependency
in a relation is a Functional Dependency between two (or more)
non-key attributes”.
If any three attributes contains following Functional
Dependencies is as A B B  C and C  A. it automatically
exits. This type of Functional Dependency is known as
„Transitive Dependencies .
Third Normal Form: - “Any Transitive Dependencies
have been removed”.
“A relation is in Third normal form (3 NF), if it is in
second normal form and no „Transitive Dependencies exists .
Example: - Consider the relation SALES (Cust_Id,
Name, Salesperson, Region) SALES relation with sample data
SALES
Cust_Id Name Salespe rsons Region
8023 A Smith South

9167 B Hicks West
7924 H Smith South
6837 T Herna East
8596 E Hicks West
7018 AR Prasad No rth
Transitive Dependency in SALES relation
The Functional Dependencies in the SALES relation

are shown graphically
In that above relation the following Functional
Dependencies can exits
1. Cust_Id  Name.
2. Cust_Id  Salesperson
3. Salesperson  Region
From 2 & 3 Functional Dependencies can exit
automatically Cust_Id à Region.
The Cust_Id is the Primary key, so that all of the
remaining attributes are functionally dependent on this
attribute. How ever, there is a Transitive Dependency. Region
is functionally dependent on Salesperson is functionally
dependent on Cust_Id.
How to remove Transitive Dependency: -
The Transitive Dependency can be removed “by
decomposing SALES into two relation” as shown in the
following.
The Relation in 3 NF is shown below them new relation

are now in Third Normal Form, since no Transitive
Dependencies exits.
(II). Advanced / High Level Normal Forms:
(Q) Explain the Boyce Codd Normal Form (BCNF)? With an
example?
Definition: - The Boyce Codd Normal Form (BCNF) is
based on the Functional Dependency in a relation. A relation in
BCNF. “iff (if and only if) every determine is a Candidate Key”.
Difference between the BCNF & 3NF: - The difference
between 3NF and BCNF is „That a Functional Dependencies A
 B. the 3rd Normal Form from and BCNF is that a relation.
iff „B is a primary key. „A is a not a candidate key. Where as
if „B is a primary key of all BCNF. These dependencies to
remaining in relations „A must Candidate key.
PANEL is a 3NF but not BCNF

The structure shown in relation is reflected in PANEL.
· Stu_Id + Staff_Id à Class_Code, Enroll_Grade.
· Class_Code à Staff_Id.
Consider PANEL that contains a Primary Kay „Stu_Id +
Staff_Id . When we observe the above relation, we found that
there is partial dependency and transitive dependency. So that
the relation is in 3NF, but not in BCNF. Because the part of the
Primary key depends on the non-key attributes. That means
the relations are two candidate keys.
To convert the above relation in to BCNF to change
the Primary Key from „Stu_Id+Staff_Id to „Stu_Id + Class_Code
. Then split the relation into two parts like STUDENT & CLASS.
CLASS is a 3NF and BCNF

A relational PANEL structure that is clearly in 3NF, but
the table represented by this structure has a major problem,
because it is trying to describe two things.
· Staff assignment to Classes.
· Student enrollment information.
Example For BCNF: -
Therefore BCNF is stronger form 3NF, such that every
relation in BCNF is also in the 3NF. However a relation in the
3NF is not necessary in BCNF.
Consider the following relation„ INTERVIEW which
considers the details of arrangement for all interviews of
candidates. The interviews are allocated a special room on
the day. The interview a room can be allocated to several
interviews as required through a day. Consider the following
example “INTERVIEW” table.
INTERVIEW
Can did ate_Id I nterview _D ate Int erview_Tim e Staff Roo m_No
C001 24-Aug-2 010 10:3 0 E001 R001
C001 24-Aug-2 010 11:3 0 E001 R001
C002 24-Aug-2 010 11:3 0 E002 R002
C003 24-Aug-2 010 10:3 0 E001 R002
The above table has 3 composite keys which
overlapping by sharing the common attribute as shown below.
· Candidate_Id and Interview_Date.
· Interview_Id, Interview_Date and Interview_Time.
· Room_No, Interview_Date and Interview_Time.
We make the composite candidate key (Candidate_Id,
Intervirew_Date) as the primary key.
Now the relation has following functional
dependencies.
· Candidate_Id, Interview_Date  Interview_Time,
Interview_Id, Room_No (Primary Key).
· Candidate_Id, Interview_Date, Interview_Time 
Candidate_Id (Candidate Key).
· Room_No, Interview_Date, Interview_Time  Staff,
Candidate_Id (Candidate key).
· Staff, Interiew_Date  Room_No (Not a Candidate
Key).
INTERVIEW 1
Candidate_Id Interview_Date Interview_Time Staff
C001 24-Aug-2010 10:30 E001
C001 24-Aug-2010 11:30 E001
C002 24-Aug-2010 11:30 E002
C003 24-Aug-2010 10:30 E001
ROOM
Staff In terview_Date Room_No
E001 24-Aug-2010 R001 (10:3 0)
E002 24-Aug-2010 R002 (11:3 0)
(Q) Explain the 4th Normal Form? With an example?
4th Normal Form: - “A relation is said to be in the 4th
Normal Form if it does not contain multivalued dependencies”
(MVD s).
If more than one attribute are depend on the primary
key, it is said to be multivalued dependencies. In multivalued
dependencies more number of attributes are depend on the
primary key. The NF relation must follow the below rules.
· All attributes must be dependent on the Primary Key,
but they must be independent of each other.
· No row may contain two or more multivalued facts
about an entity.
Multivalued dependencies are the results of 1NF due
to data redundancy. If the relation contains multivalues
attributes then we have to repeat the every value of that
attributes to keep the relation consistent which produces
multivalued dependencies.
Example: -
Consider the following example table relation of
EMPLOYEE that has attributes like Name, Project and Hobbies.
A row in the EMPLOYEE table that an employee works for a
Projects and has a Hobbies. But an employee can work in
more than one project and more than one Hobby. The employee
projects and hobbies are independent of one another to keep
the relation consist we must have separated tables of
represented every combination of employee project and
employee hobbies. This contains specific multivalue
dependences of on EMPLOYEE table.
EMPLOYEE
Nam e P ro je ct H o b b i es
A l e xi s M ic r os of t R ea di n g
A l e xi s O r a c le M us ic
A l e xi s M ic r os of t M us ic
A l e xi s O r a c le R ea di n g
M a t h ew s I n te l M o v ie s
M a t h ew s S y b a se R a i d i ng
M a t h ew s I n te l R a i d i ng
M a t h ew s S y b a se M o v ie s
In that above table the values has been multiple-
functional dependencies. Now to remove multi-value
dependencies in EMPLOYEE table. By using de-composing of
a table. The 4th Normal form as following.
PROJECT
Project Emp_Name
Microsoft Alexis
Oracle Alexis
Intel Mathews
Sybase Mathews
HOBBY
Hobbies Emp_Name
Reading Alexis
Music Alexis
Movies Mathews
Raiding Mathews
(Q) Explain the 5th Normal Form? With an example?
5th Normal Form: - A relation is said to be in 5th
Normal Form if it doesn t contains multiple relationships, such
type of relation are rarely available in DBMS. If any relation
contains multiple relations, they should be resolved into simple
relations by using normalization.
Consider the following relations LAB_PRODUCT_
COMPANY.
LAB_PRODUCT_COMPANY
Lpc_Id Lab_Id Prod_Id Company_Id
Lpc0001 L001 P001 C001

Lpc0002 L002 P002 C002
Lpc0003 L003 P003 C003
Lpc0004 L004 P004 C004
In the above relation more than one Foreign keys exits,

so this is called multiple relationships. Due this multiple
relationship this relation is not in 5 th Normal Form.
One Lab in a company can test one production or many
products. Similarly one company may produce one product or
more products. Therefore the above relation should be
normalized to resolve multiple relationships. It is represented
in the following.
LAB_PRODUCT
Lab_Id Prod_Id
L001 P001
L002 P002
L003 P003
L004 P004
LAB_COMPANY
Lab_Id Company_Id
L001 C001
L002 C002
L003 C003
L004 C004
In “LAB_PRODUCT” relation multiple relationships are

not exits. So this relation is 5 th . In the same way
“LAB_COMPANY” relation doesn t contains multiples
relationships. So it is also in 5th Normal Form.
UNIT – IV
Structured Query Language
Chapter – I
Introduction to Structure Query Language
(SQL)
==============***********===============
Structured Query Language (SQL) is the standard
command sets, use to communicate with the relational
database management systems (RDBMS).
All tasks related to RDBMS creating tables, queries,
modification of tables, deleting of tables from the database.
SQL is to granting the access to user and database.
History of SQL: - SQL was first introducing by “Dr. E. F.
Codd”. He works on Relational Model for large sharing
databank. Since it s introducing many researches at the
“SanJose” Research Laborites.
The mid of 1970 s development many computer
programming languages based on this relation model one of
this called as a “Structured English Query Language”
(SEQUEL). These languages are used for an IBM prototype
machines called as a “Structured English Query Languages
Extensional Relational Model” (SEQUEL-XRM).
In 1976 s IBM s re-launched for this second prototype and
called as a Relational-Systems (R-Systems). One research organization
called relationship software from California commercially available
relational database was ORACLE. Today s ORACLE manufactures a
wide range of SQL products along with ORACLE relational database
management systems software.
Types of SQL: - SQL is broadly classified into two types.
1. Interactive SQL.
2. Embedded SQL.
1. Interactive SQL: - “Interactive SQL is used for
directly access the data from the database”. Where the output
of operation is used for human consumptions. Once a
command is specified is “executed and output is immediately
view by the users”.
2. Embedded SQL: - “In the case of Embedded SQL
commands are SQL Commands that are written in some
another languages”. Such as COBAL, ALP (Assembly Level
Programming Language). This makes the programmer very fast
and powerful manner.
Advantages of SQL: -
· SQL is a high level language that provides a greater
degree of „abstraction .
· SQL deals with number of database management
system at a time.
· SQL is an English like computer language which makes
interaction between user and database very simply.
· SQL language which being simple and easy to learn
can handle complex situation.
· SQL operations are performed at a set level. One select
statement can retrieve multiple rows.
(Q) What SQL can Do?
· SQL can Retrieve data fro a Database.
· SQL can Execute Queries against a Database.
· SQL can Insert Records in a Database.
· SQL can Update Records in a Database.
· SQL can Delete Records in a Database.
· SQL can Creates New Tables in a Database.
· SQL can Creates Views in a Database.
(Q) Define SQL * PLUS?
SQL * PLUS is a software product from Oracle
Corporation that allows users to interactively use the SQL
commands, produce formatted reports and support written
command-procedures to access Oracle Database. Though SQL
* PLUS, a user can Do:
· Enter, Edit, Store, Retrieve and Run SQL Commands.
· Format, Perform calculations, Print Query results in
the form of Reports.
· Access and Copy data between SQL Database.
· Send messages to and accepts responses fro an End-
Users.
(Q) Explain the difference between SQL and SQL * Plus?
SQL SQL * PLUS
SQL is a special-purpose language used to define,access and SQL * PLUS is a command line tool that allows user to type
manipulate data in RDBMS like Oracle SQL commands to be executed directly against an Oracle
Database.
SQL provides set of commands used to SQL* PLUS is the environment where you canactually
communicate with the Database to perform type your commands to perform specific
specific tasks. tasks.
SQL commands can be used to create tablesobjects SQL * PLUS commands can be used to describe the structure
like Create, Alter, drop etc. of Database objects. For example: DESCRIBE/DESCRIPTION is
DESC command.
SQL commands cannot be abbreviated. In SQL * PLUS commands can be abbreviated.Like the
commands EDIT can be ED.
Every SQL commands must be ended withsemicolon In SQL * PLUS semicolon (;) is optional.
(;)
(Q) Explain the different types of Data types in SQL?

SQL Data types: - Most programming language
requires programmed declaration by using data types. The
most database system required the user to specific the type
of each data fields. The available data type varying from one
programming language to other languages. The SQL supports
the following scalar data types.
I. String Data type: -
1. Char (n): - This type of data type represented as a
“Fixed length of String” of exactly n. Here „n is a allowed
grater than zero, positive integers only. The maximum size
for „n is 255 bytes.
Syntax: - Char (n)  Example: - Char (4).
2. Varchar2 (n): - This type of data type represented a
variable-length character length. The maximum size for „n is
4000 bytes. Here „n is a allowed grater than zero, positive
integers only.
II. Number Data type: -
1. Numeric (p, q): - This data type represented a
decimal number of „p digits and signed with assume decimal
points of „q digits. From the right side „p and q are integer.
Syntax: - Numeric (p, q) Example: - Numeric (3, 4)
2. Long: - Variable length character data up to 231-1
bytes or 2GB per row
3. Raw (n): - Variable length raw binary data. A
maximum„n must be specified. The size is 2000 bytes per row.
III. Date and Time: -
1. Date: - The date type is represented date values. It
is fixed length date and time. Default format is “DD-MON-
YYYY” example: 13-Jul-2017. The size of data is 7 bytes foe
each row.
(Q) Explain the Types of SQL Commands?
SQL statements are divided into the following
categories
Data Definition Language (DDL): - DDL Commands
is used to “Define the Database Structure” by “Creating,
Altering, Dropping and Truncating Tables”. The logical data
definition statements are Create Table, Creating View,
Creating Index, Alter Table, Drop Table and Drop Index.
Data Manipulation Language (DML): - DML
Commands allowed the user to “Manipulate data”.
Manipulate data refers to “Inserting, Updating and
Deleting of data”.
Data Query Language (DQL): - DQL Command is one
of the most commonly used SQL statements. Using DQL we
can “Access data from the Table”. The SQL has only one DQL
statement is “SELECT”.
Data Control Language (DCL): - The Data Control
Language consists of commands that control the “User Access
to the database objects”. Thus DCL is mainly related to the
“Security issues” that is determining who has access to the
database objects and what operations they can perform on
them. The task of the DCL is to prevent unauthorized access
to data. The Database Administrator (DBA) has the power to
give and take the privileges to a specific user, thus giving or
revoking access to the data. The DCL commands are GRANT
and REVOKE.
Data Administration Statement (DAS): - Data
Administration command allows the user to perform “Audits
and Analysis” on operations within the database. Two data
administration commands are START AUDIT and STOP AUDIT.
Database Administration is the overall administration of the
database and data administration is only a subset of that.
Transaction Control Statement (TCS): - TCS are
statement which manages all the changes made by the DML
statements. Some of the Transaction are “COMMIT,
ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT and SET Transaction”.
(I) Data Definition Language Commands (DDL): -
1. Create for Tables: - This Command is used to
“Create Object / Table in the Database”.
Syntax: - create table <table name> (column name 1
data type(size), column name2 data type (size) Column n name
data type(size));
Ex: - create table branch(branch_code number
(10),branch_name varchar2(10), city varchar2(5));
Restriction of Table Name:-
 First Letter should be Alphabet.
 There should not be any space in the Table Name.
 Any special symbols like ( - ) Hyphen can t be used.
 Table Name should not be keywords in Oracle
2. Alter Table: - Alter Table statements neither support
any kind of changes to the width or data type of an existing
column nor the deletion of an existing column.
· Adding a New Column: - To add a New Column to the
Table.
Syntax: - alter table <table name> add (new column
name 1 data type(size), new column name 2 data type(size),
, new column name n data type (size));
Ex: - alter table branch add (address varchar2(10),
telephone number(8));
· Modifying the Existing Column: - To Modifying the
Existing table values.
Syntax: - alter table <table name> modify( existing
column name 1 data type(size) , existing column name 2 data
type(size) );
Ex: - alter table branch modify (address varchar2(20),
telephone number(10));
3. Drop Table: - This command is use “Drop the
Structure / Table (or) Delete the Objects / Tables from the
Database permanently .
Syntax: - drop table <table name>;
Ex: - drop table emp;
4. Truncate Table: - This command is used to “Delete
(or) Remove all records / rows from a table”, and to release
the storage space used by that table. When using the Truncate
Table statement, you cannot„rollback (Undo).
Syntax: - truncate table <table name>;
Ex: - truncate table emp;
(II) Data Manipulation Language (DML): -
1. Insert Table Values: - This command is used to
“Insert data into a table” (or) Insert new Records in to the
Table.
Syntax: - insert into <table name> values(„& column
name1 , „ & column name 2 , „ & column name 3 ,„ & column
name n );
Ex: - insert into branch values(„& branch_code , „ &
branch_name , „ & city );(OR)
Syntax: - insert into <table name>(„column name1 ,
„column name 2 , „ column name 3 , ……… „column name n
) values(„Column Value 1 , „Column Value 2 , „Column Value
3 ,);
Ex: - insert into branch („branch_code , „ branch_name
, „ city ) values (1045, „SBI , „Piler );
2. Update Table Values: - This command is used to
“Change the value of column (or) Updates existing data within
a table”.
Syntax: - update <table name> set <column name 1>
= <value 1>,
<column name 2> = <value 2>, ………
<column name n> = <value n> [ where <condition>];
Ex: - update branch set telephone = 9885712847
where branch_code = „007 ;
3. Delete the Table: - This command is used to
“Deleting particular the records in a Table”.
Syntax: - delete from <table name> [ where
<condition>]; Ex: - delete from branch where branch_code =
„007 ;
4. Select: - This command is used to “Selected /
retrieve data from the Database tables”.
· Display the Table Records: - Syntax: - select * from
<table name>;
· View the Selective columns: -
Syntax: - select column names from <table name>;
Ex: - select branch_code ,city from branch ;
· View the only particular Record :-
Syntax: - select * from <table name> where column
name = “ “;
Ex: - select *from branch where city= “Tirupati” ;
(III) Transaction Control Statement (TCL): -
1. Save Point: - This is used to “Identify a point in a
transaction to which you can later rollback”. One transaction
can have any number of Save Points.
Syntax: - savepoint <save point name>;
2. Roll back: - This is used “Restore database to
original since the last COMMIT”. Move to certain save points
created for a transaction. Before completion of the transaction.
Syntax: - rollback <save point name>;
3. Commit: - Commit it used to end any transaction
(or) “Save Work Done”.
Syntax: - commit; OR commit work;
(IV) Data Control Language (DCL): -
1. Grant: - This command is used to “Grant the
permissions on one table to other user (or) Gives user s
access privileges to Database”. To Grant all permission, we
can t drop the table.
Syntax: - Grant [ type of privilege] ON [user name].
[table name] to [user name] [with Grant option];
Example: - SQL> Grant select ON scott . fareedemp to
shaik with grant option read;
· Grant all: - This command is used to Grant the
permissions on all tables to other user. To Grant all permission,
we can t drop the table.
Syntax: - Grant All [ type of privilege] ON [user name].
[table name] to [user name] [with Grant option];
Example: - SQL> Grant All select ON scott . fareedemp
to shaik with grant option write;
2. Revoke: - This command is used to “Take-out some
or all permissions on a table from a user”. (or) “Withdraw
access privileges given with the GRANT command.
Syntax: - Revoke [ type of privilege] ON [user name].
[table name] from [user name];
Example: - SQL> Revoke select ON scott . fareedemp
from shaik ;
(Q) What is the Difference between DELETE, TRUNCATE and
DROP commands in SQL?
(1) DELETE: - The DELETE command is used to remove
rows from a table. A WHERE clause can be used to only remove
some rows. If no WHERE condition is specified, all rows will
be removed. After performing a DELETE operation you need
to COMMIT or ROLLBACK the transaction to make the change
permanent or to undo it.
SQL> SELECT COUNT (*) FROM
emp;COUNT (*)
14
SQL> DELETE FROM emp WHERE job = 'CLERK';
4 rows deleted.
SQL> COMMIT;
Commit complete.
SQL> SELECT COUNT (*) FROM
emp;COUNT (*)
10
(2) TRUNCATE: - TRUNCATE removes all rows from a
table. The operation cannot be rolled back and no triggers
will be fired. As such, TRUCATE is faster and doesn’t use as
much undo space as a DELETE.
SQL> TRUNCATE TABLE emp;
Table truncated.
SQL> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM emp;
COUNT(*)
0
(3) DROP: - The DROP command removes a table from
the database. All the tables’ rows, indexes and privileges will
also be removed. No DML triggers will be fired. The operation
cannot be rolled back.
SQL> DROP TABLE emp;
Table dropped.
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp; SELECT * FROM emp
* ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00942: table or view does not exist.
DROP and TRUNCATE are DDL commands, whereas
DELETE is a DML command. Therefore DELETE operations can
be rolled back (undone), while DROP and TRUNCATE
operations cannot be rolled back.
(Q) Explain Query In SQL?
A “Query is a Question” in the Structured Query
Language. As its name denote SQL is best at writing Queries.
Anything that is apart of RDBMS table can be retrieved at the
users request using SQL. A SQL Query has five basic parts
that are
1. Select
2. From
3. Where
4. Group By
5. Order By
1. Select: - This command comprise of the list of
columns that have to be displayed in the Query result. If you
want all the columns of a table to be displayed, instead of
writing down all the column names you could simply use an
astric (*).
2. From: - This part identified the source tables of all the
columns. These could be a single table or more than one table.
3. Where: - This is an “Optional Part of a Query” this
part specified the limits that the result. If a Query does not
have a Where Clause all the rows are selected comparisons
can also is specified in this clause.
Ex:-If the librarian wants to see the list of all members
who have borrowed books on the date 15-08-2009 Select book
code from member where issues date = „15-08-2009 ;
4. Group By: - This is another optional part of a Query.
If is used only when the results of the Query have to be
Grouped based on criteria. Expressions can be specified as
criteria for this clause.
Ex: - If the average salary of employees in a
department is to be from the following Query can be used.
Select dept_no, avg(pay) from employee group by dept_no;
5. Order By:- This is an optional clause that controls the
order in which the rows to be display by the Queries are ordered.
Ex:- If the Librarian wants the results of the Query to
be ordered by book code, this is the following query Select
book_code from member where issues date = „15-08-2009
order by book_code;
(Q) Difference between Where and Having Clause in SQL?
WHERE CLAUSE HAVING CLAUSE
Where Clause of the SELECT statement ismainly Having Clause for SELECT statement
used for conditional retrieved of records ismainly used for
from a database table. conditional retrieval of
records from grouped results.
Where Clauses can ne used without the Group Having Clause cannot be used without the
By Clause. Group By Clause.
Where Clause cannot contain Group Function. Having Clause can contain Group Functions.
Where Clause selects records before grouping. Having Clause selects records after grouping.
(Q) What are the Integrity constraints?
Integrity constraints are used to ensure accuracy and
consistency of data in a relational database. Data integrity is
handled in a relational database through the concept of
referential integrity. There are many types of integrity
constraints that play a role in referential integrity.
Types of Integrity Constraints: -
· Entity Integrity.
· Referential Integrity.
· Domain Integrity.
· User Define Integrity.
Entity integrity: - The entity integrity constraint states
that no primary key value can be null. This is because the
primary key value is used to identify individual Tuples in a
relation. Having null value for the primary key implies that we
cannot identify some tuples. This also specifies that there may
not be any duplicate entries in primary key column key row.
Referential Integrity: - The referential integrity
constraint is specified between two relations and is used to
maintain the consistency among tuples in the two relations.
Informally, the referential integrity constraint states that a
tuples in one relation that refers to another relation must refer
to an existing tuple in that relation. It is a rule that maintains
consistency among the rows of the two relations
Domain Integrity: - The domain integrity states that
every element from a relation should respect the type and
restrictions of its corresponding attribute. A type can have a
variable length which needs to be respected. Restrictions could
be the range of values that the element can have, the default
value if none is provided, and if the element can be NULL.
User Defined Integrity: - A business rule is a statement
that defines or constrains some aspect of the business. It is
intended to assert business structure or to control or influence
the behavior of the business. E.g.: Age>=18 && Age<=60.
(Q) Grouping Data from Tables in SQL?
1. Group by Clause
2. Having Clause
1. Group by Clause: - The Group by Clause is another
section of the select statement. This option clause tells Oracle
to group rows based on distinct values that exist for specified
columns. Therefore it crated a database containing several
sets of records group together based on a condition. In Group
by option we can use aggregate functions also. The syntax of
Group by Clause is following.
Syntax: - select <column list> from <table name>
group by <column name>;
Example: - Retrieve the product number and the total
quantity order for each product from the sales_order details
tables.
Table Name: - Sales_Order
Order_no product_no Quality_order Quality_Dis
30402 p001 10 10
30402 p004 03 03
30402 p006 07 07
40300 p002 04 04
40300 p005 10 10
30240 p003 02 02
30430 p001 06 06
30670 p006 04 04
30670 p004 01 01
30700 p006 08 08
SQL> select product_no, sum(Quality_order) from sales_order

group by product_no;
Output: - product_no Quality_order
P001 16
P002 04
P003 02
P004 04
P005 10
P006 19
2. Having Clause: - The Having Clause can be used in
conjunction with the group by clause. “Having imposes a
condition on the group by clause”. Which further filters the
groups created by the group by clause?
Syntax: - select <column list> from <table name>
group by <column> having <condition>;
Ex: - Retrieve the product_no and the total quality
ordered for products p001 & p004 from the sales_order table.
Order_no product_no Quality_order Quality_Dis
30402 p001 10 10
30402 p004 03 03
30402 p006 07 07
40300 p002 04 04
40300 p005 10 10
30240 p003 02 02
30430 p001 06 06
30670 p006 04 04
30670 p004 01 01
30700 p006 08 08
SQL> select product_no, sum (Quality_order) from sales_

order group by product_no having sum(Quality_Order)>10;
Output: - product_no Quality_order
P001 16
P004 04
P006 19.
(Q) Explain the SQL Operators?
Operators and conditions are used to perform
operations such as additions, subtractions, comparisons on
the data items is an SQL Statements. “Operators is a symbol,
which represent some particular actions. Operator operates
on operands”.
There are two types of operators like Unary and Binary
operators. Unary operators contain only one operand that is
+ve or –ve values. Binary operators contain more than two
operands.
Example: - 1. Unary Operators: - +ve values or –ve
values.
2. Binary Operators: - A + B ; Here “+” is a operator
between two operands.
There are following SQL Operators:
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Comparison Operators
3. Logical Operators
4. Set Operators.
1. Arithmetic Operators: - Arithmetic Operators are used
in SQL expressions to Add, Subtract, multiply, divide and negate
data values. The result of this expression is a numeric value.
Arith met ic Oper ators
Un ary Op erato rs
+,- D enotes as +v e or –ve expressions
Bin ary Op erator s
+ Ad ditio n
- S ubt ractio n
* M ultip lication
/ D ivision
3. Comparison Operators: - These operators are used
to compare one expression with another. The result of a
comparison is True, False or Unknown.
Oper ator D escriptio n
= Equality
!= N ot Eq ual to
> G rater th an
< Less than
>= G rater th an Equal
<= Less than Equal
IN Equal to any m em ber o f list
N OT IN N ot Eq ual to any m ember o f list
IS N ULL Testes for N ull Values
L IKE R eturn Tru e w hen th e First Exp ression match es
the p attern o f Secon d Expr ession. Wild C ard like
(%) allo wed .
ALL C omp ar ed a value to every value in th e list
ANY C omp ar ed a value to each value in th e list
B ETW EEN C omp ar ed tw o lists
3. Logical Operators: - A logical operator is used to
produce a single result from combining the two separate
conditions. There are AND, OR , NOT Operators.
Operator Definition
AND Return True if Both component conditions are True; otherwise
return False
OR Return True if either component conditions is True; otherwise
return False
NOT Return True if the condition is False; Otherwise return False.
Truth Table for Logical Conditions: -

List(a) Operator List(b) Result
True AND True = True
True AND False = False
False AND True = False
False AND False = False
List(a) Operator List(b) Result
True OR True = False
True OR False = False
False OR True = False
False OR False = True
NOT Operator Result

True False
False True
Consider the following example a=10; b=15; c=20;

(i) if a>b AND a>c = False AND False à False.
(ii) if a<b AND b<c = True AND True à True.
(iii) if a>b OR b>c = False OR False à True.
(iv) if a<b OR b<c = True OR True à False.
(v) if NOT a>b = NOT False à True.
(vi) if NOT a<b = NOT True à False.
4. Set Operator: - Set Operators combine the results
of two separate Queries into a single result.
Operator Description
UNION Returns all Distinct row a from both Queries
UNION ALL Returns all row a from both Queries
INTERSECT Returns all row selected by both Queries
MINUS Returns all distinct rows that are in the first query but notin
the second one.
(Q) Describe the NULLS in Action?

According to the Dr. E.F.Codd s rules systematic
treatment Null Values the missing information to a table
represented by Null Values. If a table contains Null Values or
Not Null Values the commands can be used.
SQL provides a special construct represented by the
keyword NULL. According to standard, “There is no Literal for
Null values, although the keyword NULL is used in some places
to indicate that a Null value is desired”. The Literal Null can
appear only in the following contexts.
 As a default specification within a column or domain
definition.
 As an insert/update item specifying a value to be
placed in a column position on INSERT/ UPDATE.
 As a CASE result
 As a part of referential specification.
1. IS NULL: It displays records which having Null values
to the specified attributes.
2. IS NOT NULL: It display s records which is Not
having Null Values to the specified attributes.
Effect of NULLS: As a general rule it is always better
to avoid Nulls. But there are certain cases when you cannot
prevent having Nulls in your table. In order to use properly.
The following Nulls will behave in different situation.
 Null values in aggregate functions are ignored.
 Conditional statement is extended from the Boolean
two values, therefore True/False. If three valued therefore
True/False/Unknown logic.
 All operations except || will return null if any of the
operands are Null.
 To test for Null, the comparison operators IS NULL and
IS NOT NULL must be used.
 A conversion function with Null as argument returns
Null.
(Q) Explain Aggregate Function or Grouped Functions?
The Aggregate Functions greatly enhanced the power
of the SQL statement. They let you summarized the data from
the tables. An Aggregate Functions takes an entire column of
the data as its argument and produces a single data item
that summarized the columns. SQL provides six aggregate
functions. These are powerful tools and can improve the data
retrieval power considerably. These are some rules, which
must be following while using these functions. They are:
1. SUM
2. AVG
3. MAX
4. MIN
5. COUNT
6. COUNT( * )
Rules of Aggregate Functions:
 For SUM and AVG the argument must be of type
Numeric
 Except for the special case COUNT (*), the argument
may be preceded by the key word DISTINCT to eliminate the
duplicate rows before the functions is applied to a column.
The DISTINCT is legal for MAX and MIN but meaningless.
 The special function COUNT (*) which is used to all
rows without any duplicate elimination and so the keyword
DISTINCT is not allowed for this functions.
 The argument can t involve any Aggregate functions
references or table expressions at any level of nesting. For
Example the SQL “select avg(min(qtly) as “ is illegal.
 Any null in the column is eliminated before the function
is applied.
 When using MAX & MIN with string data. The
comparison of the strings is dependent on the character set.
Aggregate Functions:
1. SUM () Function: The SUM ( ) Function returns the
“Sum of Values in the Expression”
Syntax: - select sum(column name ) column name
from <table name >;
Example: - To view the reservation table
SQL> select * from reservation;
Output: - Pass name Class Total_fare
Shaik B 3000
Mohammad F 3500
Fareed E 2500
SQL> select sum (total_fare) total_fare from reservation;
Output: - Sum is 9000
2. AVG () Function: The AVG ( ) Function return the
“Avg of Values in the Expression”.
Syntax: - select avg(column name ) column name from
<table name >;
Example: - To view the reservation table
SQL> select * from reservation;
Output: - Pass_name Class Total_fare
Shaik B 3000
Mohammad F 3500
Fareed E 2500
SQL> select avg(total_fare) total_fare from reservation ;
Output: - Avg is 3000
3. MAX () Function: - The MAX ( ) Function return the
“Maximum of Values in the Expression”.
Syntax: - select max(column value) column name from
<table name>;
SQL> select max(total_fare) total_fare from reservation ;
Output: - Max is 3500
4. MIN () Function:- The MIN ( ) Function return the
“Minimum of Values in the Expression”.
Syntax: - select min(column value) column name from
<table name>;
SQL> select min(total_fare) total_fare from
reservation ;
Output: - Min is 2500
5. COUNT ( ) Function:- COUNT () Function return the
“Number of values in a columns”
Syntax: - select count(column value) column name from
<table name>;
SQL> select count(pass_name) pass_name from reservation
Output: - Count is 3
6. COUNT ( * ) Function:- COUNT (*) Function return
the “Number of rows in a table”
Syntax: - count(*)from <table name>;
For suppose we want to count number of columns in
table
SQL> select count (*)from reservation ;
Output: - Pass_name Class Total_fare
Shaik B 3000
Mohammad F 3500
Fareed E 2500
(Q) Explain the Set Operators in SQL?
In SQL supports four Set Operations namely
1. Union
2. Union all
3. Intersect
4. Minus
1. UNION Operator: - Union is a combination of Two
or more rows from similar tables to produce results. This
combination is done using the Union Operation. The Union
Operator combination two or more rows from similar tables
and returns only „Distinct values from done. “It doesn t display
duplicates rows”.
Records Records
Only in Only in
Query Query
one
Two
Eliminate Duplicate: - The most RDBMS provides the

provision of retaining or eliminating the duplicates. The
UNION verb is eliminates the duplicates. But UNION ALL is
allowed the any duplicates of data. But in some cases it
improves performances to use UNION ALL instead of UNION.
Restriction on using a Union Clause:
 Number of columns in that all the queries should be
the same.
 The data type of the column in each query must be
the same.
 Aggregate functions can t be use with Union Clause.
 Unions can t be use in Sub-Queries.
Syntax: - select <column names> from <table name 1> where [ condition]
UNION
Select<column names> from <table name 2> where [condition] ;
Query: - List all Distinct Employee id, names in the

Table1 and Table2
SQL> select * from far1;
SQL> select id,name from far1 union select id,name

from far2;
Output: -
ID NAME
100 Naresh
101 Kumar
102 Swamy
103 Fareed
104 Lakshmi
105 James
106 Kalavathi
107 Gayathri
8 rows selected.
2. Syntax: - select <column names> from <table name>
where [ condition]
UNION ALL Operators: - “This Operator is used to
display all records from both Tables including Duplicating
records”. So it is useful to find the total number of records in
two tables. It is represented by a keyword UNION ALL.
Query: - List all Employee id, names in the Table1 and Table2
SQL> select id,name from far1 union all select id, name from
far2;
Output: -
ID NAME
100 Naresh
101 Kumar
102 Swamy
103 Fareed
104 Lakshmi
106 Kalavathi
105 James
103 Fareed
107 Gayathri
101 Kumar
10 rows selected.
Difference between Union and Union All: -
UNION UNION ALL
It displays distinct rows from both tables.It It can display distinct rows and duplicate
cannot display duplicate records. records also.
Using the keyword UNION Using the keyword UNION ALL
We cannot find out the total number of We can find out the table numbers of
records in a table records in a table.
3. INTERSECT Operator: - “The Intersect Operator
returns the rows that are common between the Tables”.
Common
records in
both
queries
Query: - List the common Employee id, names from Table1 &
Table2
Syntax: - select <column names> from <table name> where [ condition]
INTERSECT
Select<column names> from <table name> where [condition] ;
SQL> select id, name from far1 intersect select id,

name from far2;
Output: -
ID NAME
101 Kumar
103 Fareed
2 rows selected.
4. MINUS Operator: - The Minus Operator combine
the result of the two query and returns only those values
selected by the “First Query and not the Second Query”.
A–B B–A
Query: - List the Employee id, names present in Table1
but not in Table2.
Syntax: -
select <column names> from <table name> where [ condition]
MINUS
Select<column names> from <table name> where [condition]
SQL> select id,name from far1 minus select id, name
from far2;
Output: -
ID NAME
100 Naresh
102 Swaamy
104 Lakshmi
Query: - List the Employee id, names present in Table2
but not in Table1.
SQL> select id, name from far2 minus select id, name
from far1;
UNIT – V
Procedural Language / SQL (PL/SQL)
Chapter – 1
Introduction of PL/SQL
==============***********===============
Introduction: -
· SQL does not support programming. It is used to write
single line statement called Quarries.
· To support programming constructs, additional
features are added to SQL and name it as PL/SQL.
· PL/SQL is very useful to develop programming.
· PL/SQL supports almost all programming constructs
like variables, conditional statements, looping etc.,
Architecture of PL/SQL: -
PL/SQL Engine
PL/SQL Block Structure: -
The Programming area in PL/SQL is called block. This
block mainly contains Three parts. They are:
1. Declarative Part.
2. Executable Part.
3. Exception Handling part.
Structure:-
SQL> Declare
……………
…………… Variable Declaration
……………
Begin
Statement 1
Statement 2 Executable Part
……………
End;
Exception Error Handling Part
The above syntax shows that every PL/SQL block
declarative part should be indicated with a key word called
“Declare”. Executable part must be enclosed with in begin
and end key words. Exception Handling part can be indicated
with a key word called it “Exception”.
Input & Output Statement in PL/SQL: -
1. Input Statement: - The Input statement in PL/SQL
is “ & “ Operator. The „& Operator it is to give the Input
values to the Variables.
Ex:- a : = & a;
x : = & x; ………
2. Output Statement: -The Output Statement in PL/
SQL is “dbms_output.put_line(„Message /Variables);”
Ex: - SQL> dbms_output.put_line( „ Welcome to PL/
SQL );
(Q) Explain various Advantages and Disadvantages of PL/
SQL? Advantages of PL/SQL: -
Block Structures: PL SQL consists of blocks of code,
which can be nested within each other. Each block forms a
unit of a task or a logical module. PL/SQL Blocks can be stored
in the database and reused.
Procedural Language Capability: PL/SQL consists of
procedural language constructs such as conditional
statements (if else statements) and loops like (FOR loops).
Better Performance: PL SQL engine processes
multiple SQL statements simultaneously as a single block,
thereby reducing network traffic.
Error Handling: PL/SQL handles errors or exceptions
effectively during the execution of a PL/SQL program. Once
an exception is caught, specific actions can be taken
depending upon the type of the exception or it can be displayed
to the user with a message.
Modularity: - Modularity means divide an application
or a process into manageable, well defined modules. PL/SQL
allows process to be divided into different modules such as
procedures and functions called „subprograms .
Portability: - Applications written in PL/SQL are
portable to any platform on which Oracle runs. One you write
a program in PL/SQL, it can be used in any environment
without any change at all. (WORM).
Disadvantages of PL/SQL: -
Proprietary of Oracle: - PL/SQL is proprietary to
Oracle which means if you were to change database vendors
then you would have to re-write all your Oracle PL/SQL
programs. Also if you use a mixture of databases or develop
applications to run on different databases, you will either have
to support lots of source code or write your applications in a
database-neutral language like: Java or Visual Basic.
Poor I/O Feature: - The other limitation of Oracle PL/
SQL is that there is very little support for I/O either to Read/
Write files to user interface.
Insufficient Memory: - More Memory may be required
on the Oracle database server when using Oracle PL/SQL
packages as whole packages is loaded into memory as soon
as any object in package is accessed.
(Q) Explain Fundamental of PL/SQL (or) PL/SQL Language
Elements?
Like every other programming language, PL/SQL has a
set of elements like Character Set, Reserved Words, Identifiers,
and Literals etc. these elements of PL/SQL are used to
represented real world entity or objects and operations.
· Character Set.
· Reserved Words.
· Delimiters.
· Literals.
· Lexical Units.
Character Set: - PL/SQL programs are written as lines
of text using a specific set of characters. The PL/SQL
characters set includes: Letters (a..z and A..Z), Numbers (0..9)
Tabs, Space, Special Symbols (+,-, <>, !, #, [], {} ). PL/SQL is
not a case sensitive.
Reserved Words: - Reserved words have special
syntactic meaning of PL/SQL and so it can not be redefined.
Reserved words are generally written in upper case to promote
readability, but it can be written in lower or mixed case.
Delimiters: - Delimiters are simple or compounds
symbols that have special meaning to PL/SQL. Delimiters are
like: +, -, <>, !=, ||, /*, :=, etc.
Literals: - A literal is an explicit numeric, character,
string or Boolean values that are not represented by
identifiers.
Lexical Units: - A line of PL/SQL text contains groups
of characters known as lexical unit. To improve readability,
you can separate lexical units by spaces. In fact, you must
separate adjacent identifiers by a space of punctuations.
(Q) Explain how to declare variables and constants in PL/
SQL?
PL/SQL Variables: - These are placeholders that store
the values that can change through the PL/SQL Block.
The General Syntax to declare a variable is: Variable_Name
datatype [NOT NULL := value ];
· Variable_Name is the name of the variable.
· datatype is a valid PL/SQL datatype.
· NOT NULL is an optional specification on the variable.
· value or DEFAULT values also an optional specification,
where you can initialize a variable.
· Each variable declaration is a separate statement and
must be terminated by a semicolon.
For example: - If you want to store the current salary
of an employee, you can use a variable.
DECLARE
salary number (6);
· “salary” is a variable of datatype number and of length 6.
When a variable is specified as NOT NULL, you must
initialize the variable when it is declared.
For example: - The below example declares two
variables, one of which is a not null.
DECLARE
salary number(4);
dept varchar2(10) NOT NULL := “HR Dept”;
The value of a variable can change in the execution or
exception section of the PL/SQL Block. We can assign values
to variables in the two ways given below.
1) We can directly assign values to variables.
The General Syntax is: - variable_name:= value;
2) We can assign values to variables directly from the
database columns by using a SELECT.. INTO statement.
The General Syntax is: SELECT column_name INTO
variable_name FROM table_name [WHERE condition];
Example: - The below program will get the salary of
an employee with id ‘1116’ and display it on the screen.
DECLARE
var_salary number(6); var_emp_id number(6) = 1116;
BEGIN
SELECT salary INTO var_salary FROM employee
WHERE emp_id = var_emp_id; dbms_output.
put_line(var_salary);
dbms_output.put_line(‘The employee ‘|| var_emp_id
|| ‘ has salary ‘ || var_salary); END;/
NOTE: - The backward slash ‘/’ in the above program
indicates to execute the above PL/SQL Block.
In PL/SQL block, variables are declared in the DECLARE
section.
Scope of Variables: -
PL/SQL allows the nesting of Blocks within Blocks i.e.,
the Execution section of an outer block can contain inner
blocks. Therefore, a variable which is accessible to an outer
Block is also accessible to all nested inner Blocks. The
variables declared in the inner blocks are not accessible to
outer blocks. Based on their declaration we can classify
variables into two types.
Local Variables - These are declared in an inner block
and cannot be referenced by outside Blocks.
Global Variables - These are declared in an outer block
and can be referenced by its itself and by its inner blocks.
For Example: - In the below example we are creating
two variables in the outer block and assigning their product
to the third variable created in the inner block. The variable
‘var_mult’ is declared in the inner block, so cannot be
accessed in the outer block i.e. it cannot be accessed after
line 11. The variables ‘var_num1’ and ‘var_num2’ can be
accessed anywhere in the block.
PL/SQL Constants: - As the name implies a constant

is a value used in a PL/SQL Block that remains unchanged
throughout the program. A constant is a user-defined literal
value. You can declare a constant and use it instead of actual
value.
For example: - If you want to write a program which
will increase the salary of the employees by 25%, you can
declare a constant and use it throughout the program. Next
time when you want to increase the salary again you can
change the value of the constant which will be easier than
changing the actual value throughout the program.
The General Syntax to declare a constant is:
constant_name CONSTANT datatype : = VALUE;
· constant_name is the name of the constant i.e. similar
to a variable name.
· The word CONSTANT is a reserved word and ensures
that the value does not change.
· VALUE - It is a value which must be assigned to a
constant when it is declared. You cannot assign a value later.
For example: - To declare salary_increase, you can
write code as follows:
DECLARE
salary_increase CONSTANT number (3) := 10;
You must assign a value to a constant at the time you
declare it. If you do not assign a value to a constant while
declaring it and try to assign a value in the execution section,
you will get a error. If you execute the below Pl/SQL block you
will get error.
DECLARE
salary_increase CONSTANT number (3); BEGIN
salary_increase : = 100; dbms_output.put_line
(salary_increase); END;
(Q) Define Data types / Records in PL/SQL?
PL/SQL Records: -
s Records are another type of datatypes which oracle
allows to be defined as a placeholder. Records are composite
datatypes, which means it is a combination of different scalar
datatypes like char, Varchar, number etc. Each scalar data types
in the record holds a value. A record can be visualized as a
row of data. It can contain all the contents of a row.
Declaring a record: - To declare a record, you must
first define a composite datatype; then declare a record for
that type.
The General Syntax to define a composite datatype is: -
TYPE record_type_name IS RECORD (first_column_
name column_datatype, second_column_name column_
datatype, ………);
· record_type_name – it is the name of the composite
type you want to define.
· first_col_name, second_col_name, etc.,- it is the
names the fields/columns within the record.
· column_datatype defines the scalar datatype of the
fields.
There are different ways you can declare the data type of
the fields: -
1) You can declare the field in the same way as you
declares the fields while creating the table.
2) If a field is based on a column from database table,
you can define the field type as follows:
column_name table_name.column_name%type;
By declaring the field datatype in the above method,
the datatype of the column is dynamically applied to the field.
This method is useful when you are altering the column
specification of the table, because you do not need to change
the code again.
NOTE: You can use also %type to declare variables
and constants. The General Syntax to declare a record of a
user-defined datatype is:
record_name record_type_name;
The following code shows how to declare a record
called employee_rec based on a user-defined type.
DECLARE TYPE employee_type IS RECORD
(employee_id number (5), employee_first_name varchar2
(25), employee_last_name employee.last_ name%type,
employee_dept employee.dept%type);
If all the fields of a record are based on the columns
of a table, we can declare the record as follows:
record_name table_name%ROWTYPE;
For example, the above declaration of employee_rec
can as follows:
DECLARE employee_rec employee%ROWTYPE; The
advantages of declaring the record as a ROWTYPE are: -
1. You do not need to explicitly declare variables for
all the columns in a table.
2. If you alter the column specification in the database
table, you do not need to update the code.
The disadvantage of declaring the record as a ROWTYPE
is: -
When u creates a record as a ROWTYPE, fields will be
created for all the columns in the table and memory will be
used to create the data type for all the fields. So use ROWTYPE
only when you are using all the columns of the table in the
program.
NOTE: When you are creating a record, you are just
creating a data type, similar to creating a variable. You need
to assign values to the record to use them.
The following table consolidates the different ways
in which you can define and declare a PL/SQL record.
Syntax Usage
TYPE record_type_name IS RECORD Define a composite datatype, where each field is scalar.
(column_name1 datatype, column_name2
datatype, ...);
col_name table_name.column_name%type; Dynamically define th e d atatype of a column based o n a
database column.
record_ name record_type_name; Declare a record based o n a user-defined type.
record_ name table_name%ROWTYPE; Dynamically declare a reco rd based on an entire row of a
table. Each colu mn in the table corresponds to a field in
the reco rd.
(Q) Explain the Control Statements in PL/SQL?

Branching: - Branching is a process in which the
control will be jumped from one statement to another
statement. In a program, they jumping may be based on
condition or without condition.
Branching with condition is called conditional
branching and the branching without condition called
unconditional branching.
For conditional branching SQL provides the following
statement.
1. If then
2. If then else
3. If then else if.
1. If Statement: - It is used test only one condition. It
returns when if the condition is True. Otherwise the condition
will exit. Every If statement should be ended with keyword
“End if”.
Syntax: - If < Condition > then
Statement 1;
Statement 2;
………………….
End if;
Example: - If (num > 0) then
dbms_output.put_line („Positive Number || Num);
2. If then else: - It is used to test a condition if Condition
is true then return True statement, otherwise its return s false
statements.
Syntax: - If< condition > then
Statement 1;
Else
Statement 2;
Else if;
Example: - If ( a> b) then
dbms_output.put_line(„a is big || a); else
dbms_output.put_line(„b is big || b); else if;
3. If then Else if: - This statement is used to test multiple
conditions one by one sequentially.
Syntax: - if <condition 1> then
Statement 1;
Else if < condition 2 > then Statement 2;
Else if < condition 3 > then Statement 3;
…………………….
Else
Statement n;
End if;
In the above syntax if the condition 1 is True,
statement 1 will executed. If condition 1 is false, it will go for
checking condition 2 and so on.
Looping: - Looping is a process in which a block of
statements will be executed repeatedly until given condition is
True. PL/SQL provides two types of looping statements they are.
1. For Looping
2. While Looping.
1. For Looping: - This looping statement will execute
loop body repeatedly initial values to final value for every
execution. The loop counter will be incremented by one. So
by using this statement we can also find the number of
iterations. This statement also called as “Recursive Looping”
statement.
Syntax: - For < Initial value > in < range from> .. <final value>
Loop
…………….
…………… Loop Body.
…………..
End Loop;
Reverse Values: For counter value in <reverse> <range from>
.. <final value>
Loop
…………….
…………… Loop Body.
…………..
End Loop;
Example: - (1) for I in 1..100
Loop
dbms_output.put_line(i); End loop
Output: - Its prints 1 to 100 values
(2) for I in reverse 1..100
Loop
dbms_output.put_line(i); End loop
Output: - its prints 100 to 1 values.
2. While Loop: - This looping statement can executed
loop body based on a condition. This statement with check
the condition first if the condition is true loop body will be
executed. Otherwise loop will be terminated.
Syntax: - while <condition>
Loop
Statement 1;
Statement 2; Loop Body
………………….
End loop;
Example: - while ( i < 10 )
Loop
dbms_output.put_line(i); i:= i+1;
End loop;
(Q) Discusses about the Cursors?
Cursors are a private working area or cursors are a
temporary working area. “It is mainly used for retrieving
multiple rows based on multiple attributes at a time. Cursors
are very useful to update big structure of a table at a time”.
Cursors can calculate calculation according to given conditions
and fetching rows into base tables.
A cursor is a temporary work area created in the system
memory when a SQL statement is executed. A cursor contains
information on a select statement and the rows of data
accessed by it. This temporary work area is used to store the
data retrieved from the database, and manipulate this data.
A cursor can hold more than one row, but can process only
one row at a time. The set of rows the cursor holds is called
the active set.
Cursors are mainly divided into two types in SQL. There are
1. Implicit Cursors.( user define)
2. Explicit Cursors.(system define)
1. Implicit Cursors: - These are automatically executed
by SQL Engine Internally. (or) These are created by default
when DML statements like, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
statements are executed. They are also created when a SELECT
statement that returns just one row is executed.
Ex: - Create Table, Alter Table, Create View, Update etc..,
2. Explicit Cursors: - The Cursors which are coded by
database programmers are called Explicit Cursors. The
Execution of explicit cursors is depending on the database
programmer s code all the user crated cursors are explicit
cursors.
They must be created when you are executing a SELECT
statement that returns more than one row. Even though the
cursor stores multiple records, only one record can be
processed at a time, which is called as current row. When
you fetch a row the current row position moves to next row.
Both implicit and explicit cursors have the same
functionality, but they differ in the way they are accessed.
Cursors Operations: - Every Explicit Cursors can be operated
by using the following cursors operations.
1. Declaring cursors.
2. Opening a cursor
3. Fetching row in to cursor
4. Closing a cursor.
1. Declaring a Cursor: - Before using any cursor, that
should be declared first. In one PL/SQL Program we may use
many cursors; all cursors must be defined under declarative
part of the PL/SQL block. A cursor is a database object, it is
declared by using the following syntax.
Syntax: cursor <cursor name> is <select statement>;
Ex: cursor c1 is select * from Emp;
2. Opining a cursor: - In order to work with cursor, we
must open it after creation. To open a cursor open key word is
used.
Syntax: - Open cursor name;
Ex: - Open c1;
3. Syntax: - Fetch <cursor name> into host variables;
Fetching Row into cursor: - To calculate values of
variables are useful after calculations. The values must be
fetched to host variables. To do so fetching cursors is used.
Ex: - Fetch c1 into TA, DA and HRA;
Fetching must be performing to all rows successfully.
So it must be included with in looping statement.
4. Closing Cursors: - After working successfully with a
cursor, it must be closed when we close a cursor. It will release
all recourse. To close a cursors “close” key word is used.
Syntax:- Close <cursor name>;
Ex: - close c1;
Cursors Attributes: - Cursors Attributes are used to
know the status of the cursor at a particular time. There are
1. % is open
2. % row count
3. % row type
4. % found
5. % not found
1. Syntax: - < cursors name> % is open ;
% is Open: - This attribute is used to know whether a
cursor is opened or not. It returns true if the cursor is opened,
otherwise it return false.
Ex: - c1 % is open ;
2. Syntax: - <cursor name> % row count ;
% Row count: - It provides the information about
number of rows successfully fetched into table currently.
Ex: - c1 % row count;
3. % row type: - It can equate the data type of table
attributes and host variable, this attribute always be used
while defining a cursor.
Syntax: - <cursor name> % row type ;
Ex: - cursor c2 is select * from Emp c2 % row type;
4. Syntax: - <cursor name> % found ;
% Found: - It provides the Information about recent
fetch operation. If the fetch statement is successfully
completed it returns true otherwise its returns false.
Ex: - if c2 is % found then
Update emp set net sal:= TA+HRA+DA
5. Syntax:- <cursor name> % not found;
% not Found: - This attribute is used to find whether
records are available or not in the cursor. Cursor operations
can be performing until % not found is false.
Ex: - loop
Fetch c2 into TA,DA,BASIC and HRA Exit when c1% not found;
Net sal:= basic+TA+DA End loop;
Various Guidelines should follow while coding Cursors:-
It will improve performances and maintainability of
the programs.
 Declare as many cursors as needed. There is no limit
on the number of cursors that can used in programs.
 A void using certain cursors for modification. A cursor
cannot be used for Updates or Deletes
 Cursors cannot be used for Updates or Deleted if the
“Declare Cursor” statement includes a Union, Distinct, Group
By and Having Clauses.
 Include only the columns that are being update.
 Always use “FOR UPDATE OF” when updating with a cursors.
 Use WHERE CURRENT OF to delete single rows using cursors.
 Open cursor before Fetching.
 Initialized host variables before opening the Cursor.
Close the Cursors explicitly. Even thought the RDBMS close
all opens cursors at the end of program
Attributes Return Value Example
%FOUND The return value is TRUE, if the DML SQL%FOUND
statements like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE
affect at least one row and if SELECT ….INTO
statement return at least one row.
The return value is FALSE, if DML statements
like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE do not affect
row and if SELECT….INTO statement do not
return a row.
%NOTFOUND The return value is FALSE, if DML statements SQL%NOTFOUND
like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE at least one
row and if SELECT ….INTO statement return at
least one row.
The return value is TRUE, if a DML statement
likes INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE do not
affect even one row and if SELECT ….INTO
statement does not return a row.
%ROWCOUNT Return the number of rows affected by the SQL%ROWCOUNT
DML operations INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE,
SELECT
Procedures & Functions.
(Q) Explain the SUB PROGRAM in PL/SQL?
A Sub Program is a named PLSQL blocks. Sub Programs
are created by users. Every Sub Program can be stored in the
data base. A „Stored Procedure or in simple a „Proc is a
named PL/SQL block which performs one or more specific task.
This is similar to a procedure in other programming
languages. A procedure has a header and a body. The header
consists of the name of the procedure and the parameters or
variables passed to the procedure. The body consists or
declaration section, execution section and exception section
similar to a general PL/SQL Block. A procedure is similar to an
anonymous PL/SQL Block but it is named for repeated usage.
Advantages of sub program: -
· It is very easy to coding sub program and sub program
are stored in the data base.
· So a sub program may be used by any number of times
the same sub program may be shared by a number of users at
a time.
· In the distributed environment when we invoke a sub
program.
· Its code will be executed and a specific task will be
performed.
· Sub program contains arguments are parameters.
Types of sub programs: - PLSQL sub programs are only divided
into two types they are.
1. Procedures
2. Functions
1. Procedures: A procedure is a sub program which is
stored on the data base. Generally a procedure contains one
input parameter and display more output values. We can also
input parameter and display more output values. We can also
execute a procedure for different output variables.
2. Functions: A function is another type of sub program
is PLSQL. Functions always should return in a single value.
Generally a function contains more input parameters and
return only one output value.
Modes of Parameters: Parameters are the values passed
to a function are procedure. Parameters also called arguments.
The modes of arguments are of three types, they are...
1. In Mode / Parameter: It is used for only input purpose.
2. Out Mode / Parameter: It is used for only output purpose.
3. In Out Mode / Parameter: It is used for input and
output purpose.
(Q). Explain the Procedures in PL/SQL?
Creation of Procedures: A procedure is a sub program
which performs a specific action with in the data base.
Procedures are used to manipulate the data with in data base.
A procedure contains mainly two parts they are:
1. Declarative part / Header Section.
2. Body of the procedure / Body Section.
1. Declarative part: The declarative part is used for
declare a procedure in the procedure declaration. The
parameters also declared with a specific mode. The
declarative part begins with a key word called “create”, and
ends with the last parameter.
2. Body of the procedure: The procedure body
contains procedure code. This code is used to manipulate the
data base. The body of the procedure begins with a key word
“called” is and ends with a key word called “end”. After creation
of host variables the procedure should be execute. Execute a
procedure the following syntax is used.
SQL> Exec procedure name (in parameter; out
parameters); <enter>
PLSQL procedure successfully completed.
General Syntax to create a procedure is: -
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE proc_name [list
of parameters]
IS
Declaration section BEGIN
Execution section EXCEPTION
Exception section END;
· By using CREATE OR REPLACE together the procedure
is created if no other procedure with the same name exists or
the existing procedure is replaced with the current code.
· The syntax within the brackets [ ] indicate they are
optional.
· IS - marks the beginning of the body of the procedure
and is similar to DECLARE in anonymous PL/SQL Blocks.
· The code between IS and BEGIN forms the Declaration
section.
NOTE: - A procedure may or may not return any value.
The below example creates a procedure
„employer_details which gives the details of the employee:
1> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE employer_
details
2> IS
3> CURSOR emp_cur IS
4> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM
emp_tbl;
5> emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype;
6> BEGIN
7> FOR emp_rec in sales_cur 8> LOOP
9> dbms_output.put_line(emp_cur.first_name || ‘ ‘
||emp_cur.last_name
10> || ‘ ‘ ||emp_cur.salary);
11> END LOOP;
12>END;
13> /
How to execute a Stored Procedure?
There are two ways to execute a procedure.
1) From the SQL prompt.
EXECUTE [or EXEC] procedure_name;
2) Within another procedure – simply use the
procedure name. procedure_name;
NOTE: In the examples given above, we are using
backward slash „/ at the end of the program. This indicates
the oracle engine that the PL/SQL program has ended and it
can begin processing the statements.
(Q). Explain the Functions in PL/SQL? Purpose: -
Use the CREATE FUNCTION statement to create a
standalone stored function or a call specification.
A stored function (also called a user function or user
defined function) is a set of PL/SQL statements you can call
by name. Stored functions are very similar to procedures,
except that a function returns a value to the environment in
which it is called. User functions can be used as part of a SQL
expression.
A Function is a named PL/SQL Block which is similar
to a procedure. The major difference between a procedure
and a function is, a function must always return a value, but a
procedure may or may not return a value.
A Function is a sub program; it is used to estimate a
value. A Function can take multiple in parameters and returns
only a single value. In parameters are enclosed with in
parentheses followed by function name. The returning value
is indicated with a key word called “return”. A function
contains two parts, they are.
1. Declarative part / Header Section.
2. Body part
1. Declarative part: - In the Declarative part, a
function is declared. Declarative part begins with a key word
called create. Function declaration contains name of the
function followed by input parameters. It also includes return
data type of the function. A function declarative part ends
with a key word called “returns”.
2. Body part: - Under the body part, the function coding
takes place. A function body starts with a key word called
“is” and ends with a key word called “end”.
Syntax: SQL>create or replace function
Function name (in parameters list) Declarative part
/ Header Section. Return data type
Is
Output variable; Begin Statement1;
Statement2; Body part.
…………..
Return (variable); End;
1. Return Type: The Header section defines the return
type of the function. The return datatype can be any of the
oracle datatype like Varchar, number etc.
2. The execution and exception section both should
return a value which is of the datatype defined in the header
section.
For example: - Let s create a function called
“employer_details_func” similar to the one created in stored
proc
1> CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION
employer_details_func
2> RETURN VARCHAR(20);
3> IS
5> emp_name VARCHAR(20);
6> BEGIN
7> SELECT first_name INTO emp_name
8> FROM emp_tbl WHERE empID = ‘100’;
9> RETURN emp_name;
10> END;
11> /
In the example we are retrieving the „first_name of
employee with empID 100 to variable„emp_name . The return
type of the function is VARCHAR which is declared in line no
2. The function returns the ‘emp_name’ which is of type
VARCHAR as the return value in line no 9.
How to execute a PL/SQL Function: -
A Function can be executed in the following ways.
1. Since a function returns a value we can assign it to
a variable. employee_name:= employer_details_func;
If „employee_name is of datatype Varchar we can
store the name of the employee by assigning the return type
of the function to it.
2. As a part of a SELECT statement: - SELECT
employer_ details_func FROM dual;
3. In a PL/SQL Statements like: - dbms_output.put_line
(employer_details_func); This line displays the value returned
by the function.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FUNCTIONS AND PROCEDURES:
PROCEDURES FUNCTIONS
1. Procedures are used to perform some 1. Functions are used to estimate or
action of the data base. calculate a value
2. It takes only one in parameter. 2. It takes one are more on parameters.
3. It contains more than one out 3. It contains only one out parameters.
param eters.
4. It does not con tains “ return” k ey 4. Ev ery function mu st contai retu rn
n
wo rd. key w ord.
5. A p rocedu res can store in data 5. A function also stored in d ata
dictionary w hich is called users d at a dictio nary , W hich is called users data
sourc es. sources.
6. To p roced ures nam e sho uld n ot b e 6. To fu nctions n am e shou ld n ot be
same. sam e.
Q Create function in PLSQL to add two numbers.

SQL> Create or replace function
Add_two (a number, b number) Return number;
Is=
C number; Begin
C:= a + b;
Return©; End;
SQL> / <enter>
Function created
SQL> var sum number; <enter> SQL> Erec
is:=add=two(2,5); <enter>
PLSQL procedures successfully completed. SQL> Select
add_two (5A) from dval;
Add_two (5A);
(Q) How to pass parameters to Procedures and Functions
in PL/SQL?
In PL/SQL, we can pass parameters to procedures and
functions in three ways.
1) IN type parameter: These types of parameters are
used to send values to stored procedures.
2) OUT type parameter: These types of parameters are
used to get values from stored procedures. This is similar to
a return type in functions.
3) IN OUT parameter: These types of parameters are
used to send values and get values from stored Procedures.
NOTE: If a parameter is not explicitly defined a parameter
type, then by default it is an IN type parameter.
1. IN parameter: - This is similar to passing parameters
in programming languages. We can pass values to the stored
procedure through these parameters or variables. This type
of parameter is a read only parameter. We can assign the
value of IN type parameter to a variable or use it in a query,
but we cannot change its value inside the procedure.
The General syntax to pass an IN parameter is: -
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name
(param_name1 IN datatype, param_name12 IN datatype ... )
· param_name1, param_name2... are unique parameter
names.
· Datatype - defines the datatype of the variable.
· IN - is optional, by default it is an IN type parameter.
2. OUT Parameter: - The OUT parameters are used to
send the OUTPUT from a procedure or a function. This is a
write-only parameter i.e., we cannot pass values to OUT
parameters while executing the stored procedure, but we can
assign values to OUT parameter inside the stored procedure
and the calling program can receive this output value.
The General syntax to create an OUT parameter is: -
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE proc2
(param_name OUT datatype)
The parameter should be explicitly declared as OUT
parameter.
3. IN OUT Parameter: - The IN OUT parameter allows
us to pass values into a procedure and get output values from
the procedure. This parameter is used if the value of the IN
parameter can be changed in the calling program.
By using IN OUT parameter we can pass values into a
parameter and return a value to the calling program using
the same parameter. But this is possible only if the value passed
to the procedure and output value have a same datatype. This
parameter is used if the value of the parameter will be
changed in the procedure.
The General syntax to create an IN OUT parameter is: -
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE proc3
(param_name IN OUT datatype)
The below examples show how to create stored
procedures using the above three types of parameters.
Example1: -
Using IN and OUT parameter: - Let s create a
procedure which gets the name of the employee when the
employee id is passed.
1> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE emp_name (id
IN NUMBER, emp_name OUT NUMBER)
2> IS
3> BEGIN
4> SELECT first_name INTO emp_name
5> FROM emp_tbl WHERE empID = id;
6> END;
7> /
We can call the procedure „emp_name in this way from a PL/
SQL Block.
1> DECLARE
2> empName varchar(20);
3> CURSOR id_cur SELECT id FROM emp_ids;
4> BEGIN
5> FOR emp_rec in id_cur 6> LOOP
7> emp_name(emp_rec.id, empName);
8> dbms_output.putline(‘The employee ‘ || empName
|| ‘ has id ‘ || emp-rec.id); 9> END LOOP;
10> END;
11> /
In the above PL/SQL Block In line no 3; we are creating
a Cursor „id_cur which contains the employee id. In line no
7; we are creating the procedure „emp_name , we are passing
the „id as IN parameter and „empName . In line no 8; we are
displaying the id and the employee name which we got from
the procedure „emp_name .
Example 2: -
Using IN OUT parameter in procedures: -
1> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE emp_salary_
increase
2> (emp_id IN emptbl.empID%type, salary_inc IN OUT
emptbl.salary%type)
3> IS
4> tmp_sal number;
5> BEGIN
6> SELECT salary
7> INTO tmp_sal
8> FROM emp_tbl
9> WHERE empID = emp_id;
10> IF tmp_sal between 10000 and 20000 THEN
11> salary_inout := tmp_sal * 1.2;
12> ELSIF tmp_sal between 20000 and 30000 THEN
14> ELSIF tmp_sal > 30000 THEN
16> END IF;
17> END;
18> /
The below PL/SQL block shows how to execute the
above ‘emp_salary_increase’ procedure.
1> DECLARE
2> CURSOR updated_sal is
3> SELECT empID,salary
4> FROM emp_tbl;
5> pre_sal number;
6> BEGIN
7> FOR emp_rec IN updated_sal LOOP
8>pre_sal := emp_rec.salary;
9> emp_salary_increase(emp_rec.empID, emp_rec.
salary);
10> dbms_output.put_line(‘The salary of ‘ ||
emp_rec.empID ||
11>‘increased from‘||pre_sal||‘to ‘||emp_rec.salary);
12> END LOOP;
13> END;
14> /
(Q) Discuss the Exception Handling in PL/SQL?
Exception Handling: -
PL/SQL provides a feature to handle the Exceptions
which occur in a PL/SQL Block known as exception Handling.
Using Exception Handling we can test the code and avoid it
from exiting abruptly. When an exception occurs messages
which explains its cause is received.
Parts of Exceptions: - PL/SQL Exception message
consists of three parts.
1. Type of Exception.
2. An Error Code.
3. A message.
By Handling the exceptions we can ensure a PL/SQL
block does not exit abruptly.
Structure of Exception Handling: - The General
Syntax for coding the exception section.
DECLARE
Exception section EXCEPTION
WHEN ex_name1 THEN
-Error handling statements WHEN ex_name2 THEN
-Error handling statements WHEN Others THEN
-Error handling statements END;
General PL/SQL statements can be used in the
Exception Block. When an exception is raised, Oracle searches
for an appropriate exception handler in the exception section.
For example in the above example, if the error raised is
‘ex_name1 ‘, then the error is handled according to the
statements under it. Since, it is not possible to determine all
the possible runtime errors during testing for the code, the
‘WHEN Others’ exception is used to manage the exceptions
that are not explicitly handled. Only one exception can be
raised in a Block and the control does not return to the
Execution Section after the error is handled.
If there are nested PL/SQL blocks like this.
DELCARE
DECLARE
EXCEPTION
In the above case, if the exception is raised in the
inner block it should be handled in the exception block of the
inner PL/SQL block else the control moves to the Exception
block of the next upper PL/SQL Block. If none of the blocks
handle the exception the program ends abruptly with an error.
Types of Exception: - There are 3 types of Exceptions
a) Named System Exceptions.
b) Unnamed System Exceptions.
c) User-defined Exceptions.
a) Named System Exceptions: - System exceptions are
automatically raised by Oracle, when a program violates a
RDBMS rule. There are some system exceptions which are
raised frequently, so they are predefined and given a name
in Oracle which is known as Named System Exceptions.
For example: NO_DATA_FOUND and ZERO_DIVIDE are
called Named System exceptions. Named system exceptions are:
1) Not Declared explicitly.
2) Raised implicitly when a predefined Oracle error
occurs.
3) caught by referencing the standard name within an
exception-handling routine.
Excep tion Name Rea Error Num ber
son
CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN W hen you open a cu rsor that is already open . ORA-06511
INVALID _CURSOR W hen you perform an in valid operation on a cur sor like ORA-01001
closing a cu rsor, fetch d ata fr om a cu rsor that is not
op ened.
NO_DATA_FOUND W hen a SEL ECT...INTO clause does not retur n an y row ORA-01403
from
a table.
TOO_M ANY_ROW S W hen yo u SELECT or fet ch m ore than one row into a ORA-01422
reco rdor var iable.
ZERO_D IVIDE W hen you att empt to divide a numb er by zero. ORA-01476
For Example: Suppose a NO_DATA_FOUND exception

is raised in a proc, we can write a code to handle the exception
as given below.
BEGIN
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
dbms_output.put_line (‘A SELECT...INTO did not return
any row.’); END;
b) Unnamed System Exceptions: - Those system
exception for which oracle does not provide a name is known
as unnamed system exception. These exceptions do not occur
frequently. These Exceptions have a code and an associated
message.
There are two ways to handle unnamed system exceptions:
1. By using the WHEN OTHERS exception handler, or
2. By associating the exception code to a name and
using it as a named exception.
We can assign a name to unnamed system exceptions
using a Pragma called EXCEPTION_INIT. EXCEPTION_INIT will
associate a predefined Oracle error number to a programmer
defined exception name.
Steps to be followed to use unnamed system exceptions
are
• They are raised implicitly.
• If they are not handled in WHEN Others they must be
handled explicitly.
• To handle the exception explicitly, they must be
declared using Pragma EXCEPTION_INIT as given above and
handled referencing the user-defined exception name in the
exception section.
The general syntax to declare unnamed system exception
using EXCEPTION_INIT is: -
DECLARE
exception_name EXCEPTION; PRAGMA
EXCEPTION_INIT (exception_name, Err_code); BEGIN
WHEN exception_name THEN handle the exception
END;
For Example: Lets consider the product table and
order_items table from SQL joins.
Here product_id is a primary key in product table and a foreign
key in order_items table. If we try to delete a product_id from
the product table when it has child records in order_id table
an exception will be thrown with oracle code number -2292.
We can provide a name to this exception and handle it in the
exception section as given below:
DECLARE
Child_rec_exception EXCEPTION; PRAGMA
EXCEPTION_INIT (Child_rec_exception, -2292); BEGIN
Delete FROM product where product_id= 104;
EXCEPTION
WHEN Child_rec_exception
THEN Dbms_output.put_line(‘Child records are
present for this product_id.’); END;/
c) User-defined Exceptions: - Apart from system
exceptions we can explicitly define exceptions based on
business rules. These are known as user-defined exceptions.
Steps to be followed to use user-defined exceptions:
• They should be explicitly declared in the declaration
section.
• They should be explicitly raised in the Execution
Section.
• They should be handled by referencing the user-
defined exception name in the exception section.
Advantages of using Procedures or Functions: -
1. Security: - Stored Procedure and Functions can help
enforce data security.
2. Performance: - It improves the database
performances in the following way:
· Amount of Information sent over a Network is less.
· No Compilation step is required to execute the code.
3. Memory Allocation: - The amount of memory used
reduces as stored procedures or functions have shared
memory capability. Only one copy of procedures needs to be
loaded for execution by multiple parameters.
4. Productivity: - By written procedures and functions
redundant coding can be avoided increasing.
(Q). Explain the concepts of Packages in PL/SQL? Package:
A package is a schema object that groups logically
related PL/SQL types, items, and subprograms. Packages
usually have two parts, a specification and a body, although
sometimes the body is unnecessary. The specification (spec
for short) is the interface to your applications; it declares the
types, variables, constants, exceptions, cursors, and
subprograms available for use. The body fully defines cursors
and subprograms, and so implements the spec.
Package Interface: -
To create packages, use the CREATE PACKAGE

statement, which you can execute interactively from
SQL*Plus. Here is the syntax: -
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PACKAGE package_name
[AUTHID {CURRENT_USER | DEFINER}]
{IS | AS}
[PRAGMA SERIALLY_REUSABLE;]
[collection_type_definition ...] [record_type_definition ...]
[subtype_definition ...] [collection_declaration ...]
[constant_declaration ...] [exception_declaration ...]
[object_declaration ...] [record_declaration ...]
[variable_declaration ...] [cursor_spec ...] [function_spec ...]
[procedure_spec ...] [call_spec ...]
[PRAGMA RESTRICT_REFERENCES (assertions) ...]
END [package_name];
[CREATE [OR REPLACE] PACKAGE BODY package_name {IS |
AS} [PRAGMA SERIALLY_REUSABLE;]
[collection_type_definition ...] [record_type_definition ...]
[subtype_definition ...] [collection_declaration ...]
[constant_declaration ...] [exception_declaration ...]
[object_declaration ...] [record_declaration ...]
[variable_declaration ...] [cursor_body ...] [function_spec ...]
[procedure_spec ...] [call_spec ...]
[BEGIN
sequence_of_statements] END [package_name];]
Public Declaration: -The spec holds public
declarations, which are visible to your application. You must
declare subprograms at the end of the spec after all other
items (except Pragma that name a specific function; such
Pragma must follow the function spec).
Private Declarations: - The body holds
implementation details and private declarations, which are
hidden from your application. Following the declarative part
of the package body is the optional initialization part, which
typically holds statements that initialize package variables.
The AUTHID clause determines whether all the
packaged subprograms execute with the privileges of their
definer (the default) or invoker, and whether their unqualified
references to schema objects are resolved in the schema of
the definer or invoker.
Example of a PL/SQL Package: -
In the example below, you package a record type, a
cursor, and two employment procedures. Notice that the
procedure hire_employee uses the database sequence
empno_seq and the function SYSDATE to insert a new
employee number and hire date, respectively.
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE emp_actions AS —
spec TYPE EmpRecTyp IS RECORD (emp_id INT, salary REAL);
CURSOR desc_salary RETURN EmpRecTyp;
PROCEDURE hire_employee ( ename VARCHAR2,
job VARCHAR2,
mgr NUMBER,
sal NUMBER, comm NUMBER, deptno NUMBER);
PROCEDURE fire_employee (emp_id NUMBER); END
emp_actions;
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY emp_actions AS
— body CURSOR desc_salary RETURN EmpRecTyp IS
SELECT empno, sal FROM emp ORDER BY sal DESC;
PROCEDURE hire_employee (
ename VARCHAR2, job VARCHAR2,
mgr NUMBER,
sal NUMBER, comm NUMBER, deptno
NUMBER) IS
BEGIN
INSERT INTO emp VALUES (empno_seq.NEXTVAL,
ename, job, mgr, SYSDATE, sal, comm, deptno);
END hire_employee;
PROCEDURE fire_employee (emp_id NUMBER) IS
BEGIN
DELETE FROM emp WHERE empno = emp_id; END
fire_employee;
END emp_actions;
Only the declarations in the package spec are visible
and accessible to applications. Implementation details in the
package body are hidden and inaccessible. So, you can change
the body (implementation) without having to recompile calling
programs.
Advantages of PL/SQL Packages: -
Packages offer several advantages: Modularity, Easier
Application Design, Information Hiding, Added Functionality,
and Better Performance.
1. Modularity: - Packages let you encapsulate logically
related types, items, and subprograms in a named PL/SQL
module. Each package is easy to understand, and the
interfaces between packages are simple, clear, and well
defined. This aids application development.
2. Easier Application Design: - When designing an
application, all you need initially is the interface information
in the package specs. You can code and compile a spec without
its body. Then, stored subprograms that reference the package
can be compiled as well. You need not define the package
bodies fully until you are ready to complete the application.
3. Information Hiding: - With packages, you can specify
which types, items, and subprograms are public (visible and
accessible) or private (hidden and inaccessible). For example,
if a package contains four subprograms, three might be public
and one private. The package hides the implementation of
the private subprogram so that only the package (not your
application) is affected if the implementation changes. This
simplifies maintenance and enhancement. Also, by hiding
implementation details from users, you protect the integrity
of the package.
4. Added Functionality: - Packaged public variables and
cursors persist for the duration of a session. So, they can be
shared by all subprograms that execute in the environment.
Also, they allow you to maintain data across transactions
without having to store it in the database.
5. Better Performance: - When you call a packaged
subprogram for the first time, the whole package is loaded
into memory. So, later calls to related subprograms in the
package require no disk I/O. Also, packages stop cascading
dependencies and thereby avoid unnecessary recompiling. For
example, if you change the implementation of a packaged
function, Oracle need not recompile the calling subprograms
because they do not depend on the package body.
Triggers
(Q) What is Triggers? Explain how to create Triggers? How
many types is their and also explain The advantages and
disadvantages of Triggers?
Trigger and Routines is very useful database object.
Because they are stored in the database and controlled by
the RDBMS. Thus the code required. Both Trigger & Routines
consisted of procedure code.
Triggers: - A Trigger is a stored procedure that
implicitly executed, when an Insert, Update or Delete is issued
against the associated table. We can make a Trigger to Fire
(Executed) only for DML statements (Insert, Update, Deleted).
“If a condition started with in the trigger is met, then
a prescribed action is taken”. The Trigger code is stored in the
database and runs automatically when ever the Triggering
event such as an update occurs. Since Triggers are stored
and executed in the database. They execute against all
applications that access the database. We can delete the
Trigger by using Drop command.
Uses of Trigger: - Database Trigger can be used for following
purpose.
1. To generate data automatically
2. To audit data modification
3. To enforce Integrity Constrains. (Maintain accuracy
of DB)
Parts of Triggers:- There are mainly 3 parts.
1. Trigger Statement ( Event )
2. Trigger Restriction ( Conditions)
3. Trigger Body ( Action )
1. Trigger Statement: - The Trigger statement
specified DML statement like Insert, Update, Delete and it
Fires the Trigger body( action).
2. Trigger Restriction: - The Restriction is specified
using WHEN Clause.
3. Trigger Body: - The Trigger body is a PL/SQL block
that is executed when a Trigger statement is issued.
Trigger
Database
Code
Perform Trigger Action
Insert,
Updated
Deleted
These parts are reelected in the coding structure of
triggers. Triggers are associated with tables and run
transparently when pre-define events happen to the data in
the table.
SQL> CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name {BEFORE/

AFTER}
{INSERT / DELETE/ UPDATE} ON table_name
[ FOR EACH ROW/ STATEMENT [ WHEN ( trigger_
name)]] <condition> DECLARE
Declaration of Variable/ constants; BEGIN
Body of the Statement; EXCEPTION
Exception of PL/SQL Block; END;
Types of Trigger: - Triggers are mainly divided into
two parts based on usage. There are
1. Before / After
2. For each Row / Statement.
1. Before / After: - The Before / After options can be
used to specify when the trigger body should be fire with
respect to trigger statement.
 If Before option is used then Oracle Engine Fires the
Trigger before executing the statement.
 If After option is used then Oracle Engine Fires the
Trigger After executing the Trigger statement.
2. for each Row/Statement: -
· Statement Level Trigger:- A Trigger which is created
only for one record are called “Statement Level Trigger”. In
practice these are not used frequently by default. Every Trigger
is statement level Trigger.
· Row Level Trigger:- The Trigger which are created on
the total table is know as “Row Level Trigger” by using Row
Level Trigger. We can make a Trigger to fire on selected
columns for more than once. When working with Row Level
Triggers. We can use two qualifiers called “Old” & “New”.
The most commonly used Triggers are Row Level Triggers.
Example: - You may use a Database Trigger to log the
fact that an account receivable clerk has lowered the amount
owing on an outstanding account.
Ex: - Create or replace trigger T1 before insert On bank
for each row
Begin
dbms_output.put_line(“Trigger Fired”);
End;
Ex: - create or replace trigger T2 before update On
bank for each row
Begin
Update bank set balance= 1000;
dbms_output.put_line(“Update”);
End;
Enabling & Disabling Triggers: - Triggers don t affect
all rows in the table. They affect only Transactions of the
specified type. When the Triggers Enable. The Triggers will
not effect any transactions created before to a Trigger by
default. Triggers are enabled when it is created, but some
times we may need to disable Triggers disabling Triggers
during data loads improve the performances of the data load.
In such a way the data load partially succeeded and the
Triggers was executed for a portion of the data load records.
It is also possible to since a trigger twice for the same
transaction. To enable a trigger “Alter Trigger” command is
used with the “enable” key word.
Syntax for Enable / Disable Trigger: -
SQL> Alter table <table name> enable / disable all
triggers;
Ex: - SQL> Alter table bank disable all trigger;
Dropping Trigger: - If there are any unwanted Triggers
in the data base. They must be removed from that the
database, it is also called Dropping a Trigger. To drop any
Trigger the following syntax can be used.
Syntax: - drop trigger <trigger name>;
Ex:- SQL> drop trigger bank_person;
Trigger dropped.
Advantages of Triggers: -
Triggers can be used to makes the RDBMS to take some
action. When a database related event has occurred the
following advantages of Triggers.
 The Business rules can be stored in the database
consistently with each and every updated operation.
 The reduce complexity of the application program that
the database.
Disadvantages of Trigger: -
 When the business rules are moved in to the database,
setting up, the database becomes a more complex task.
 With the triggers, the business rules are hidden in the
database and the application program can cause an enormous
(plenty) amount of database activity.
(Q) What is Routines? Explain how to create Routines it s
advantages of Routines?
Routines: - SQL invoked Routines can be either
Procedure or Functions. Routines are Stored Blocks of code
that have to be called in order to operate. Routines don t run
automatically.
 Functions: - A Functions returns one value and has
only Input Parameters.
 Procedure: - A collection of Procedures and SQL
statements that are assigned a Unique name with in the
schema and stored in the database. When it is desired to run
the procedures it is called by its name. When called, all the
statements in the procedures will be executed.
A Procedure may have Input Parameters, Output
Parameters and Parameters that are both Input & Output
parameters.
Call Procedure_name Stored

(Parameter Values) Procedures
Database
Code
Perform
Values or Return Values.

Create Routine Syntax: -
SQL> { CREATE PROCEDURE / CREATE FUNCTION }
Routine_Name ( [ Parameter [ {, Parameter ….. ] ] )
[ RETURNS data type result_Case ] / * for Function
only * /
[ LANGUAGE { ADA / C / COBOL / FORTRAN / PASCAL/
PLI/ SQL }]
[ PARAMETER STYLE { SQL / GENERAL } ]
[ SPECIFIC Specific_Name ]
[ DETERMINISTIC / NOT DETERMINISTIC ][ NO SQL /
CONTAINS SQL / READS SQL DATA / MODIFIES / SQL DATA ]
[ RETURN NULL ON NULL INPUT / CALL ON NULL
INPUT ]
[ DYNAMIC RESULT SETS Unsigned_Integer ] / * for
Procedures only * /
[ STATIC DISPATCH ] / * for Function only */
Routine_Body End;
Advantages of Routines: -
There are following advantages of the Routines
 Flexibility
 Efficiency
 Sharability
 Applicability
1. Flexibility: - Routines may be used in more situations that
constraints or triggers, which are limited to data modification
circumstances. Just as Triggers have more code options those
constraints, routines have more code options than Triggers.
2. Efficiency: - Routines can be careful crafted and optimized
to run more quickly than slower, generic SQL Statements.
3. Sharability: - Routines may be cached on the server and
made available to all users, so that they do not have to be rewritten.
4. Applicability: -Routines may apply to the entire
database rather than being kept with one application. This
advantages is a corollary to sharability.
Differences between Triggers & Routines:
Triggers Routines
Triggers are database Objects Routines also database Object
Triggers are Stored in database Routines are also Stored in database
Triggers are Cont rolled by RDBMS Routines are also Controlled by RDBMS
Triggers are Run Aut omatically Routines are don?t Run Automatically
Triggers are Implicit execution Routines are Explicitly execut ion
Triggers has 3 parts namely Routines can be eit her Procedure or Functions.
1. Event. 2. Condition. 3. Action
Without name Trigger can Run Automatically Run t he Procedures it is called by its Name.

Book Database Management System

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Book Database Management System

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 1

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Page design & Cover :

Edition: Feb. 2023

All Rights Reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced,

Overview of Database Management System

To convert data into information is to summarize them

Metadata allow database designers and users to

(Q) What is Database Management System (DBMS)? Define

File Base Vs Database Systems

According to According to According to

Single Users Multi-users Centralized DB Distributed DB Operational DB Data Warehouses

Personal 1. Workgroup Database

In this above Diagram each member of the work group

(II). According to Database Locations: -

(Q) Define Various Data Models in DBMS?

(c) Relational Data Model:

The relational data model s rise to control is its

2. Object-based logical Models: - In Object-based

1. External Level: - (Users View only)

(Q) Explain Types / Classified of Database Architecture?

(Q) What is Attribute? Explain the types of Attributes

2. Composite Attribute: - An Attribute “That can be

Street_Address City State Pincode

3. Multivalued Attribute: - An attribute “that may

Example: - The Employee entity type having the

4. Derived Attribute: - A Derived Attributer is an

In this above E – R Model „Salary is a derived attribute it

Null Attribute: - A Null Value is used when an entity

Multivalued Attribute: - An attribute “that may take on

Special Guidelines of Naming & Defining Attribute: -

3. Entity Instance: - “A single occurrence of the entity

Cust_Name Deposit Withdrawn

2. Strong Entity: - “An Entity that exists independently

In this above example the entity EMPLOYEE is a Strong

Special Guidelines to Naming & Defining Entity: -

Relationship Instances: - “An association between (or

1. Unary Relationship: - “A Relationship between the

Example (1):- Consider as a E-R Diagram it having a

· One – to – Many: - An entity is „A is associated with

In this above example each Company has one or many

Example (1):- Consider as E-R Diagram it having a one

In this above example every Passenger most process a

CUSTOMER Cust_Acct ACCOUNT

City Street One-to-one relationship between Customer and Account.

· One – to – Many: - An entity is „A is associated with

In above example one Manager has responsible for

· Many – to – One: - An entity is „A is associated with

In above example Books is a Entity and Browed is a

· Many – to – Many: - An entity is „A is associated

In this above example each Lecture to teach one or more

Cust_Id Cust_Name Acct_No Balance

CUSTOMER Cust_Acct ACCOUNT

City Street Many-to-Many relationship between Customer and Account.

3. Ternary Relationship: - “A Simultaneous

In this example VENDOR can Supplies various PARTS

Extended Entity Relationship Modeling

In the above figure shows a representation of the

Fig: - Specialization Hierarchy.

Type License Ratings

In the above figure shows a representation of the

Example: - Pigeon, Sparrow and Crow can all be generalized

Example: - Consider the three entity types having the attributes

· TRUCK : Vehicle_Id, Vehicle_Name, Capacity, Price,

Fig: - Three entity types TRUCK, CAR, MOTOR CYCLE

Fig: - Generalization to VEHICAL Supertype

Specialization is the top-down process of identifying

Example: - Suppose an entity type named as „PART

Fig: - Specialization of Entity type PART

Fig: - Specialization to MANUFACTURED PART and

Center Offer Course

Composition: - It implies a relationship between the

Relational Data Modeling

(Q). Explain the Characteristics / Properties of Relational

EMPLOYEE1 (Emp_ID, Emp_Name, Emp_salary, Deptno)