1 Circular Motion

(a) Define the radian.

angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the

radius
[2]

(b) A telescope gives a clear view of a distant object when the angular displacement between the
edges of the object is at least 9.7 × 10−6 rad.

(i) The Moon is approximately 3.8 × 105 km from Earth.

Estimate the minimum diameter of a circular crater on the Moon’s surface that can be
seen using the telescope.
arc R distance × angle
diameter R 3.8 × 105 × 9.7 × 10–6

(ii) Suggest why craters of the same diameter as that calculated in (i) but on the surface of
Mars are not visible using this telescope.

Mars is (much) further from Earth / away angle (at telescope is much) smaller

Revision notes:
 22 Gravitational Fields3 GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS

Gravitational Field

A gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a force due to gravitational attraction.

Gravitational Field (Strength)

The gravitational field strength at a point in a gravitational field is defined as the force acting per unit mass on any
object placed at that point.
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐹
𝑔=
𝑚

Newton’s Law of Gravitation

It states that the force of attraction between two particles are directly proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres.

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=
𝑟2
The mass of the sphere may be considered to be a point mass at its centre. Here, the law applies for Sun and Earth
as well because their separation is very large compared to their diameters.

Analysing Circular Orbits in gravitational fields

Gravitational Potential
The gravitational potential at a point is defined as the work done per unit mass in bringing a small test mass from
infinity to the point.
 a planet.

gravitational force (of attraction between satellite and planet)

causes centripetal acceleration (of satellite about the planet)

(b) The Earth and the Moon may be considered to be uniform spheres that are isolated in space.
The Earth has mass M, radius R and mean density ρ. The Moon, mass m, is in a circular
orbit about the Earth with radius nR, as illustrated in Fig. 1.1.
(The word circular orbit shows that gravitational force = centripetal force!

Earth
mass M
radius R

Moon
mass m
nR

Fig. 1.1

The Moon makes one complete orbit of the Earth in time T.

Show that the mean density ρ of the Earth is given by the expression

3r n 3
ρ=
GT 2

where G is the gravitational constant.

 5

(c) The radius R of the Earth is 6.38 × 106 m and the distance between the centre of the Earth
and the centre of the Moon is 3.84 × 108 m.
The period T of the orbit of the Moon about the Earth is 27.3 days.

Use the expression in (b) to calculate ρ.

Note: The time period should be converted into seconds!

Explain what is meant by a geostationary orbit?

> it is in equatorial orbit
>same time period of the earth
> moves from west to east.

Explain why there is a point between the Earth and the Moon at which the
gravitational field strength is zero.
.the fields of the earth and the moon are in opposite directions, so their
fields cancel out at a certain point
(ii) Determine the distance, in terms of RE, from the centre of the Earth at which the

gravitational field strength is zero.

 3 & 4 Ideal Gases & Temperature

In a sample of gas at room temperature, five atoms have the following speeds:

1.32 × 103 m s–1 (a)

1.50 × 103 m s–1 (b)

1.46 × 103 m s–1 (c)

1.28 × 103 m s–1 (d)

1.64 × 103 m s–1. (e)

For these five atoms, calculate, to three significant figures,

(a) the mean speed,

mean = (a+ b+c+d+e) / 5

(b) the mean-square speed,

(a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 + e2 )/ 5

(c) the root-mean-square speed.

Square root of _>

(a) The equation of state for an ideal gas of volume V at pressure p is

pV = nRT

where R is the molar gas constant.

State what is meant by

(i) the symbol n,

number of moles/amount of substance

(ii) the symbol T.

kelvin temperature/absolute temperature/thermodynamic temperature

(b) An ideal gas is held in a container of volume 2.4 × 103 cm3 at pressure 4.9 × 105 Pa.
The temperature of the gas is 100 °C.

Show that the number of molecules of the gas in the container is 2.3 × 1023.

pV = nRT
4.9 × 105 × 2.4 × 103 × 10–6 = n × 8.31 × 373
n = 0.38 (mol)
or use pV = NkT
number of molecules or N = 0.38 × 6.02 × 1023 = 2.3 × 1023

(c) Use data from (b) to estimate the mean distance between molecules in the gas.

volume occupied by one molecule = (2.4 × 103) / (2.3 × 1023)

= 1.04 × 10–20 cm3

mean spacing = (1.04 × 10–20)1/3

= 2.2 × 10–7 cm
3 (a) State what is meant by the internal energy of a system.

sum of/total) potential energy and kinetic energy of (all) molecules/particles

reference to random (distribution)

(b) Explain, by reference to work done and heating, whether the internal energy of the following
increases, decreases or remains constant:

(i) the gas in a toy balloon when the balloon bursts suddenly,

no heat enters (gas)/leaves (gas)/no heating (of gas)

work done by gas (against atmosphere as it expands)

internal energy decreases

(ii) ice melting at constant temperature and at atmospheric pressure to form water that is
more dense than the ice.

volume decreases so work done on ice/water

(allow work done negligible because ΔV small)
heating of ice (to break rigid forces/bonds)
internal energy increases
(a)
The pressure p and volume V of an ideal gas are related to the densityρ of the gas by the
expression
1
p = ρ 〈c 2〉.
3
(i) State what is meant by the symbol 〈c 2〉.
mean/average square speed/velocity

(ii) Use the expression to show that the mean kinetic energy EK of a gas molecule is given
by
3
EK = kT
2
where k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the thermodynamic temperature.

pV = NkT or pV = nRT
ρ = Nm / V
= nNAm / V and k = nR / N
EK = ½ m〈c2〉 with algebra to (3 / 2)kT

(b) (i) An ideal gas containing 1.0 mol of molecules is heated at constant volume.
Use the expression in (a)(ii) to show that the thermal energy required to raise the
3
temperature of the gas by 1.0 K has a value of R, where R is the molar gas constant.
2
no (external) work done or ΔU = q or w = 0
q = NA × (3 / 2)k × 1.0

or k = R/NA
NAk = R so q = (3 / 2)R

State what is meant by an ideal gas.

it is one which obeys the ideal gas equation pV = nRT, with each
symbol explained.
(a) A square box of volume V contains N molecules of an ideal gas. Each molecule has mass m.

Using the kinetic theory of ideal gases, it can be shown that, if all the molecules are moving
with speed v at right angles to one face of the box, the pressure p exerted on the face of the
box is given by the expression

pV = Nmv 2. (equation 1)

This expression leads to the formula

1
p = ρ 〈c 2〉 (equation 2)
3
for the pressure p of an ideal gas, where ρ is the density of the gas and 〈c 2〉 is the mean‑square
speed of the molecules.

Explain how each of the following terms in equation 2 is derived from equation 1:

1: molecules move in three dimensions (not one) so ⅓ in any (one) direction

3

ρ : Nm / V
〈c 2〉: molecules have different speeds so take average of (speed)2

[4]

(b) An ideal gas has volume, pressure and temperature as shown in Fig. 2.1.

volume 6.0 × 10–3 m3

pressure 3.0 × 105 Pa
temperature 17 °C

Fig. 2.1

The mass of the gas is 20.7 g.

Calculate the mass of one molecule of the gas.

pV = NkT
N = (3.0 × 105 × 6.0 × 10–3) / (1.38 × 10–23 × 290)
= 4.5 × 1023
mass = 20.7 / (4.5 × 1023)
= 4.6 × 10–23 g
(a) (i) State the basic assumption of the kinetic theory of gases that leads to the conclusion
that the potential energy between the atoms of an ideal gas is zero.

no forces (of attraction or repulsion) between atoms / molecules / particles

(ii) State what is meant by the internal energy of a substance.

sum of kinetic and potential energy of atoms / molecules

due to random motion

(iii) Explain why an increase in internal energy of an ideal gas is directly related to a
rise in temperature of the gas.

(random) kinetic energy increases with temperature M1

no potential energy
(so increase in temperature increases internal energy)

(b) A fixed mass of an ideal gas undergoes a cycle PQRP of changes as shown in Fig. 2.1.

10

8 P

volume
/ 10–4 m3
6

2 Q R
Volume constant
implying work done is
zero on QR
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
pressure / 105 Pa

Fig. 2.1
 (i) State the change in internal energy of the gas during one complete cycle PQRP.

zero because it forms a complete cycle

(ii) Calculate the work done on the gas during the change from P to Q.

W = p(change in volume)
= work done = pΔV
= 4.0 × 105 × 6 × 10–4
= 240 J

for the table below use Δu = q + W

(iii) Some energy changes during the cycle PQRP are shown in Fig. 2.2.

work done on gas heating supplied increase in

change
/J to gas / J internal energy / J
240 240 -600 = -360
P Q ............................. –600 .............................

Q R 0 +720 720
.............................
w = Δu -q = -840 on this column all must add to zero!
R P ............................. +480 .............................
-360J

Fig. 2.2

Complete Fig. 2.2 to show all of the energy changes. [3]

(a) The first law of thermodynamics may be expressed in the form

∆U = q + w.

Explain the symbols in this expression.

+∆U increase in internal energy

+q thermal energy / heat supplied to the system

+w work done on the system

(b) (i) State what is meant by specific latent heat.

(thermal) energy required to change the state of a substance

per unit mass
without any change of temperature

(ii) Use the first law of thermodynamics to explain why the specific latent heat of
vaporisation is greater than the specific latent heat of fusion for a particular
substance.

when evaporating
greater change in separation of atoms/molecules
greater change in volume
identifies each difference correctly with ΔU and w
By reference to the first law of thermodynamics, state and explain the change, if any, in the internal
energy of:

(a) a lump of solid lead as it melts at constant temperature

little/no volume change so) little/no external work done

thermal energy supplied to provide latent heat
internal energy increases

(b) some gas in a toy balloon when the balloon bursts and no thermal energy enters or leaves
the gas.

(rapid) increase in volume

gas does work against the atmosphere
internal energy decreases
 (b) An ideal gas, sealed in a container, undergoes the cycle of changes shown in Fig. 2.1.

7.0
B 8.7 × 10–4 m3
6.6 × 105 Pa
450 K
6.0

pressure
/ 105 Pa
5.0

4.0

2.4 × 10–3 m3
3.0 1.6 × 105 Pa
8.7 × 10–4 m3 300 K
1.6 × 105 Pa
110 K
2.0

C A

1.0
0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50
volume / 10–3 m3
C--> A constant V means q= 0

Fig. 2.1

At point A, the gas has volume 2.4 × 10–3 m3, pressure 1.6 × 105 Pa and
temperature 300 K.
adiabatic change --> q= 0
The gas is compressed suddenly so that no thermal energy enters or
leaves the gas during the compression. The amount of work done is 480 J (W is
positive)so that, at point B, the gas has volume 8.7 × 10–4 m3, pressure 6.6 × 105 Pa and
temperature 450 K.
W= 0
The gas is now cooled at constant volume so that, between points B and
C, 1100 J of thermal energy is transferred. At point C, the gas has pressure 1.6 × 105 Pa and
temperature 110 K. (This paragraph implies that T decreases, U decreases (negative)

Finally, the gas is returned to point A.

 (i) State and explain the total change in internal energy of the gas for one complete
cycle ABCA.

no change (in internal energy) because ther is no change in temperature

(ii) Calculate the external work done on the gas during the expansion from point C to
point A.

work done = pΔV

= (–)1.6 × 105 × (2.4 – 0.87) × 10–3

= (–)240 J

(iii) Complete Fig. 2.2 for the changes from:

1. point A to point B

2. point B to point C

3. point C to point A.

change +q / J +w / J ΔU / J

0 +480 (given in question u = q +w , u = 480

A B .................... .................... ....................
-1100=q +0 0 (isochoric, volume constant, q=0 -1100 (given in question)
B C q=....................
-1100 .................... ....................
-245 (calculated above)
C A ....................
+480 .................... ....................
+620

u= q+ w
480 = 0 Fig. 2.2 whole thing must equal to zero
480+ -1100 + X = 0
+480 x = +620
CHAPTER 17 OSCILLATIONS

tototal
energy

For kinetic energy, k.E= 1/2 mv

replace v from eqn above
 1 A student sets up the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 3.1 in order to investigate the oscillations of
a metal cube suspended on a spring.

pulley
variable-frequency
oscillator

thread
spring

metal
cube

Fig. 3.1

The amplitude of the vibrations produced by the oscillator is constant.

The variation with frequency of the amplitude of the oscillations of the metal cube is shown
in Fig. 3.2.

20

15

amplitude
/ mm
10 it
As soon as you see this graph
represents resonance!

0
2 4 6 8 10
frequency / Hz

Fig. 3.2

(a) (i) State the phenomenon illustrated in Fig. 3.2.

resonance
.............................................................................................................................. [1]

(ii) For the maximum amplitude of vibration, state the magnitudes of the amplitude and
the frequency.

16
amplitude = ............................................. mm
4.6
frequency = ............................................... Hz
[1]
 to convert into kg!
(b) The oscillations of the metal cube of mass 150 g may be assumed to be
simple harmonic.
Use your answers in (a)(ii) to determine, for the metal cube,

(i) its maximum acceleration,

acceleration = ...................................... m s–2 [3]

(ii) the maximum resultant force on the cube.

force = .......................................... N [2]

very small mass---> thus very damping
(c) Some very light feathers are attached to the top surface of the cube so that the feathers
extend outwards, beyond the vertical sides of the cube.
The investigation is now repeated.
On Fig. 3.2, draw a line to show the new variation with frequency of the amplitude of
vibration for frequencies between 2 Hz and 10 Hz. [2]
2 A bar magnet is suspended from the free end of a helical spring, as illustrated in Fig. 3.1.

helical
spring

magnet

coil

Fig. 3.1

One pole of the magnet is situated in a coil of wire. The coil is connected in series with a
switch and a resistor. The switch is open.

The magnet is displaced vertically and then released. As the magnet passes through its rest
position, a timer is started. The variation with time t of the vertical displacement y of the
magnet from its rest position is shown in Fig. 3.2.

2.0
y / cm

1.0

0 T
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
t /s

–1.0

–2.0

Fig. 3.2

At time t = 4.0 s, the switch is closed.

(a) Use Fig. 3.2 to

(i) state the evidence for the magnet to be undergoing free oscillations during the
period t = 0 to t = 4.0 s,

amplitude remains constant

(ii) state, with a reason, whether the damping after time t = 4.0 s is light, critical or
heavy,

amplitude decreases gradually

light damping

(iii) determine the natural frequency of vibration of the magnet on the spring.

FFrom this graph find the time period, i.e time taken for 1 complete wave
T= 0.8 s
f = 1/T
= 1/0.8= frequency = ........................................... Hz [2]
1.25 Hz
4 (a) State what is meant by simple harmonic motion.

(a) acceleration / force proportional to displacement (from a fixed point)

either acceleration and displacement in opposite directions
or acceleration always directed towards a fixed point

[2]

(b) A small ball rests at point P on a curved track of radius r, as shown in Fig. 4.1.

curved track,
radius r x

Fig. 4.1

The ball is moved a small distance to one side and is then released. The horizontal
displacement x of the ball is related to its acceleration a towards P by the expression

a = −
gx First compare this eqn with
r a= -w2x

where g is the acceleration of free fall.

(i) Show that the ball undergoes simple harmonic motion.

(i) g and r are constant so a is proportional to x B1

negative sign shows a and x are in opposite directions

(ii) The radius r of curvature of the track is 28 cm.

Determine the time interval τ between the ball passing point P and then returning to
point P.

τ = ..................................................... s [3]
 CHAPTER 17 ELECTRIC FIELDS

An electric field is defined as the force per unit charge.

For parallel plates Electric Fields these equations apply

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝐸= F : in N
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑞
q: in C
𝐹 E : in N/C
𝐸=
𝑞
To move the charge towards the positive plate work has to
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
be done on charge.

Work = force X distance

𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑

Electric Fields From definition of potential difference,

𝑊 = 𝑉𝑄
𝑉𝑄 = 𝐹𝑑

𝐹 𝑉
=
𝑄 𝑑
𝑉
𝐸=
𝑑

Electric Field Strength

The electric field strength at a point is defined as the force per unit charge acting on a small stationary positive
charge placed at that point.

For point charges

Coulomb’s law states that any two point charges exert an electrical force on each other that is
𝑄1 𝑄2 proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 distance between them.

Note: the electric field at a point is equal to the negative of potential gradient at that point.

𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 = − 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕

∆𝑽
𝑬=
∆𝒅
Electric potential
The electric potential is given by the equation
𝑄
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0𝑟
 For point charges, coulomb's Law applies.

Two small charged metal spheres A and B are situated in a vacuum. The distance between
the centres of the spheres is 12.0 cm, as shown in Fig. 4.1.

12.0 cm

sphere A P sphere B

Fig. 4.1 (not to scale)

The charge on each sphere may be assumed to be a point charge at the centre of the
sphere.
Point P is a movable point that lies on the line joining the centres of the spheres and is
distance x from the centre of sphere A.
The variation with distance x of the electric field strength E at point P is shown in Fig. 4.2.

150

E / 106 N C–1

100

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Note: for this horizontal line x / cm
it means that the electric
fields strength inside the
–50
conductor is zero

–100

–150

–200

Fig. 4.2
(a) State the evidence provided by Fig. 4.2 for the statements that

(i) the spheres are conductors,

zero field (strength) inside spheres

(ii) the charges on the spheres are either both positive or both negative.

field strength is zero

or the fields are in opposite directions M1
at a point between the spheres

(b) (i) State the relation between electric field strength E and potential gradient at a point.

field strength is (–) potential gradient E= -dV/dr

(ii) Use Fig. 4.2 to state and explain the distance x at which the rate of change of
potential with distance is

1. maximum,

field strength has maximum value B1

at x = 11.4 cm

2. minimum.

8cm since E is zero

 If you are given a potential curve, to find the electric fields strength you simply find gradient at the required
point!

4 A charged point mass is situated in a vacuum. A proton travels directly towards the mass, as
illustrated in Fig. 4.1.

charged
proton
point mass

Fig. 4.1

When the separation of the mass and the proton is r, the electric potential energy of the
system is UP .

The variation with r of the potential energy UP is shown in Fig. 4.2.

r / cm
0 2 4 6 8 10
0

–10

UP / 10–26 J

–20

–30

–40

–50

Fig. 4.2
(a) (i) Use Fig. 4.2 to state and explain whether the mass is charged positively or
negatively.

as r decreases, energy decreases/work got out (due to)

attraction so point mass is negatively charged

(ii) The gradient at a point on the graph of Fig. 4.2 is G.

Show that the electric field strength E at this point due to the charged point mass is
given by the expression

Eq = G

where q is the charge at this point.

electric potential energy = charge × electric potential

electric field strength is potential gradient
field strength = gradient of potential energy graph/charge

(b) Use the expression in (a)(ii) and Fig. 4.2 to determine the electric field strength at a
distance of 4.0 cm from the charged point mass.

B1
gradient = 3.6 × 10–24 A2
(for < ±0.3 allow 2 marks, for < ±0.6 allow 1 mark)
field strength = (3.6 × 10–24) / (1.6 × 10–19)
= 2.3 × 10–5 V m–1 (allow ecf from gradient value) A1
(one point solution for gradient leading to 2.3 × 10–5 Vm–1 scores 1 mark only)

4 marks
indicate
field strength = ........................................ V m–1 [4]gradient
calculation
6 Two solid metal spheres A and B, each of radius 1.5 cm, are situated in a vacuum. Their centres
are separated by a distance of 20.0 cm, as shown in Fig. 6.1.

1.5 cm 1.5 cm
20.0 cm

sphere A sphere B

Fig. 6.1 (not to scale)

Both spheres are positively charged.

Point P lies on the line joining the centres of the two spheres, at a distance x from the centre of
sphere A.

The variation with distance x of the electric field strength E at point P is shown in Fig. 6.2.

50

40

30

E / N C–1
20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
–10 x / cm

–20

–30

–40

–50

Fig. 6.2
 (a) Use Fig. 6.2 to determine the ratio
magnitude of charge on sphere A Explain your working.
.
magnitude of charge on sphere B

(a) E = 0 or EA = (–)EB (at x = 11 cm)

QA / x2 = QB / (20 – x)2 = 112 / 92

QA / QB or ratio = 1.5

or

E ∝ Q because r same or E = Q / 4πε0r2 and r same

QA / QB = 48 / 32

QA / QB or ratio = 1.5

(b) The variation with distance x of the electric potential V at point P is shown in Fig. 6.3.

0.8
0.76-------- ---------0.76
0.7
change in V =
0.6 0.76- 0.54 = 0.22
V/V --------0.54
change in V = 0.76 - 0.18 0.5
= 0.58 V
0.4

0.3

0.2
0.18------ ----

0.1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
x / cm

Fig. 6.3
An α-particle is initially at rest on the surface of sphere A.
The α-particle moves along the line joining the centres of the two spheres.

Determine, for the α-particle as it moves between the two spheres,

(i) its maximum speed,

(b) (i) for max. speed, ∆V = (0.76 – 0.18) V or ∆V = 0.58 V

q∆V = ½mv2

2 × (1.60 × 10–19) × 0.58 = ½ × 4 × 1.66 × 10–27 × v2

v2 = 5.59 × 107

v = 7.5 × 103 m s–1

maximum speed = ................................................. m s–1 [3]

(ii) its speed on reaching the surface of sphere B.

∆V = 0.22 V

2 × (1.60 × 10–19) × 0.22 = ½ × 4 × 1.66 × 10–27 × v2

v2 = 2.12 × 107

v = 4.6 × 103 m s–1

speed = ................................................. m s–1 [2]

[Total: 8]
 Capacitors and Capacitance
Functions of capacitors:
1 stored energy
2 block direct current
3 smoothing/ rectification

The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 Q: in Coulombs
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 V: volts
𝑄 C: C/V or F (farad)
𝐶=
𝑉

Derivation of combined capacitance in series and in parallel.

Capacitors in series
Let q be charge conserved on the capacitors and and V1 and V2 be the potential differences across C1 and C2
respectively.

V = V1 + V2

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 Capacitors in parallel.
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 Let q be the charge.
= +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2
V is equal for both capacitors.

However, charge is not equal.

1 1 1
= + Q= Q1 + Q2
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2
CV = C1V + C2V

(÷ V)

C = C1 + C2

Energy stored in a capacitor

The area under a graph of p.d. against charge is equal to work done/ electric potential energy.

Work done = area under graph

= ½ QV

(replace Q = CV)

= ½ CV2

Graphs of current/charge/ potential difference v/s time are exponential curves.

All exponential curves have equations:

𝜏
𝑋 = 𝑋0 𝑒 −(𝑅𝐶)
5 (a) (i) Define capacitance.

ratio of charge and potential (difference) / voltage

(ratio must be clear)

(ii) A capacitor is made of two metal plates, insulated from one another, as shown in
Fig. 5.1.

insulation metal
plate

Fig. 5.1

Explain why the capacitor is said to store energy but not charge.

capacitor has equal magnitudes of (+)ve and (-)ve charge

total charge on capacitor is zero (so does not store charge)

(+)ve and (-)ve charges to be separated
work done to achieve this so stores energy

.............................................................................................................................. [4]

(b) Three uncharged capacitors X, Y and Z, each of capacitance 12 μF, are connected as
shown in Fig. 5.2.

X
12 ȝF
A B
Z
12 ȝF

12 ȝF

Fig. 5.2

A potential difference of 9.0 V is applied between points A and B.

© UCLES 2012 9702/42/O/N/12

 11

(i) Calculate the combined capacitance of the capacitors X, Y and Z. For

Examiner’s
Use

capacitance of Y and Z together is 24 µF

1 / C = 1 / 24 + 1 / 12
C = 8.0 µF (allow 1 s.f.)

capacitance = ........................................... μF [2]

(ii) Explain why, when the potential difference of 9.0 V is applied, the charge on one
plate of capacitor X is 72 μC.
(ii) some discussion as to why all charge of one sign on one plate of X Q =
(CV =) 8.0 × 10–6 × 9.0
= 72 µC

(iii) Determine

1. the potential difference across capacitor X,

(ii) V = (72 × 10–6) / (12 × 10–6)

= 6.0 V (allow 1 s.f.)

potential difference = ............................................. V [1]

2. the charge on one plate of capacitor Y.

2. either Q = 12 × 10–6 × 3.0 or charge is shared between Y and Z

charge = 36 µC

charge = ........................................... μC [2]

7 (a) State two uses of capacitors in electrical circuits, other than for the smoothing of direct current.

1. blocking d.c. (a e.g. storing energy

in oscillator circuits
2. in tuning circuits
in timing circuits [2]

(b) The combined capacitance between terminals A and B of the arrangement shown in Fig. 7.1
is 4.0 µF.

ΗF

& &
A B

ΗF

Fig. 7.1

Two capacitors each have capacitance C and the remaining capacitors each have
capacitance 3.0 µF.

The potential difference (p.d.) between terminals A and B is 12 V.

(i) Determine the capacitance C.

(b) (i) 1 / 6 + 1 / C + 1 / C = 1 / 4

C = 24 µF
F

C = ................................................... µF [2]

(ii) Calculate the magnitude of the total positive charge transferred to the arrangement.

(ii) Q = CV

= 4.0 × 10–6 × 12
1

= 48 µC

charge = ................................................... µC [2]

 (iii) Use your answer in (ii) to state the magnitude of the charge on one plate
of

1 . a capacitor of capacitance C, 48 µC
charge = ......................................................... µC

2. a capacitor of capacitance 3.0 µF.

24µC
charge = ......................................................... µC
[2]
7 (a) (i) Define capacitance.

7 (a) (i) charge / potential (difference) or charge per (unit) potential (difference)

(ii) Use the expression for the electric potential due to a point charge to show that an isolated
metal sphere of diameter 25 cm has a capacitance of 1.4 × 10–11 F.

(ii) (V = Q / 4πε0r and C = Q / V)

for sphere, C (= Q / V) = 4πε0r

C = 4π × 8.85 × 10–12 × 12.5 × 10–2 = 1.4 × 10–11 F

[2]

(b) Three capacitors of capacitances 2.0 μF, 3.0 μF and 4.0 μF are connected as shown in Fig. 7.1
to a battery of e.m.f. 9.0 V.

4.0 µF

3.0 µF

2.0 µF

9.0 V

Fig. 7.1

Determine

(i) the combined capacitance of the three capacitors,

(b)
b) 1 / CT = 1 / 3.0 + 1 / 6.0

CT = 2.0 µF

capacitance = ..................................................... μF [1]

(ii) the potential difference across the capacitor of capacitance 3.0 μF,

(iii) the positive charge stored on the capacitor of capacitance 2.0 μF.

(ii) total charge = charge on 3.0 µF capacitor = 2.0 (µ) × 9.0 = 18 (µC)

= Q / C = 18 (µ)C / 3.0 (µ)F = 6.0 V

potential difference

or

argument based on equal charges:

3.0 × V = 6.0 × (9.0 – V)

V = 6.0 V

(iii) potential difference (= 9.0 – 6.0) = 3.0 V

charge=( 3.0 × 2.0 (µ)) = 6.0 µC

[Total: 8]
 Magnetic Fields
Force on a current carrying-conductor
Force on a Moving Charge
F=B I L sin
F=BQv sin θ • F = force on a current carrying conductor in a B field (N)
• B = magnetic flux density of external B field (T) or weber per metre
square ( Wbm-1)
• I = current in the conductor (A)
• L = length of the conductor (m)
• θ = angle between the conductor and external B field (degrees)

Definition of magnetic flux density (B) : It is the force acting per unit current per unit length on a wire placed at right angles to the magnetic field.

Using a Hall Probe to measure magnetic flux density A single electron has a drift velocity of v within the conductor. The magnetic field
is into the plane of the page, therefore the electron has a magnetic force FB to the
right:
FB=B q v
This equation shows that the smaller the electron density n of a material, the larger
the magnitude of the Hall voltage.
This is why a semiconducting material is often used for a Hall probe.

Motion of charged particles in a circular orbit

Equate centripetal force to magnetic force

Hall voltage is defined as: The potential difference produced across an

electrical conductor when an external magnetic field is applied
perpendicular to the current through the conductor
For velocity selector

FE= FB

Electromagnetic Induction

The product of the magnetic flux density and the cross-sectional area perpendicular
to the direction of the magnetic flux density

The positive and negative charges drift to opposite ends of the

conductor producing a hall voltage when a magnetic field is applied

Electromagnetic flux linkage

(b) A uniform magnetic field is directed at right-angles to the rectangular surface PQRS of a
slice of a conducting material, as shown in Fig. 6.4. ---> Hall Probe

uniform magnetic field

Q R

direction of
movement
P S
of electrons

Fig. 6.4

Electrons, moving towards the side SR, enter the slice of conducting material. The
electrons enter the slice at right-angles to side SR.

(i) Explain why, initially, the electrons do not travel in straight lines across the slice

from side SR to side PQ.

force on electron due to magnetic field B1

force on electron normal to magnetic field and direction of electron

(ii) Explain to which side, PS or QR, the electrons tend to move.

Using Flemming's left hand rule

QR

..................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................ [2]
© UCLES 2010 9702/42/M/J/10 [Turn over
5 (a) Define the tesla.

(long) straight conductor carrying current of 1 A M1

current/wire normal to magnetic field M1
(for flux density 1 T,) force per unit length is 1 N m–1

(b) A horseshoe magnet is placed on a balance. A stiff metal wire is clamped horizontally
between the poles, as illustrated in Fig. 5.1.

horseshoe
magnet

stiff metal
wire

balance pan

Fig. 5.1

The magnetic flux density in the space between the poles of the magnet is uniform and
is zero outside this region.
The length of the metal wire normal to the magnetic field is 6.4 cm.

When a current in the wire is switched on, the reading on the balance increases by 2.4 g.
The current in the wire is 5.6 A.

(i) State and explain the direction of the force on the wire due to the current.

(originally) downward force on magnet (due to current) B1

by Newton’s third law (allow “N3”)
upward force on wire

(ii) Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic flux density between the poles of the
magnet.

(ii) F = BIL

2.4 × 10–3 × 9.8 = B × 5.6 × 6.4 × 10–2

B = 0.066 T (need 2 SF)
(g missing scores 0/2, but g = 10 leading to 0.067T scores 1/2)
8 Electrons enter a rectangular slice PQRSEFGH of a semiconductor material at right-angles to
face PQFE, as shown in Fig. 8.1.

magnetic field
flux density B

S
R

G
P

E
F
direction of
incident electrons

Fig. 8.1

A uniform magnetic field of flux density B is directed into the slice, at right-angles to face PQRS.

(a) The electrons each have charge –q and drift speed v in the slice.

State the magnitude and the direction of the force due to the magnetic field on each electron
as it enters the slice.

magnitude: (force =) Bqv B1

direction: P→Q or E→F or S→R or H→G

(b) The force on the electrons causes a voltage VH to be established across the semiconductor
slice given by the expression

VH = BI
ntq

where I is the current in the slice.

(i) State the two faces between which the voltage VH is established.
EHSP and
face ................................. FGRQ
and face ................................. [1]

(ii) Use letters from Fig. 8.1 to identify the distance t.

PE or QF or RG or SH
.......................................................... [1]
(c) Aluminium (27 –3
13 Al ) has a density of 2.7 g cm . Assume that there is one free electron available
to carry charge per atom of aluminium.

(i) Show that the number of charge carriers per unit volume in aluminium is 6.0 × 1028 m–3.

[2]

(ii) A sample of aluminium foil has a thickness of 0.090 mm. The current in the foil is 4.6 A.

A uniform magnetic field of flux density 0.15 T acts at right-angles to the foil.

Use the value in (i) to calculate the voltage VH that is generated.

VH = ...................................................... V [2]
6 A thin slice of conducting material has its faces PQRS and V WXY normal to a uniform magnetic
field of flux density B, as shown in Fig. 6.1.

magnetic field
flux density B

Q R

W X
direction of
motion of electrons

P S

V Y

Fig. 6.1

Electrons enter the slice at right-angles to face SRXY.

A potential difference, the Hall voltage VH, is produced between two faces of the slice.

(a) (i) Use letters from Fig. 6.1 to identify the two faces between which the Hall voltage is
produced.

..........................PSYV and QRXW.....................................

(ii) State and explain which of the two faces named in (a)(i) is the more positive.

Using Flemming's Left hand rule, the electrons flow towards QRXW which means that PSYV is
more positive. Actually the electrons moves towards the more negative potential.

(b) The Hall voltage VH is given by the expression

BI
VH = .
ntq

(i) Use the letters in Fig. 6.1 to identify the distance t.

SY/ PV/RX/QW
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(ii) The negative charge carriers (electrons) are replaced by positive charge carriers moving
in the same direction towards the slice.

State and explain the effect, if any, of this change on the polarity of the Hall voltage.

[Total: 6]
7 (a) (i) Define magnetic flux.

(ii) State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

(b) A solenoid has a coil C of wire wound tightly about its centre, as shown in Fig. 7.1.

coil C

solenoid

+ –
d.c. supply

Fig. 7.1

The coil C has 96 turns.

The uniform magnetic flux Φ, in Wb, in the solenoid is given by the expression

Φ = 6.8 × 10–6 × I

where I is the current, in A, in the solenoid.

Calculate the average electromotive force (e.m.f.) induced in coil C when a current of 3.5 A is
reversed in the solenoid in a time of 2.4 ms.

e.m.f. = ........................................................ V [2]

(c) The d.c. supply in Fig. 7.1 is now replaced with a sinusoidal alternating supply.

Describe qualitatively the e.m.f. that is now induced in coil C.

[Total: 8]
10 (a) A long straight vertical wire A carries a current in an upward direction.
The wire passes through the centre of a horizontal card, as illustrated in Fig. 10.1.

card

current-carrying
wire A

Fig. 10.1

The card is viewed from above. The card is shown from above in Fig. 10.2.

card
wire A carrying
current out
of plane of paper

Fig. 10.2

On Fig. 10.2, draw four lines to represent the magnetic field produced by the current-carrying
wire. [3]
concentric circles centred on the wire B1
separation of lines increasing with distance from wire B1
arrows show anti-clockwise direction
(b) Two wires A and B are now placed through a card. The two wires are parallel and carrying
currents in the same direction, as illustrated in Fig. 10.3.

wire B

wire A

card

Fig. 10.3

(i) Explain why a magnetic force is exerted on each wire.

current in (each) wire creates a magnetic field (at the other wire) B1
current (in wire) at 90° to field causes force

(ii) State the directions of the forces.

force on each wire towards other wire/attractive

Like currents attract/unlike currents repel

(c) The currents in the two wires are not equal.

Explain whether the magnetic forces on the two wires are equal in magnitude.

Newton’s third law pair of forces so yes (forces are equal)

or
force proportional to product of both currents so yes (forces are equal)
 21 ALTERNATING CURRENT

Characteristics of Alternating currents

I = I0 sin t Since I02 and sin2 are positive therefore the value for
power is also positive.
V = V0 sin t
1 2 1 𝑉02
Peak current (I0), or peak voltage (V0), of a 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 〈𝑃〉 = 𝐼0 𝑅 =
2 2 𝑅
sinusoidal curve is defined as:
Note:
𝑉0
The maximum value of the alternating 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 =
√2
- 𝑉0 = √2 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠
current or voltage. (amplitude, i.e I0 or V0)
Therefore,
Root-Mean Square Current & Voltage 1 2
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
The r.m.s values represent the d.c current, or voltage, 〈𝑃〉 = (√2 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 ) =
2𝑅 𝑅
values that will produce the same heating effect, or
power dissipation, as the alternating current, or
voltage.

The r.m.s value of an alternating current is defined as:

 The value of a constant current that produces Rectification

the same power in a resistor as the  Is the process where an alternating current is
alternating current converted to a direct current.

The r.m.s current Ir.m.s is defined by the equation:

𝐼0
𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 =
√2

The r.m.s voltage Vr.m.s is defined by the equation:

𝑉0
𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 =
√2

The steady direct current, or voltage, that delivers the

same average power in a resistor as the alternating
current, or voltage
Mean Power
The mean power in a resistive load is half the
maximum power for a sinusoidal alternating current.

Recall:
𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑉 = 𝐼2 𝑅 =
𝑅
I = I0 sin t
𝑃 = (I0 sin t)2 𝑅

𝑃 = 𝐼02 𝑅(sin 𝜔𝑡)2

 21 ALTERNATING CURRENT

Use of a single diode for half-wave rectification

For one-half of the time the voltage is zero, and this

means that the power available from a half-wave
Smoothing
rectified supply is reduced. A single capacitor is connected across the resistor to
reduce fluctuations in the unidirectional output.
To overcome this problem of reduced power, a bridge
rectifier circuit is used. For full wave-rectifier 4 The idea is that the capacitor charges up and
diodes are arranged in a diamond pattern. This maintains the voltage at a high level. It discharges
arrangement use the negative half cycles input and gradually when the rectified voltage drops, but the
reverse their polarity. voltage soon rises again and the capacitor charges up
again. The result is an output voltage with ‘ripple’.

The higher the values of capacitance and load

When A is positive  diodes 2 & 3 are used. resistance, the greater the smoothing of the curve.
When B is positive  diodes 4 & 1 are used.
7 (a) Explain what is meant by the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value of an alternating voltage.
the value of steady / constant voltage M1
that produces same power (in a resistor) as the alternating voltage A1 [2]
or if alternating voltage is squared and averaged (M1)
the r.m.s. value is the square root of this averaged value

(b) An alternating voltage V is represented by the equation

V = 220 sin(120πt),

where V is measured in volts and t is in seconds.

For this alternating voltage, determine

(i) the peak voltage,

220 V
peak voltage = ........................................... V [1]

(ii) the r.m.s. voltage,

156 V
r.m.s. voltage = ........................................... V [1]

(iii) the frequency.

60 Hz
frequency = ......................................... Hz [1]

(c) The alternating voltage in (b) is applied across a resistor such that the mean power
output from the resistor is 1.5 kW.

Calculate the resistance of the resistor.

resistance = .......................................... Ω [2]

 6 (a) State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
(induced) e.m.f. proportional to rate M1
of change of (magnetic) flux (linkage)

(b) The output of an ideal transformer is connected to a bridge rectifier, as shown in Fig. 6.1.

240 V r.m.s.
+

load
resistor

Fig. 6.1

The input to the transformer is 240 V r.m.s. and the maximum potential difference across
the load resistor is 9.0 V.

(i) On Fig. 6.1, mark with the letter P the positive output from the rectifier. [1]
(ii) Calculate the ratio

number of turns on primary coil

.
number of turns on secondary coil

ratio = .................................................. [3]

(c) The variation with time t of the potential difference V across the load resistor in (b) is
shown in Fig. 6.2.

0
t

Fig. 6.2

A capacitor is now connected in parallel with the load resistor to produce some
smoothing.

(i) Explain what is meant by smoothing.

output voltage does not fall to zero

(ii) On Fig. 6.2, draw the variation with time t of the smoothed output potential
difference. [2]
5 A sinusoidal alternating potential difference (p.d.) from a supply is rectified using a single diode.
The variation with time t of the rectified potential difference V is shown in Fig. 5.1.

8
V/V
6

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
t / ms
−2

−4

−6

−8

Fig. 5.1

(a) (i) Determine the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value of the supply potential difference before
rectification.

r.m.s. potential difference = ........................................................ V [2]

(ii) State the type of rectification shown in Fig. 5.1.

half wave rectification
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(b) The alternating potential difference is rectified and smoothed using the circuit in Fig. 5.2.

C R VOUT

Fig. 5.2

The capacitor has capacitance C of 85 µF and the resistor has resistance R.

The effect of the capacitor and the resistor is to produce a smoothed output
potential difference VOUT. The difference between maximum and minimum values of VOUT is
2.0 V. (this is called the ripple which is the difference between the maximum and minimum voltage
(i) On Fig. 5.1, draw a line to show VOUT between times t = 1.0 ms and t = 5.0 ms. [3]

(ii) Determine the time, in s, for which the capacitor is discharging between times t = 1.0 ms
and t = 5.0 ms.

4.5 ms - 1ms

time = ........................................................ s [1]

(iii) Use your answers in (b)(i) and (b)(ii) to calculate the resistance R.

R = ....................................................... Ω [2]

[Total: 9]