SSIP 2023 PHYSICAL SCIENCE LEARNER NOTES (T. SET) Start Here Today24.11 (HM) .1

Physical Sciences
Grade 12
Term 2
Learner’s Notes
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SESSION TOPIC PAGE

Strategies on how to answer…
• Multiple Choice Questions
00 2-3
• Experiment based Questions
• Exam tips
00 Breakdown of Topics covered 3
01 Grade 11 revision: Newton’s laws of motion 4-18
02 WORK ENERGY AND POWER 19-37
03 DOPPLER EFFECT 38-52
RATE AND EXTEND OF REACTIONS
04 53-66
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
05 67-92
06 ACIDS AND BASES 93-105

GRADE 11 REVISION. ELECTROSTATICS
07 106-120
© Gauteng Department of Education

2
The following strategies may be considered when answering the following:
Strategy 1:
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Read the question carefully.

2. Underline KEY WORDS in the question.
3. Be mindful of CAPITALIZED words.
4. Decide whether you are required to recall or use a fact, definition, formula or
unit.
5. Scratch out the obviously incorrect responses (called distractors)
6. This is called elimination and is helpful when the answers or options are very
close to each other.
Strategy 2:
Experiment Based Questions
1. Hypothesis: A prediction based on the experimenter’s knowledge about the

topic/ description of the relation between the dependent and independent
variables.
2. Variables:
• Controlled variable: a variable that is kept constant throughout the
investigations in order to make the investigation fair.
• Dependent variable: variable that is measured.
• Independent variable: Variable that is changed.
3. Graphs: When plotting a graph, the dependent variable must be plotted on

the Y-axis and Independent variable on the X-axis. All graphs must contain
the following
• Title
• Axis must be labelled with units.
4. Conclusion: a generalized statement based on the observations made during

the investigation.

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Strategy 3
Exam Tips (adopted from Free State Province)
1. Read the instructions before you start answering questions.
2. Use the 15-minute reading time effectively.
3. Do not spend more than 20 minutes on Multiple choice questions.
4. Only formulae in the data sheets must be used. When reading a question,
compile a list of all the physical quantities given and then try to identify the
formula that should be used in answering the question.
5. Learn all your definitions well. (All the definition per topic have been included)
6. In Physics, it always helps to draw sketch of the situation to help you to

visualize the problem.
7. When doing calculations, apply the following

• Formula
• Substitution
• Add a unit to your final answer
• Include direction if the quantity is a vector.
8. Make sure you prepare sufficiently. Practice, practice, practice as much as

you need to learn all definitions, terms and concepts and apply in problem
solving.
SELECTED TOPICS COVERED:
Structure physics paper 1 Structure Chemistry paper 2

MCQ MCQ
Newton’s laws Rate and extent of reactions
Work, energy and power Chemical equilibrium
Doppler Effect Acids and Bases
Work, energy and power
Doppler effect

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SESSION 1: Revision–Newton’s laws of motion
Definition list
Normal force (FN)

The force or the component of a force which a surface exerts on an object with which
it is in contact with, and which is perpendicular to the surface.
Frictional force (Ff)

The force that opposes the motion of an object and which acts parallel to the
surface.
Static frictional force (fs)

The force that opposes the tendency of motion of an stationary object relative to a
surface.
Kinetic frictional force (fk)

The force that opposes the motion of a moving object relative to a surface.
Newton's first law of motion

An object will remain in its state of rest or motion at constant velocity unless a non-
zero resultant/net force acts on it.
Newton's second law of motion

When a resultant/net force acts on an object, the object will accelerate in the
direction of the force at an acceleration that is directly proportional to the force and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
Newton's third law of motion:

When one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts a force
of equal magnitude in the opposite direction on the first object.

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Grade 11 Revision
In the 17th century, Astronomers began to study the movement of planets in the solar
system. They notice that the planets moved freely through space without any force to
push them. Galileo concluded that this was the natural motion of objects.
1. An object at rest will stay at rest unless a force causes it to start moving.
2. A moving object will continue to move at constant speed in a straight line ,
unless an unbalanced or resultant force acts on it.
Newton used Galileo’s results and formulated his theory of motion in three laws.
Force - A force is an interaction between two objects resulting in a push or a pull

on the object
.
Static and Kinetic friction Forces

Static friction takes place when an object is being pushed with a force that is too
small to move the object; therefore Static friction is the force that must be overcome
to move a stationary object. Stationary objects have frictional forces between zero to
a maximum value.
𝑭s𝒎𝒂𝒙=𝝁𝒔𝑭𝑵
max
Any force larger than fs overcomes the static friction and causes the object to
move. The maximum static frictional force for objects at rest is calculated using the
equation above:
where:
𝑭s𝒎𝒂 is the maximum static friction force.
𝑭 is the normal force of the object.
𝝁𝒔 is the coefficient of static friction.
Kinetic friction is the force that makes an object to slow down. Kinetic friction takes
place when an object is moving across a surface and is proportional to the normal
force.
𝑭k=𝝁k𝑭𝑵
Where:
𝑭k is the kinetic frictional force.
𝝁k is the coefficient of kinetic friction.
𝑭 is the normal force.

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SUMMARY
When the applied force is greater than the maximum static frictional force, the
objects move but still experience friction. This is called kinetic friction. For kinetic
friction the value remains the same regardless of the magnitude of the applied
force.
Static friction is present when the object is not moving.
Example 1
A box resting on a surface experiences a normal force of magnitude 30 N. The
Coefficient of static friction between the surface and the box, μs, is 0,34.
a) Calculate the mass of the box.
b) Calculate the maximum static frictional force experienced between the box and
the surface.

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Force and free-body diagrams:

A force diagram is a picture of the object(s) of interest with all the forces acting on it
(them) drawn as arrows.
Free-body diagrams, the object of interest is drawn as a dot and all the forces acting
on it are drawn as arrows pointing away from the dot.
Example 2: forces along the horizontal plane (surface)

Sipho exerts a force to the right while pushing a car along a rough, flat road. Draw a
force diagram and a free body diagram to represent the situation.
Steps to be followed when drawing force or free-body diagrams:
1. If there is a surface, draw a line to represent it.

2. Force diagram: draw a block to represent the object.
3. Free body diagram: draw a dot to represent the object.
4. Draw a vector to represent the weight of the object
5. If the body rests on a surface draw an arrow to represent the
Normal force, upwards from and perpendicular to the surface.
6. Draw an arrow to represent each applied force.
7. Draw an arrow to represent friction (if there is friction).
8. If you are drawing a free body diagram, erase the line
Representing the surface

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Solution
Objects on an incline:
When an object rests on an incline the forces are not only horizontal and vertical. It is
convenient to resolve all forces acting on an object into components along the incline
and along the direction perpendicular to the incline.
• Force applied down the slope.
• Force applied up the slope.

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Example 3
A box is sliding on a slope under various conditions. Draw the corresponding free-
body diagram.
Condition 1:
θ = 20˚ no friction present m = 10 kg
Condition 2:
θ = 30˚ 10 N friction with box moving down the slope m = 20 kg
Condition 3:
θ = 60˚ 15 N friction with box moving up the slope m = 15 kg
Solution
Condition 1
Condition 2
Condition 3

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Law of inertia:
An object continues in a state of rest or uniform (moving with constant) velocity
unless it is acted upon by an unbalanced (net or resultant) force.
There are two parts of this law- one, which predicts the behaviours of stationary
objects, and the other, which predicts the behaviour of moving objects.
Newton's first law: An object continues in a state of rest or uniform velocity

unless it is acted upon by a net force.
Inertia: The property of an object that causes it to resist a change in its state of
rest or uniform motion.

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Newton’s second law of motion:

When a net force is applied to an object of mass, it accelerates in the direction of the
net force. The acceleration is directly proportional to the net force and inversely
proportional to the mass.
Newton’s Second Law is dependent on the resultant force-The vector sum of all
forces acting on the same object.
Newton's second law of motion

When a resultant/net force acts on an object, the object will accelerate in the direction
of the force at an acceleration that is directly proportional to the force and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.
Example 4
A 50 kg block rests on a frictionless surface. A force of 200 N accelerates it to the
right. Calculate the acceleration.
Solution
Fnet = m x a
200 = 50 x a
A = 4 m.s-2 to the right

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Example 5
A 50 kg block rests on a horizontal surface. A force of 200N is applied at an angle of
300 to the horizontal, while a frictional force of 20N applies. The block accelerates it
to the right. Calculate the acceleration.
Solution
𝑥
Cos 300 = this will give use the missing force.
200
= 173,2N to the right.
We may not use this as Fnet because we have friction.
Fnet will be 173,2 -20N = 153,2N
Fnet = m x a
Fapplied Cos 300 - friction= 50 x a
153,2 N =50 x a
The acceleration of the block is 3,06 m.s-2 to the right.
Newton’s third law of motion:

When object A exerts a force on object B, object B simultaneously exerts an
oppositely directed force of equal magnitude on object A.
Newton’s Third Law describes action-reaction force pairs. These are forces on
different objects and cannot be added or subtracted

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Section A: Multiple choice questions (MCQ)
1.1 A physical quantity that is described as a measure of the resistance of a

body to a change in motion is called … (2)
A. Inertia
B. Force
C. Acceleration
D. Weight
1.2 A block of mass 4 kg is at rest on a smooth horizontal surface as shown in

the diagram. The two forces in the diagram are applied simultaneously to
the block. (2)
What will happen to the block? The block will...
A. Remain stationary
B. Accelerates to the right.
C. Accelerate to the left.
D. Be lifted off the surface.
1.3 A constant net force acts on a trolley. According to Newton's Second Law,
the acceleration of the trolley is … the mass of the trolley. (2)
A. Equal to
B. Independent of
C. Directly proportional to
D. Inversely proportional to

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1.4 Consider the statement below.

The perpendicular force exerted by a surface on an object in contact with
the surface.
Which ONE of the following forces is defined by the statement above? (2)
A. Normal force
B. Resultant force
C. Frictional force
D. Gravitational force
1.5 The driver of a motor car places a book on the level dashboard of his car
right in front of him. He observes that the book slides towards the
windscreen when he applies the brakes. Which of Newton’s Laws best
explains this observed motion? (2)
A. Newton’s first law

B. Newton’s second law
C. Newton’s third law
D. Law of universal gravitation

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STRUCTURED QUESTIONS
Question 1
A crash test dummy, mass 75 kg, is in the driver's seat of a car during an experiment
to investigate the effects of collisions. The car, mass 1200 kg, collides with the wall
at a speed of 30 m.s-1.
When the car hits the wall, it comes to rest in 0,1 s.

1.1 State Newton’s 1st Law of Motion. (2)
1.2 Calculate the force exerted by the wall on the car. (5)
1.3 Give a full description of the force that stops the car. (2)
The dummy does not have a seatbelt on when the car hits the wall.
1.4 Explain the effect of the crash on the dummy. Ensure that you include in
your response the possible undesired outcome for the dummy. (4)
Question 2
A 20 kg block is placed on a rough surface inclined at 30° to the horizontal. A constant
force F, acting parallel to the surface, is applied on the block so that the block moves up
the incline at a CONSTANT VELOCITY of 2 m.s-1. Refer to the diagram below.
A constant kinetic frictional force of 18 N acts on the block.
2.1 State Newton's First Law in words. (2)

2.2 Draw a labelled free-body diagram for the block. (4)
2.3 Calculate the magnitude of force F. (4)

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Force F is removed when the block reaches point X on the surface. The
block continues to move up the surface and comes to rest momentarily at
point Y.
Assume that the kinetic frictional force acting on the block remains at 18 N
as it moves from point X to point Y.
2.4 Write down the net force acting on the block as it moves from X to Y. (2)
2.5 Calculate the distance between points X and Y. (4)
Question 3
A 20 kg block, resting on a rough horizontal surface, is connected to blocks P and Q
by a light inextensible string moving over a frictionless pulley. Blocks P and Q are
glued together and have a combined mass of m.
A force of 35 N is now applied to the 20 kg block at an angle of 40° with the
horizontal, as shown below.
The 20 kg block experiences a frictional force of magnitude 5 N as it moves to the

RIGHT at a CONSTANT SPEED.
3.1. Define the term normal force. (2)
3.2. Draw a labeled free-body diagram of the 20 kg block. (5)
3.3 Calculate the combined mass m of the two blocks. (5)
3.4 At a certain stage of the motion, block Q breaks off and falls down.
How will EACH of the following be affected when this happens?
3.4.1 The tension in the string (1)
Choose from INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME.
3.4.2 The velocity of the 20 kg block. Explain the answer. (3)

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Question 4
Two wooden crates of masses 15 kg and 5 kg lie on a horizontal surface. The blocks
are pushed across the surface by a person applying a horizontal force F on the 15 kg
block. The frictional forces on the 15 kg and 5 kg blocks are 9 N and 3 N
respectively.
4.1 State Newton's Second Law in words. (2)

4.2 Sketch a force diagram showing the directions and names of all the forces
acting during the motion on
4.2.1 The 15 kg block

4.2.2 The 5 kg block. (9)
4.2.3 If during motion the 5 kg block exerts a force of 20 N on the 15 kg
block, determine the magnitude of the force F applied by the person on the 15
kg block. (10)
Question 5
A and B are two identical bricks each of mass 6 kg tied together by a thin,
inextensible string. They are dragged across a rough surface by a 60 N force on
brick B at 60° to the horizontal.
The magnitude of the tension in the string is 16 N. The string is very thin so ignore its
mass. The string does not stretch (inextensible). The bricks accelerate to the right at
2.0 m.s–2.
5.1 Determine the frictional force experienced by each brick. (10)
5.2 Why is the frictional force on B less than that on A? (2)

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Question 6
A crate of mass 2 kg is being pulled to the right across a rough horizontal surface by a
o
constant force F. The force F is applied at an angle of 20 to the horizontal, as shown in
the diagram below.
6.1. Draw a labelled free-body diagram showing ALL the forces acting on the crate.
(4)
A constant frictional force of 3 N acts between the surface and the crate. The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the crate and the surface is 0,2.
Calculate the magnitude of the:
6.2 Normal force acting on the crate (3)
6.3 Force F (4)
6.4 Acceleration of the crate (3)

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SESSION 2: WORK ENERGY & POWER
Definitions:
Work: is defined as the product of the force parallel to the movement of an
Object and the displacement of the object.
Work-energy theorem: The net/total work done on an is equal to the change in

the objects kinetic energy. OR The work done on an object by a resultant/net force is
equal to the change in the objects kinetic energy.
Conservative force: is a force for which the work done in moving an object
between two points is independent of the path taken e.g., gravitational force, the
elastic force in a spring or an electrostatic force (Coulomb force).
Non-conservative force: is a force for which the work done in moving an object
between two points depends on the path taken e.g., frictional force, air resistance or
tension in a chord.
Principle of conservation of mechanical energy: The total mechanical

energy (sum of gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy )in an isolated
system remains constant.
Power : is the rate at which work is done or energy is expended.

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EXAM GUIDELINES:
LEARNER CHECK LIST: CAN I ….
1. Define the work done on an object
2. Draw force diagram & free-body diagrams and solve problems for different
situations.
• A stationary object on a horizontal surface, on an incline or hanging from a rope.

• An object moving vertically upwards or downwards, with or without an applied
force.
3. Calculate the net work done on an object.
4. Distinguish between positive work and negative net work done on the system.
5. State the work-energy theorem
• Apply the work-energy theorem on horizontal, vertical, and inclined planes
6. Define conservative and non-conservative forces and give examples
7. State the principle of conservation of mechanical energy
• Solve problems using the equation Wnc = ΔEk + ΔEp
• Show that Emech is conserved in the absence of non-conservative forces.
8. Define power and calculate the power involved when work is done.
• Perform calculations using Pave= Fvave
➢ when an object moves at a constant speed along a rough

horizontal surface or a rough inclined plane
• Calculate the minimum power

➢ required of an electric motor to pump water from a borehole of a
particular depth at a particular rate using Wnc = ΔEk + ΔEp

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Work
Work is the transfer of energy. Work done on an object by a force is the product of
the displacement and the component of the force parallel to the
displacement.
Work is a scalar quantity therefore no direction is required.
W = Work (J)
F = Force applied (N)
Δx/s = Displacement (m)
One Joule is the amount of work done when a force of one newton moves its point
of application one metre in the direction of the force.
When a resultant force is applied to an object, the resultant force accelerates the
block across a distance of Δx. Work has been done to increase the kinetic energy of
the block.
Work is done to increase potential energy of the block.
Work is only done in the direction of the displacement. Work is done by the
component of the force that is parallel to the displacement. The angle between the
force and the displacement is θ.

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No work is done on an object if the force and displacement are perpendicular to each
other.
The man applies an upward force on the box when raising it from the ground to chest
height. Work is done because the force is applied in the same direction that the box
moves .However, as the man walks from left to right while holding the box, he does
no work on the box. The force he uses to support the box acts in a different direction
than the box is moving.
Positive and Negative work
If the component of the force acts in the same direction as the displacement (in the
same direction that the object is moving), then the work done by that force is
positive. The force increases the kinetic energy of the system.
If the force acts in the opposite direction to the displacement, the work done by the
force is negative. The force is reducing the kinetic energy of the system.
Work done by a net force

If there is no netforce on an object, the object will not accelerate i.e., the kinetic
energy of the object will not change. The net work will be zero.
If there is a net force on the object, the object will accelerate so the kinetic energy of
the object will change. The net work will equal the change in kinetic energy of the
object . This could be positive or negative (speed up or slow down).
Positive work done means that enerrgy is added to the system.
A force or force component in the opposite direction of the displacement does

negative work on the object. The force decreases the energy of the object and
therefore removing energy from the system.

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Types of Forces
Forces are interactions between two

bodies.
1. Conservative Forces
When lifting a book, the work that you

do "against gravity" in lifting is stored
and is available to be converted back
into kinetic energy of the book once you
let go. Forces that store energy in this
way are called conservative forces.
Gravity is a conservative force, and
there are many others.
Importantly, the work done by a conservative force is INDEPENDENT of the path

taken by the object – i.e. it only depends on the final and starting positions of the
object.
2. Non-conservative Forces
When pushing a book on a table, the work

that you do "against friction" does not
become available to the book as kinetic
energy anymore. It is converted to heat and
sound. Forces that do not store energy are
called non-conservative or dissipative forces.
Any friction-type force, like air resistance, is a
non-conservative force.
Importantly, the work done by a non-

conservative force is DEPENDENT of the
path taken by the object.
The total energy of the system is conserved in all cases, whether the forces are
conservative or non-conservative.

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WORK ENERGY THEOREM
When a Resultant Force acts on an object, the object accelerates. This means there
is a change in velocity of the object, and therefore a change in kinetic energy of the
object, since,
Ek = ½ mv2
The work done by a net force on an object is equal to the change in the kinetic
energy of the object.
Power
Power is the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is transferred.
There are two fundamental equations to calculate power.
NOTE : One watt when one joule of work is done in one second. A watt is such a
small unit that power ratings are more often given in kW.
1 kW = 1000 W.
You need to select the correct work and force when you use these equations.

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SUMMARY
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
The work-energy The net/total work done on an object is equal to the

theorem change in the object's kinetic energy OR the work
done on an object by a resultant/net force is equal to
the change in the object's kinetic energy.
Conservative force A force for which the work done in moving an object
between two points is independent of the path taken.
Non-conservative A force for which the work done in moving an object
force between two points depends on the path taken.
The principle of The total mechanical energy (sum of gravitational
conservation of potential energy and kinetic energy) in an isolated
system remains constant.
mechanical energy
Power The rate at which work is done or energy is
expended.
SECTION A: Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
QUESTION 1
1.1 The work done by a constant force F applied to an object to increase the
object's speed from v to 2v is W. The work done by the same force to
increase the speed of the object from 0 to v will be .. . (2)
A. ⅓W
B. ½W
C. 2W
D. 3W
1.2 The base SI unit of the physical quantity 'work' is … (2)
A. kg∙m∙s-1
B. kg∙m2 ∙s2
C. kg∙m2 ∙s-2
D. kg∙m∙s-2

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1.3 The equation that represents the law of conservation of mechanical energy is
A. E p i + E p f = E k i + E k f
B E pi + E kf= E pf + E ki
C. E p i ‒ E k i = E p f ‒ E k f
D. E p i + E k i = E p f + E k f
1.4 The equation for nett work done ( Wnet = Fnet Δx Cos θ ) if the net force is in the
direction of motion of the box, and thus speeds it up as it moves through a horizontal
displacement Δx, can be written as:
A. Wnet = 100 Δx cos 30º
B. Wnet = ( 100 cos 30º ) Δx cos 0º
C. Wnet = ( 100 cos 30º ) Δx cos 180º
D. Wnet = ( 100 cos 30º ) Δx cos 90º
2.2 Work done is a scalar and thus
I In the formula Wnet = Fnet Δx cos θ,
II Work is only regarded as positive if the relevant force is in the direction of motion of
the object.
III Work is always regarded as being negative if the relevant force opposes the motion
of the object.
Which of the above statements are correct?
A. I, II and III
B. I and II
C. I and III
D. II and III

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1.5 The work-energy theorem is represented by which equation?
A. Wnet = ΔEk + ΔEp
B. Wnet = ΔEk
C. Wnet = ΔEp
D. Wnet = Fnet Δx cos θ
2.4 The work done by the non-conservative forces is represented by the equation
A. Wnet = ΔEk + ΔEp
B. Wnet = ΔEk
C. Wnet = ΔEp
D. Wnet = Fnet Δx cos θ
1.6 A man pushes a trolley up an inclined plane against the force of friction.
Which of the following represents the free-body diagram for this situation?
1.7 When a stone falls vertically, ignoring air friction,
A there is no change in the total energy
B K or Ek is conserved
C K or Ek decreases and gravitational U or Ep increases
D U or Ep is conserved

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1.8 An upward force of 15 N lifts a weight of 10 N through 2 m vertically. The respective

changes in U and K are
A ΔU = 10 J ; Δ K = 20 J
B Δ U = 20 J ; Δ K = 20 J
C Δ U = 20 J ; Δ K = 10 J
D Δ U = 10 J ; Δ K = 30 J
1.9 A stone of mass 2 kg is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 12 m•s –1.
The maximum Ep of the stone during the flight, in joule, is
A 0
B 120
C 144
D 288

29
QUESTION 2
2.1 A 40 kg girl slides from rest down a slide of vertical height 3 m and reaches the
bottom with a speed of 2 m•s–1.
2.1 Calculate the girl’s gravitational potential energy at the top of the slide,
relative to the bottom of the slide. (3)
2.2 Calculate the girl’s kinetic energy when she reaches the bottom of the slide. (3)
2.3 Why are the two values different ,give one reason. (1)
QUESTION 3
3. A 3 000 N applied upward force ( upthrust ) enables a 51,02 kg rocket to accelerate

upwards from rest for 100 m, subject to a constant average resistance from air friction
of 600 N.
3.1 Draw a fee-body diagram. (3)
3.2Calculate the nett work done on the rocket. (7)

190 000 J
3.3 Calculate the final speed the rocket it reaches.

Assume the mass of the rocket remains constant. Take vertically upwards as positive.
(3)
86,3 m•s–1
[13]

30
QUESTION 4
4 An 80 N force acting at an angle of 30° to the horizontal, drags a 12 kg block

horizontally for 4 m across a rough floor as shown below:
4.1 Calculate the work done. (3)
[3]
QUESTION 5
QUESTION 6
6.1 State the Work - Energy theorem. (2)
The following problems deal with cars that are moving horizontally on a straight road
:
6.2 A 100 kg model car is accelerated from rest to 40 m•s–1 along a 200 m horizontal
track. Determine the net force that acts upon the car. (4)
6.3 A 2 600 kg car brakes from 30 m•s–1 to 10 m•s–1 due to a net force
Fnet = – 8 400 N. How far did it travel along the horizontal road as it slowed down ?
(3)
6.4 If a 2 400 kg vehicle brakes from 20 m•s–1 to rest in 50 m due to a net force.
Determine the average net force acting on the car during the 50 m. (3)
6.5 An applied horizontal force of 150 N pushes a 10 kg car for 50 m horizontally

against a friction force of 50 N. What is the final speed of the car if it starts from rest?
(8)
[20]

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QUESTION 7
An object of mass 20kg is stationary at a height of 2m above the earths surface
7.1 Calculate the potential energy of a 20 kg object of mass that is 2 m vertically

above the Earth's surface. (3)
7.2 Draw a free body diagram to show all forces acting on the (object). (2)
7.3 Calculate the net work done ( Wnet ) by an applied force of 980 N which
raises a 100 kg mass through 10 m vertically from the Earth's surface, at a
constant speed, if the system is frictionless. (7)
7.4 What happened to compensate for the potential energy that was transferred
into the system by the applied force that did positive work as it raised the
mass up? (2)
[14]
QUESTION 8
8. A 60 kg object rests on top of an 80 m high cliff. If it falls off, and we ignore air
resistance, calculate :
8.1 its potential energy at the top. (3)
8.2 the fastest speed that it reaches. (4)
8.3 its mechanical energy after 2,7s. (2)
8.4 Ep + Ek when it is 17,4 m above the ground. (1)
8.5 Its speed when it is 35 m above the ground. (6)
8.6 The average frictional force of the ground acting on the object if the object
makes a 96 cm deep dent in the ground at the bottom of the cliff. (4)
[20]

32
QUESTION 9
A 4 kg electric car travels horizontally at a constant speed of 5 m•s–1 and moves

up a ramp XY that is 6 m long and has a vertical height of 3 m , arriving at the top
with a speed of 2 m•s–1. The car experiences an average frictional force of 2,5 N as
it moves up the ramp.
9.1 Why is the car's mechanical energy not conserved ? (2)
9.2 How much work is done by the friction force ? (3)
9.3 How much work must the car do to compensate for friction ? (1)
9.4 What is the useful or real work done by the electric motor of the car? (4)
9.5 What is the total work done by the car? (2)
[12]

33
QUESTION 10
A windmill is used on a farm to pump water out of a well that is 37 m deep. The
water flows past point A, 37 m above the well to the dam with a constant velocity of
2 m•s-1.
10.1 Calculate how much energy is necessary to pump 90 kg of water out of the
well to point A. (4)
10.2 It is necessary to pump 90 kg of water per minute. What is the maximum

power that the windmill must produce? (3)
10.3 The farmer wants to modernise the farm. The farmer decides to buy a 0,5
kW petrol water pump.
10.3.1 Will the petrol water pump be able to produce the required power?
(YES or NO) (1)
10.3.2 Why would you advise the farmer to rather use a windmill instead
of a petrol water pump? (1)
[9]

34
QUESTION 11
The diagram below shows a crate of mass 50 kg sliding down a steep slope. The
slope makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal. The motion of the crate as it
moves down the slope is controlled by a worker using a rope attached to the crate.
The rope is held parallel to the slope. The tension in the rope, FT, is 300 N and a
constant frictional force of 50 N acts on the crate as it slides down the slope.
11.1 Draw a labelled free-body diagram showing the forces parallel to the
slope acting on the crate as it moves down the slope. (3)
11.2 State the WORK-ENERGY THEOREM in words. (2)
11.3 The change in kinetic energy of the crate is 450 J as it slides from the top
to the bottom of the slope.
Use the work-energy theorem to calculate the length of the slope, Δx. (5)
11.4 Calculate the coefficient of kinetic friction on the crate as it moves down the
slope. (4)
[14]

35
QUESTION 12
A man pushes a crate, of mass 10 kg, up a rough surface inclined at 20 0 to the
horizontal, with a 100 N force parallel to the surface.
200
The crate is pushed 5 m up the surface with an initial speed of 1,5 m.s –1. The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the crate and surface is 0,4.
12.1 Draw a labelled free body diagram to show all the forces acting on the crate.(4)
12.2 Calculate the work done by gravity. (3)
12.3 Define non-conservative force and give one example. (3)
12.4 Is mechanical energy conserved as the crate is pushed up the incline?

Give a reason for your answer. (2)
12.5 Calculate the:
12.5.1 Energy lost due to friction. (6)
12.5.2 Work done by the man in pushing the crate up the surface. (3)
12.6 Use the Work Energy Theorem to calculate the magnitude of the final velocity of
the crate after it has been pushed 5 m up the surface. (4)
[25]

36
Homework questions
QUESTION 13
A container of mass 120g,hanging from a steel cable is attached to a crane is

accelerated vertically upwards from rest through a height of 12m,as shown in the
diagram below.The container reaches a maximum speed of 5m.s-1 after being lifted
through a height of 12m
13.1 State the work energy theorem in words. (2)
13.2 Draw a free body diagram showing all forces acting on the container as it is being
lifted up. (3)
13.3 If the tension of the cable is 800N,calculate the work done by the cable to move
the container a height of 12m. (3)
13.4 Use the work energy theorem to calculate the work done by friction on the
container to move it to a height of 12 m. (4)
13.5 Name one non-conservative force acting on the container as it is being lifted up.
(1)
[13]

37
QUESTION 14
The diagram below shoes a truck of mass 1200kg free-wheeling.(engine of the truck
is not doing any work on the truck)up a straight inclined road of length 25m.The truck
experiences a constant frictional force of magnitude 3400N as it moves up the incline.
The truck enters the bottom of the incline ,point A, with a speed of 25m.s -2 and reaches
the top of the incline ,point B with a speed of 20m.s-1
14.1 State the work energy theorem in words (2)
14.2 Draw a labelled force diagram showing all force acting on the truck as it moves
up the incline. (3)
14.3.Calculate the nett work done on the truch when moving from the bottom of the
incline to the top of the incline. (4)
14.4 What is a “conservative force”. (2)
14.5 Show that work done by non-conservative forces is -85000J. (3)
14.6 Calculate the height reached by the truck at the top of the incline. (4)
[18]

38
SESSION 3: Doppler’s Effect
Definitions
Doppler Effect: the change in frequency (or pitch) of the sound detected by a
listener because the sound source and the listener have different velocities relative
to the medium of sound propagation.
Exam guidelines-
1. State the Doppler Effect and explain (using illustrations) the change in pitch
observed when a source moves toward or away from a listener (sound and
ultrasound)
2. State applications of the Doppler Effect with ultrasound waves in medicine, e.g. to
measure the rate of blood flow or the heartbeat of a foetus in the womb.
Solve problems using
when EITHER source or listener moves
3. With light, explain ‘red shifts’ & use the Doppler Effect to explain why we conclude
that the universe is expanding.
Doppler Effect
As a sound source moves through space, it moves relative to the waves that it has
already produced. This causes an apparent change in wavelength, and therefore
also a change in the perceived frequency. There are two situations which lead to the
Doppler effect:
1. When the source moves relative to a stationary observer.
2. When the observer moves relative to a stationary source.

39
Case 1: Moving source stationary observer
When a source moves towards an observer the distance between the wavefronts
(wavelength) is decreased and the perceived frequency increases.
When a source moves away from an observer the distance between the
wavefronts (wavelength) is increased and the perceived frequency decreases.
Case 2: Moving observer, stationary source
There are two observers, one on the left that will move away from the source and
one on the right that will move towards the source.The motion of the observer will
alter the frequency of the measured sound from a stationary source:
1. An observer moving towards the source measures a higher frequency.

2. An observer moving away from the source measures a lower frequency.

40
Problem solving strategy

Listener stationary, source moving Velocities Equation
towards listener
Listener velocity: v
vL = 0 fL = fS
v − vS
Source velocity:
-vs
Listener stationary, source moving away Velocities Equation
from listener
Listener velocity: v
vL = 0 fL = fS
v + vS
Source velocity:
+vs
Source stationary, listener moving Velocities Equation
towards source
Listener velocity: F = 𝑣±𝑣𝐿
𝑣
+vL
Source velocity:
vs = 0
Source stationary, listener moving away Velocities Equation
from source
Listener velocity: fL = 𝑣±𝑣𝐿
𝑣
- vL
Source velocity:
vs = 0
To solve problems on Doppler Effect following the

strategy:
• Write down in, symbol form, the given quantities

• Write down the full Doppler Effect equation as on the Information Sheet
• Substitute as in the table above
• Consider the speed of sound in air, use one given in problem.
• Calculate the unknown quantity.

41
Applications of the Doppler Effect with ultrasound waves:
The Doppler flow meter is used to measure the rate of blood flow in patients’ blood
vessels.
• Ultrasound is a longitudinal wave with very high frequency of above 20

kHz that we cannot hear.
• A catheter connected to a Doppler flow meter is inserted in a blood
vessel. It gives out a sound wave at ultrasound frequency. The blood
velocity through the heart causes a ‘Doppler shift’ in the frequency of
the returning waves. The meter measures this and compares the
frequencies.
• The receiver detects the reflected sound and an electronic counter
measures the reflected frequency.
• From the change in frequency, the speed of the blood flow can be
determined and narrowing of blood vessels identified.
DOPPLER EFFECT AS PROOF OF EXPANDING UNIVERSE

Stars emit light, which is why we can see them at night. Galaxies are huge
collections of stars. An example is our own Galaxy, the Milky Way, of which our sun
is only one of the billions of stars!
A shift in wavelength implies that there is also a shift in frequency. Longer

wavelengths of light have lower frequencies and shorter wavelengths have higher
frequencies. From the Doppler Effect we know that when the source moves towards
the observer any waves they emit that you measure are shifted to shorter
wavelengths (blue shifted). If the source moves away from the observer, the shift is
to longer wavelengths (red shifted).

42
Summary
Red light has a longer wavelength than blue light, thus a shift towards the red
spectrum (longer wavelength, lower frequency) indicates that the source of the wave
is moving away from the observer.
Red shift: object moving away from observer.

Blue shift: object moving towards observer.
WORKED EXAMPLES
A sound source, moving at a constant speed of 240 m∙s-1 towards a detector, emits
sound at a constant frequency. The detector records a frequency of 5 100 Hz. Take
the speed of sound in air as 340 m∙s-1. Calculate the wavelength of the sound
emitted by the source.
Solution
Step 1
vs = 240 m.s-1,
vL = 0 m.s-1 (detector stationary),
fL = 5100 Hz (detected),
v = 340 m.s-1
fs = ?
Step 2
Source of sound moving towards the observer (detector) from the statement we
expect a higher frequency but lower wave length.
Step 3 .
write down the doppler equation as it appears on the DATASHEET

43
Step 4
substitute into the formula given above. Never shorten the formula:
___________________________________________________________________
Section A: Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
Question 1
1.1 A train is moving at a constant velocity of 10 m∙s-1 while sounding its
whistle, which has a frequency of 500 Hz. Take the speed of sound in air
as 340 m∙s-1. What frequency will be heard by a man sitting in the train?
(2)
A. 500 Hz
B. More than 500 Hz
C. Less than 500 Hz
D. No sound will be heard
1.2 The siren of a police car, moving in front of a truck, emits sound waves of
frequency f. Both vehicles are travelling at the same constant velocity. The
frequency of the sound heard by the driver of the truck is …
The frequency of the sound heard by the driver of the truck is …
A. f
B. zero
C. greater than f
D. smaller than f
(2)

44
Structured Questions
Question 1
Grade 12 learners conduct an investigation to verify the speed of a race car using the
Doppler effect. A race car driving around a racecourse at constant speed emits a single
frequency of 200 Hz. A learner standing on the final straight records the sound using a cell
phone, as the car approaches him and after passing him.
1.1 For this investigation , write down the following:

1.1.1 A dependent variable
1.1.2 One controlled variable
1.1.3 A suitable investigative question for this experiment.
1.2 When playing back the sound recorded on the cell phone in the presence of
an oscilloscope, a difference in frequency of 67,15 Hz was registered. Use the
information above to calculate the speed of the race car. Take the speed of
sound in air as 340 m∙s-1 (5)
1.3 The spectrum of light from most stars contains lines corresponding to helium
gas. Diagram A shows the helium spectrum as observed in a laboratory.
Is the distant star moving AWAY FROM or TOWARDS the earth? Explain the
answer. (3)

45
Question 2
The siren of a train, moving at a constant speed along a straight horizontal track, emits
sound with a constant frequency. A detector, placed next to the track, records the
frequency of the sound waves. The results obtained are as shown in the graph below.
2.1 State the Doppler Effect in words. (2)
2.2 Does the detector record the frequency of 3 148 Hz when the train moves
TOWARDS the detector or AWAY from the detector? (1)
2.3 Calculate the speed of the train. Take the speed of sound in air as 340 m∙s -1 .
(6)
2.4 The detector started recording the frequency of the moving train's siren when
the train was 350 m away. Calculate time t1 indicated on the graph above. (2)
Question 3
Consider the two spectrum diagrams below.
Diagram 1 represents the spectrum of an element in a laboratory on Earth.

Diagram 2 represents the spectrum of the same element from a distant star
as observed from Earth. What can you deduce from the spectra above? (3)

46
Class Test
TOTAL: 42
TIME: 60 min
Question 1- MULTIPLE CHOICE
1.
A source of sound moves away from a stationary observer. The
frequency of the sound detected by the observer is different from
the source frequency because:
A The volume of the sound decreases as the source moves away

from the observer
B The wave fronts received by the observer are further apart than
the wave fronts from the source
C The speed of the sound becomes smaller
D The apparent wavelength of the sound is shorter (2)
1.2 A stationary police car has its siren on. A boy moves away from
the car with a constant velocity x. The ratio of the real frequency
of the siren of the car to the apparent frequency as heard by the
boy is 1,25. The boy now stands still and the car moves away
from him with the same velocity x. What will the ratio of the real
frequency of the siren be to the apparent frequency as heard by
the boy.
A 1,2
B 1,25
C 1,4
D 1,5 (2)
1.3 The light from distant galaxies is shifted to longer wavelengths.

This is called _____________ and occurs because _________
A red shift, the frequency of light decreases as it travels through

space
B red shift, distant galaxies have a relative movement away from
Earth
C blue shift, the wavelength of light from galaxies increases as it
travels through space
blue shift, some galaxies are approaching Earth (2)
1.4 The spectrum of a typical star, such as the Sun, consists of:
A a continuous spectrum
B a continuous spectrum with absorption lines
C a continuous spectrum emission lines
D just emission lines (2)

47
1.5 The theory that the universe is expanding is supported by
A blue shift of light from distant galaxies

B nuclear fusion occurring in the Sun
C red shift of light from distant galaxies
D radioactive decay occurring in the Sun (2)
[10]
2. You detect that the frequency of an emergency vehicle’s siren,

which has just passed by your home, is 900Hz. The frequency
emitted by the siren is 950Hz.
2.1 Explain why the frequency you heard is lower than the frequency
of the source. Use a sketch in your explanation. [5]
3 An astronaut explores a newly discovered planet. A flying

creature, screaming at a frequency of 940Hz flies at a speed of
19,5m·s-1 towards the surprised astronaut. The astronaut hears
the scream at a frequency of 990Hz.
3.1 What physical characteristic of a sound wave determines its:

3.1.1 pitch (1)
3.1.2 loudness (1)
3.2 Calculate the speed of sound in the atmosphere of this planet. (6)
[8]
4 High frequency sound waves can be transmitted through human
tissue.
4.1 What is the name given to sound waves of frequency higher than
20 000Hz? (1)
4.2 These high frequency sound waves can be used to measure the
speed of blood flowing in the blood vessels. Doctors can measure
the Doppler shift from reflected sound waves.
4.2.1 Against which particles in the blood do the sound waves reflect? (1)
4.2.2 What information is used to determine the speed of the blood
flow? (2)
4.2.3 What information is used to determine the direction of the blood
flow? (2)
4.2.4 What information can doctors obtain from measuring the blow
flow velocity in a vein? (2)
4.3 Name one other medical application of the Doppler Effect. (1)
[9]
5 The siren of a stationary ambulance emits sound waves at a
frequency of 850 Hz.
An observer, travelling in a car at a constant speed in a straight

line, begins measuring the frequency of the sound waves emitted
by the siren when he is at a distance x from the ambulance.

48
The observer continues measuring the frequency as he

approaches, passes and moves away from the ambulance. The
results obtained are shown in the graph below
5.1 The observed frequency suddenly changes at t = 6 s. Give a

reason for thissudden change in observed frequency. (2)
5.2 Calculate the:
5.2.1 Speed of the car
-1
(Take the speed of sound in air as 340 m∙s .) (5)
5.2.2 Distance x between the car and the ambulance when the
observer BEGINS measuring the frequency
(3)
[10]

49
HOMEWORK QUESTIONS
ACTIVITIES ON DOPPLER EFFECT
Question 1
1.1 A car sounds its horn whilst travelling at constant velocity along a straight road.
At time t = 0 the car is at position X as shown below. At time t = t1 the car moves
past a stationary listener L. At time t = t2 the car is at position Y.
Which ONE of the following graphs best represents the variation of the frequency
(pitch) of the horn with time as heard by the listener?

50
1.2 A source of sound approaches a stationary listener. Which ONE of the following
will occur?
A. The amplitude of the observed sound wave will be more than the amplitude
of the sound wave emitted by the source.
B. The frequency of the observed sound wave will be more than the frequency of the
sound wave emitted by the source.
C. The wavelength of the observed sound wave will be greater than the wavelength
of the sound wave emitted by the source.
D. The speed of the observed sound wave will be greater than the speed of the
sound wave emitted by the source.
1.3 An observer moves away from a stationary source. The pitch heard by the
observer appears to change because the …
A loudness of the source appears to increase.

B frequency of the source appears to increase.
C frequency of the source appears to decrease.
D wavelength of the source appears to decrease.
1.4. An aircraft controller is standing on the tarmac of the runway of air field. A small
plane moves down the runway. The noise of the engine , as heard by the pilot ,has
frequency of 1,17 times the frequency that the controller hears.
Which statement best describes the movement of the plane relative to the controller?
A. The plane is moving towards the controller.

B. The plane is moving away from the controller.
C. The plane is passing in front of the controller.
D. One cannot determine the movement of the plane relative to the controller.

51
Question 2
A man standing on the sidewalk notices that the sound of a racing car changes when
the car moves towards him at a constant speed of 200 km.h-1 compared to when
the car is moving away from him.
Assume that the speed of sound in air is 340 m.s-1.

2.1 Name and state the phenomenon illustrated above. (3)
2.2 Convert 200 km·h-1 to m·s-1. (2)
2.3 If the frequency of sound that the man will hear when the car is approaching him
is 298,84 Hz, calculate the frequency of sound produced by the car. (5)
2.4 State TWO uses of the Doppler flow meter in medical field. (2)
[12]
QUESTION 3
The siren of a police car produces a sound of frequency 420 Hz. A man sitting
next to the road notices that the pitch of the sound changes as the car moves
towards and then away from him.
3.1 Name and state in words the phenomenon described above. (3)
3.2 Calculate the frequency of the sound of the siren observed by the man,
when the car is moving towards him at a constant speed of 16 m∙s -1.
Assume that the speed of sound in air is 340 m∙s-1. (5)
3.3 The police car moves away from the man at a constant velocity, then
slows down and finally comes to rest.
3.3.1 How will the observed frequency COMPARE with the original
frequency of the siren when the police car moves away from the
man at constant velocity? Write only GREATER THAN,
SMALLER THAN or EQUAL TO. (1)

52
3.3.2 How will the observed frequency CHANGE if the car moves
away from the observer at a lower speed? Write only
INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME. (1)
3.4 Light from a star undergoes a red shift when observed from Earth.
3.4.1 Explain the term red shift. (2)
3.4.2 What can be concluded about the Universe from this red shift? (1)
[13]
Question 4
An ambulance moves away from an accident scene at a constant speed with its
siren producing sound waves at a frequency of 890 Hz. A detector at the scene
measures 90% of the frequency of sound waves produced by the siren as the
ambulance moves away.
4.1 What phenomenon is being described above? (1)
4.2 Explain, in terms of wave motion, why the detector measures 90% of the
frequency of sound waves emitted by the ambulance. (2)
Assume that the speed of sound in air is 340 m∙s-1.
4.3 Calculate the speed of the ambulance. (5)
4.4 What is the use of the Doppler flow meter in the medical field? (1)
4.5 The diagram below shows spectral lines for a nearby star and a distant star as
observed from Earth.
4.5.1 Is the nearby star moving towards or away from Earth? (1)
4.5.2 Compare the motion of the nearby star and the distant star as
observed from Earth. Which ONE of them is moving faster? (2)
[12]

53
SESSION 4: Rate and extend of reactions
Mind Map
Definitions
Reaction rate: as the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time.
Activation energy: the minimum energy required for a reaction to take place.
Colliding molecules must have, apart from the correct orientation, a kinetic energy
equal to or bigger than the activation energy of a reaction before the reaction can
take place.
Positive catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without
itself undergoing a permanent change.
Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of the reaction but remains
unchanged by the end of the reaction.

54
Exam guideline
1. Define reaction rate

2. Calculate reaction rate from given data
3. List the factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions
4. Explain in terms of the collision theory how the various factors affect the rate of
chemical reactions
5. Answer questions and interpret data (tables or graphs) on different experimental
techniques for measuring the rate of a given reaction
6. Define the term positive catalyst
7. Interpret graphs of distribution of molecular energies to explain how a catalyst,
temperature and concentration affects rate.
Reaction rate is a measure of how quickly reactants are converted to products during
a chemical reactions in a given time frame.
Quantifying the reaction rate:

Consider the following reaction
The change in concentration of the reactants (equation 1) is always negtive since

reactants are used to form products.
The following Units of measurement can be used to measure the rate of reaction:
I. Change in concentration over time (mol.dm-3.s-1)
II. Change in mass per unit time ( g.s-1)
III. Change in volume per unit time (dm3.s-1)

55
Example 1
Consider the following reaction:
Measuring the rate of reaction

What changes could be measured in the above reaction?
Solution
1. Gas produced
• At the initial stage of the reaction, the plunger is fully inserted into the gas
syringe and as the reaction occurs the plunger moves out as Hydrogen is
collected therefore the rate of the reaction can be measured by the rate at
which Hydrogen gas is produced.

56
2. Loss in mass
• The mass decreases, since the gas produced is allowed to escape, The
difference in mass can be used to calculate the rate of the reaction with
measured time.
Loss in mass can be represented graphically

.
The mass of the sample will decrease as the reaction proceeds. The mass lost from
the sample will increase as the reaction proceeds. The material lost (that accounts
for the mass loss) can be collected and measured
Example 2
Consider the following set-up which is intended to investigate the rate of reaction of calcium
carbonate and an excess 1 mol∙dm-3 solution of hydrochloric acid.
CaCO3 (s) + HCℓ (aq) → CaCℓ2(aq) + H2O(ℓ) + CO2(g)

57
Answer the following questions
a. Give a reason for the loss in mass. (1)
b. Calculate the AVERAGE RATE (in g·s-1) of this reaction during the first four
minutes. (3)
c. Write down the loss in mass of the flask and its contents after 8 minutes. (2)
d. Give a reason why the curve flattens out after 4 minutes. (1)
Solution
Requirements for a chemical reaction to occur.
Collision Theory
In order for a reaction to occur, molecules need to collide under specific conditions.
The conditions for successful collisions are:
1. Particles must collide with correct orientation The structure of the

molecules and their relative orientations to each other is importan for effective
collisions. Some catalysts function by improving molecular orientation.
2. Particles must collide with sufficient energy (activation energy). The

molecules have to collide with sufficient amount of energy for bonds to break
and the reaction to occur (activation energy).

58
SUMMARY:
In order for a chemical reaction to occur the reacting particles must:
1. Collide with sufficient energy to break existing bonds.

2. Be in the correct orientation
This leads to a chemical change referred to as effective collision and ONLY

EFFECTIVE COLLISIONS BETWEEN PARTICLES LEAD TO CHEMICAL
REACTIONS.
For a collision to be effective:

• Reacting particles must have enough kinetic energy, this means that the
collisions have to be strong enough to break existing bonds. The particles
must have kinetic energy that is the same or greater than the activation
energy.
• The particle must have the correct orientation that would lead to new bond
formation.
Orientation of reacting particles

59
Factors influencing reaction rate:
1. Increasing temperature increases rate of reaction. When the temperature is

increases, more particles have energy greater than the activation energy,
and more particles have energy greater than the activation energy, and more
effective collisions can take place.
2. Changing the concentration (solutions or gases)
Concentration is a measure of the number of moles of the dissolved

substance in a unit volume of solvent.(The number of moles of gas in the
volume of a container.)

60
Total area under curve increases as the total number of reactive molecules
per sample increases. Shaded area increases as more molecules have
energy in excess of the activation energy. Distribution has same shape with
peak in the same place (as temperature is controlled for a fair comparison).
3. State of division / surface area
The greater the exposed surface area of the particles of a solid (the finer the
particles) the greater the chance of collisions with the particles on the surface
and so the greater the rate of reaction.

61
4. Nature of the reacting substances.
The physical and chemical properties of certain substances make them more
likely to react. The reactivity of different similar materials e.g. the alkali metals
can be attributed to a number of factors.
It is sufficient to simply know that changing the material of a reaction will affect
the rate.
5. Catalyst
The presence of a catalyst decreases the activation energy (EA). The

particles require less collision energy to undergo an effective collision, leading
to more effective collisions.

62
Example 3
The following reaction takes place: 4Li(s) + O2(g) → 2Li2O(s)

After two minutes, 4 g of lithium has been used. Calculate the rate of the reaction.
Solution:
Step 1:
Calculate the number of moles of lithium that are used in the reaction
𝑛=𝑚/𝑀=4/6,94=0,58 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Step 2:
Calculate the time (in seconds) for the reaction
t = 2 minutes = 2 × 60 s = 120 seconds

63
Step 3:
Calculate the rate of the reaction
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛=𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒=0,58 / 120= 0,005 𝑚𝑜𝑙∙𝑠−1
The rate of the reaction is 0,005 𝑚𝑜𝑙∙𝑠−1
SECTION A: Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)

Question 1
1.1 The energy change during a chemical reaction is known as …
A. Bond energy
B. Heat of reaction
C. Activation energy
D. Activation complex
(2)
Structured Questions:
Question 1
The apparatus below is used to investigate one of the factors that affects the rate of
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, H2O2. The balanced equation for the reaction
is…

64
The results of the investigation are summarised in the table below
1.1 For this investigation, write down the function of the:
1.1.1 Graduated syringe (1)

1.1.2 Copper (II) oxide (1)
1.2 How will you know when the reaction is completed? (1)
1.3 Write down the independent variable for this investigation. (1)
1.4 Use the collision theory to fully explain the difference in reaction rates
of experiment I and experiment II. (3)
1.5 The graphs below show changes in the potential energy during the
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide in experiment I and experiment II
1.5.1 Is energy ABSORBED or RELEASED during this reaction? Give

a reason for the answer. (2)
1.5.2 Which ONE of the curves, A or B, represents experiment II? (1)
1.6 Calculate the rate, in mol∙dm-3∙min-1, at which 50 cm3 of hydrogen peroxide

Decomposes in experiment II. Assume that 1 mole of gas occupies a volume
of 25 dm3 at 30 °C. (6)
Question 2
A catalyst speeds up the rate of a reaction. This behaviour of a catalyst can be

explained in terms of the activation energy and the collision theory. The diagram below
shows the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve for a certain reaction.

65
The diagram below shows the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve for a certain
reaction.
2.1 Explain in terms of the collision theory and activation energy, how a catalyst
influences the rate of a reaction. (4)
2.2 Redraw the above distribution curve and show the new activation energy
when a catalyst is added to the reaction mixture on the diagram. (2)
[6]
Question 3
A group of grade 12 learners investigated the rate (speed) of the reaction between
calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid, the changed in the mass of the flask
containing calcium carbonate and 1 mol.dm-3 of hydrochloric acid was measured by
placing the flask on a direct reading balance as shown in figure below. The following
data was obtained during the investigation.
Decrease in Time (min)

mass (g)
0 0
1 1,3
2 2.3
3 3
4 3.5
5 3.8
6 3.8
7 3.8
3.1 Write the balanced equation of the reaction that took place. (3)
3.2 Write a possible investigative question for this investigation. (3)

3.3 Whatis the dependable variable? (2)
3.4 With the result of the experiment plot a graph of decrease in mass Vs time. (4)
3.5. Write a conclusion for the experimentdone. (2)

66
3.6 Explain the shape of the graph in terms of the collisiontheory. (2)
3.7 Determine the average rate of production of CO2 in grams per second during
the two first minutes. (2)
4. Consider the reaction between calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and
hydrochloric acid:
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (ℓ)
Explain in terms of the collision theory how the increase in surface
area of CaCO3 will affect the rate of a chemical reaction. (4)

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SESSION 5: Chemical Equilibrium

Definitions
Open system
An open system continuously interacts with its environment.
Closed system
A closed system is isolated from its surroundings and is one where no reactants or
products can leave or enter the system.
Isolated system
One in which none of the reactants/products escape from the reaction system.
Dynamic equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium when the rate of the forward reaction
equals the rate of the reverse reaction. Chemical equilibrium can only be achieved in
a close system.
Reversible reaction
A reaction is a reversible reaction when products can be converted back to
reactants. Reversible reactions are represented with double arrows.
Equilibrium constant
Indicates ratio between products and reactants. Kc value is a ratio and therefore has no
units.
Common ion effect

If two different solutions contain the same ion, the ion is called a common ion.
Exam Guidelines
1. Explain: Open & closed systems, reversible reactions, dynamic equilibrium

2. List the factors which influence the position of an equilibrium
3. State Le Chatelier’s principle and use it to explain changes in equilibria
4. Interpret simple graphs of equilibrium
5. List the factors which influence the value of the equilibrium constant Kc
6. Write an expression for the equilibrium constant from a given equation
7. Perform calculations based on Kc values
8. Explain the significance of high and low values of the equilibrium constant

68
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
AN OPEN SYSTEM CONTINUOUSLY INTERACTS WITH ITS ENVIRONMENT.

A CLOSED SYSTEM IS ISOLATED FROM ITS SURROUNDINGS AND IS ONE
WHERE NO REACTANTS OR PRODUCTS CAN LEAVE OR ENTER THE
SYSTEM. A CHEMICAL SYSTEM IS SAID TO BE "REVERSIBLE" IF THE
PRODUCTS CAN READILY CHANGE BACK INTO THE REACTANTS. CHEMICAL
AND PHYSICAL CHANGES CAN BE REVERSIBLE. REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
ARE REPRESENTED WITH DOUBLE ARROWS.
For example:
Hydrogen reacts with iodine to form hydrogen iodide:
H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g)
Hydrogen iodide can decompose to form hydrogen and iodine:
2HI(g) → H2(g) + I2(g)
Therefore, the reversible reaction can be written as:
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)

69
Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium when the rate of the forward

reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction. Chemical equilibrium can only
be achieved in a closed system.
If hydrogen and iodine are placed into a container, they can react to form HI.
However, the more HI molecules you have so more and more HI molecules will
decompose to form hydrogen and iodine - because the reaction is reversible.
Eventually a "balance" will be achieved. This state is referred to as dynamic
chemical equilibrium.
When a reversible reaction is at dynamic chemical equilibrium the:
• Rate of the forward and reverse reactions are the same which means ....
• The concentration of the products remains constant and that. ....
• The concentration of the reactants remains constant.

70
Dynamic chemical equilibrium can only take place in a closed system i.e. where
no reactive chemicals can escape the reaction vessel.
LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE
When an external stress (change in pressure, temperature or concentration) is

applied to a system in chemical equilibrium, the equilibrium point will change in such
a way as to counteract the stress.
In order to use Le Chatelier’s principle to predict what effect a change will nave on
the equilibrium, these questions need to posed:

71
Factors which affect equilibrium position
1. Concentration
Equilibrium will shift to decrease any increase in concentration of either

reactants or products.
• Adding reactant: forward reaction favoured

• Adding product: reverse reaction favoured
Equilibrium will shift to increase any decrease in concentration of either

reactants or products
• Removing reactant: reverse reaction favoured

• Removing product: forward reaction favoured
The concentration can be changed by adding/removing reactants/products

that are in solution (aq) or a gas (g). Changing the mass of pure solids (s) or
volume of liquids (ℓ) will not disrupt the equilibrium or change the rate of the
reactions.
Removing HI (t1):
When HI is removed, the system re-establishes equilibrium by favouring the

reaction that will produce more HI. Because the forward reaction is favoured,
some of the reactants are used.
Adding H2 (t2):
When adding H2, the system re-establishes equilibrium by favouring the reaction
that uses H2. Because the forward reaction is favoured, the reactants are used
and more products.

72
2. Pressure (gases only)
Equilibrium will shift to decrease any increase in pressure by favouring the

reaction direction that produces less molecules. Equilibrium will shift to
increase any decrease in pressure by favouring the reaction that produces
more molecules. To identify the reaction direction, use the ratios in the
balanced equation.
Pressure decrease (t1):
When the pressure is decreased, the system re-establishes equilibrium by

favouring the reaction that will produce more moles of gas. The reverse
reaction is favoured, forming 4 moles of reactant for every 2 mole of product
used.
Pressure increases (t2):

When the pressure is increased, the system re-establishes equilibrium by
favouring the reaction that will produce less moles of gas, forming 2 moles of
product for every 4 moles of reactants used.
3. Temperature
Equilibrium will shift to the endothermic reaction if the temperature is

increased. Equilibrium will shift to the exothermic reaction if the temperature is
decreased. The heat of the reaction, ΔH, is always used to indicate the
forward reaction.
NOTE: An increase in temperature increases the rate of both the forward

and the reverse reaction but shifts the equilibrium position.

73
NOTE: Temperature change is the only change that affects Kc.
Temperature increase (t1):
When the temperature is increased, the system re-establishes equilibrium by

favouring the reaction that will decrease the temperature (i.e. the endothermic
reaction). The reverse reaction will be favoured because the forward reaction
is exothermic. The gas mixture becomes brown.
Temperature decrease (t2):
When the temperature is decreased, the system re-establishes equilibrium by

favouring the reaction that will increase the temperature (i.e. the exothermic
reaction). The forward reaction will be favoured. The gas mixture becomes
colourless.

74
CATALYST AND EQUILIBRIUM
When a catalyst is added, the rate of the forward as well as the reverse
reaction is increased. The use of a catalyst does not affect the equilibrium
position or the Kc value at all but allows the reaction to reach equilibrium
faster.
SUMMARY
Equilibrium (only reversible Explanation

reactions)
Increase: equilibrium positions The endothermic reaction will
Temperature shifts in favour of endothermic absorb the additional thermal
reaction (L.\H >O) energy in the system.
Decrease: equilibrium position The exothermic reaction will
shifts in favour of exothermic release thermal energy into
reaction (L.\H <O) the system.
Increase: system shifts to favour Reducing the number of gas
Pressure particles will reduce the
(Container side with least number of GAS
moles. pressure in the container.
Volume
change) Increasing the number of gas
(gases only) Decrease: system shifts to favour particles will increase the
side with more GAS moles. pressure in the container
The rate of the reaction now
Concentration Increase: system shifts in order with additional particles will
(watch out for to use up the substance. increase, using up those
common ion particles.
effect)
(gas or aq
only)

75
COMMON ION EFFECT
When ionic substances are in solution, they form ions:
NaCl(s) ⇌ Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

White colourless
If HCl is added to this solution, the concentration of Cl− ions will increase because
Cl− is a common ion. The system will attempt to re-establish equilibrium by
favouring the reverse reaction, forming a white sodium chloride precipitate.
The disturbance of a system at equilibrium that occurs when the concentration of a
common ion is increased is known as the common ion effect.
Example 1:
For the following reaction:
2S0 2(g) + 0 2(g) → 2S03(g) H = -196kJ moI-1
If the temperature of the system is increased what will happen to the
a) rate of the forward reaction?

b) the yield of SO3? Use Le Chatelier's principle to explain your answer.
Answer:
a) Increasing the temperature will increase the rate of the forward reaction
(collision theory - increasing temperature increases rate).
(aside: what will happen to the rate of the reverse reaction?)
b) (When it comes to yield one must consider the equilibrium shift and apply
Le Chatelier's Principle.)
Use the following strategy to solve the problem.
1. Identify the stress.
The temperature of the equilibrium reaction is increased.
2. State how any equilibrium reaction will oppose the stress.
So the equilibrium position will shift to favour the endothermic

reaction which will result in absorption of the thermal energy .

76
3. By looking at the reaction equation, give the direction the equilibrium will
shift.
The equilibrium will shift to the left or the reverse reaction will be
favoured.
4. Describe the result which may involve describing a colour change.
The yield of S03 will decrease.

Terminology
If there is a greater amount of reactant at equilibrium, we say the equilibrium

lies to the left, or that the equilibrium favours the reactants.
If there is a greater amount of product at equilibrium, we say the equilibrium

lies to the right, or that the equilibrium favours the products.
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT (KC)
General equation: aA + bB ⇌ cC
Where A,B,C are chemical substances (ONLY aq and g, NOT s or ℓ !)

and a,b,c are molar ratio numbers.
Kc value is a ratio and therefore has no units.
If Kc > 1 then equilibrium lies to the right – there are more products
than reactants.
If Kc < 1 then equilibrium lies to the left – there are more reactants
than products.
Kc values are constant at specific temperatures. If the temperature of

the system changes then the Kc value will change.

77
Activity 3 (DBE- 2015)
An unknown gas, X2(g), is sealed in a container and allowed to form X3(g) at 300 °C. The
reaction reaches equilibrium according to the following balanced equation:
1.1 How will the rate of formation of X3(g) compare to the rate of formation of
X2(g) at equilibrium? Write down only HIGHER THAN, LOWER THAN or
EQUAL TO. (1)
The reaction mixture is analysed at regular time intervals. The results

obtained are shown in the table below.
TIME [ X2 ] [ X3 ]
(s) (mol∙dm-3) (mol∙dm-3)
0 0,4 0
2 0,22 0,120
4 0,08 0,213
6 0,06 0,226
8 0,06 0,226
10 0,06 0,226
1.2 Calculate the equilibrium constant, Kc, for this reaction at 300 °C.
(4)
1.3 More X3(g) is now added to the container.
1.3.1 How will this change affect the amount of X2(g)? Write down
INCREASES, DECREASES or REMAINS THE SAME. (1)
1.3.2 Use Le Chatelier's principle to explain the answer to QUESTION 1.3.1.

78
5.1 LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE
The rule we will use a lot is called Le Chatelier's Principle and can be stated as
follows:
When the equilibrium in a closed system is disturbed, the system will re-instate a
new equilibrium by favouring the reaction that will oppose the disturbance
Experiment ( do this in theory so learners understands the concept)
Dissolve enough green crystals of copper(II) chloride (CuCl2.H2O) in about 30 cm3 of

water to give a green solution. (A blue solution indicates that too little copper(II)
chloride was dissolved).
Divide this solution equally between six test tubes:
▪ Keep test tube 1 as a colour standard.

▪ Add drops of water from a medicine dropper to tube 2 until the solution is a
definite blue.
▪ Add a few drops of water to the remaining four test tubes until their contents
are all an intermediate turquoise (blue green).
The reversible reaction is:
CuCl42-(aq) + 4H2O()  Cu(H2O)42+(aq) + 4Cl-(aq) ΔH<O

Yellow to green  blue
Learners please notice this reaction may move forward and in reverse. The
colour will show you what happened. If they say the solution is green….it means
the reverse reaction was favored.
Also note the ΔH<O, this means the forward is a exothermic reaction that gives of
heat. The reverse reaction will then be endothermic.

79
(a) Investigate the effect of a change in the concentration
To observe what happens when the concentration in the copper chloride

solution changes, add some sodium chloride crystals to test tube 3 (any
one of the turquoise tubes).
The idea is to speed up reactions so more of the product can be formed.

Note: NaCl will favour the reverse reaction, the colour will turn blue ( we add more
Cl-) and the Kc value will decrease. The teacher guide has more answers and
explains this practical.
The easiest way to speed up an reaction is to use a catalyst:
▪ The effect of a catalyst
A catalyst increases the rate of both the forward and the reverse reaction, making it
possible for the reaction to come to equilibrium more quickly. A catalyst lowers the
activation energy for both reactions, but unlike the effect of a change in pressure,
the increase in rate is the same for both opposing reactions. The value of the
equilibrium constant is not altered, neither the equilibrium concentrations of the
reacting species.
Stated differently, this simply means that a catalyst cannot cause a shift of
equilibrium and therefore cannot cause a greater yield of the desired product. For a
particular reaction at a specified temperature, the equilibrium concentrations are
always the same, irrespective of whether the equilibrium state has been reached
quickly by the addition of a catalyst or slowly without a catalyst. In industry, where it
is essential that production reactions proceed quickly, the use of catalysts are
important. Your teacher must assist you to understand this table:
Change of conditions Shift of equilibrium

1. Concentration of a reagent is One side will now have to many, so the
increased reaction will move faster in the opposite
direction to create a new equilibrium, In
this case the direction using up the
reagent is favourided so more product
form. The forward reaction is favoured.
This means reaction shifts to the right.
2. Concentration of a reagent is In the direction which forms more of the
decreased reagent, so reverse reaction is favoured
for most of our reactions…. unless they
put the product on the left hand side.
3. Pressure is increased In the direction of the smaller volume of
gas. Use the number in front of the
compounds. If one side has 2 and the
other 4 then the 2 will be favoured
because it occupies less volume.

80
4. Pressure is decreased In the direction of the larger volume of

gas
5. Temperature is increased In the direction of the endothermic
reaction. Let this: ΔH<O guide you. If ΔH
is smaller then zero the forward is
exothermic. This means the reverse will
be favoured if temp increases. The
reaction will shift left. More reactants
form
6. Temperature is decreased In the direction of the exothermic
reaction
7. Catalyst is added No change (equilibrium is established
faster)
Le Chatelier's Principle states that if the conditions (temperature, concentration,

pressure) of an equilibrium system are changed, a reaction takes place which tends
to oppose or cancel the change in condition. A catalyst and an increase in
temperature both increase the forward as well as the reverse reactions. A catalyst
serves only in establishing an equilibrium more rapidly, whereas an increase in
temperature also changes the equilibrium.

81
1. Consider the reaction
Br2(g) + Cl2(g)  2BrCl(g) (ΔH = positive)
What effects will the following changes have on the concentration of BrCl at
equilibrium?
(a) The pressure of the system is increased.

(b) More Cl2 is added to the system, without an increase in pressure.
(c) A catalyst is added.
(d) The temperature is decreased. (8)
2. State Le Chatelier's Principle (3)
3. The following reaction is in equilibrium in a closed system
2NO(g) + O2(g)  2NO2(g) + 40kJ (note: ΔH is now replaced by +40kJ,

know what this means)
Explain by means of Le Chatelier's Principle how the [NO2] will be influenced

if
(a) the temperature is increased
(b) the pressure on the mixture is increased
(c) more NO is introduced into the system
(d) some NO2 is removed from the system
(e) a catalyst is added (10)
4. The following reaction is in equilibrium in a closed system.
CO(g) + H2O(g)  CO2(g) + H2(g) ΔH = +211 kJ
(a) Name three ways to ensure a high yield of CO2.

(b) Why does pressure have no influence on this reaction? (5)
5. The equilibrium between ozone, O3, and oxygen is written as follows:
2O3(g)  3O2(g) ΔH = -246 kJ
Answer the following questions about ozone:

(a) Is ozone more stable at high or low temperatures?
(b) Does ozone decompose more rapidly at high or low temperatures?
(c) Will the concentration of ozone in the equilibrium mixture increase,
decrease or show no change if the pressure on the system is
increased?
(d) Will the amount of ozone in the equilibrium mixture increase, decrease
or show no change if the temperature on the system is increased? (8)

82
6. The equation for the dissociation of calcium carbonate is
CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g) ΔH > O
What will be the effect on the yield of calcium carbonate in the equilibrium
mixture of
(a) increasing the temperature

(b) increasing the pressure
(c) adding some more solid calcium oxide?
(d) adding some more carbon dioxide gas?
(e) adding a catalyst (10)
7. How will the concentration change of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and

methanol change? Only write INCREASE/ DECREASE or REMAIN THE
SAME. In dynamic equilibrium the reaction will be:
CO(g) + 2H2(g)  CH3OH(g) ΔH = -92 kJ
(a) when the volume of the reaction vessel is suddenly reduced to half.
(b) when the partial pressure of the hydrogen is suddenly doubled.
(c) the temperature is increased.
(d) a catalyst is added.
(e) an inert gas is added to the system. (10)
Total: [57]

83
Homework Questions
MULTIPLE CHOICES
1. Solid sodium carbonate is added to dilute hydrochloric acid. A gas

escapes. This example represents:
A a forward reaction
B dynamic equilibrium
C a reverse reaction
D depends on temperature
2. The equilibrium constant of a certain reversible reaction is 4 x 10 -5 at 300

K. At a temperature of 330 K the equilibrium constant is 3 x 10 -4. From this
one can deduce that the forward reaction is:
A endothermic
B exothermic
C slower than the reverse reaction
D faster than the reverse reaction
3. Consider the following reaction:
a X(g) + b Y(g)  c Z(g)
Both an increase in temperature and an increase in pressure favour the

forward reaction. Which one of the following descriptions of the forward
reaction and the relationship between a, b and c will be the correct
conclusion?
Forward reaction Relationship between a, b, and c

A exothermic c>a+b
B endothermic c>a+b
C exothermic c<a+b
D endothermic c<a+b

84
4. Consider the following reaction taking place in an open vessel at a certain

temperature.
NH4NO3(s) → N2O (g) + 2 H2O () H>0
The initial reaction rate of the reaction may be decreased by:
A adding more N2O gas to the system

B grinding the ammonium nitrate into a powder
C heating the system
D cooling the system
5. When a chemical reaction is in dynamic equilibrium,
A the reactants and products always have the same masses

B concentration of the products is zero
C the equilibrium constant is zero
D the forward and the reverse reactions occur at the same rate
6. The following reaction is in equilibrium.
CoC42- + 6 H2O  Co(H2O)62+ + 4 C-- (H < 0)

Blue Pink
The equilibrium is adjusted in such a way that the colour of the solution is
blue. When heat is applied to the system, the colour of the solution will :
A remain blue because the concentration of the CoC42- ions will increase
B remain blue because the concentration of the CoC42- ions will decrease
C turn pink because the concentration of the CoC42- ions will increase
D turn pink because the concentration of the CoC42- ions will decrease
7. The following endothermic reaction has reached equilibrium.
N2 (g) + O2 (g)  2 NO (g)
A catalyst is added.
The amount of the product, NO (g), in the reaction vessel
I remains constant
II increases because the catalyst speeds up the forward reaction
III increases because the activation energy for the forward reaction is
decreased
Which of the above statement is (are) TRUE?

A I only
B II only
C II and III
D None are true (7 x 2 = 14)

85
Question 1
In an investigation of the reaction rate of various concentrations of sodium

thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) with dilute hydrochloric acid, the following method was
followed:
- Make a sodium thiosulphate solution by dissolving 20g of Na 2S2O3 in a small

amount of water and make the solution up to a volume of 500 cm 3.
- Use this solution to make up various concentrations of this solution, as shown
in the table and pour them into separate 100 cm 3 beakers.
Solution Na2S2O3 solution Water added Total volume Time

(cm3) cm3) (cm3) (s)
A 50 0 50
B 40 10 50
C 30 20 50
D 20 30 50
- Draw a dark cross on four pieces of paper.

- Place each beaker on an “X” on a piece of paper.
- Get ready to start the stopwatch.
- Pour 10 cm3 of a 2 mol.dm-3 hydrochloric acid into the first beaker and start
the stop watch.
- From above look at the “X” on the paper and stop the stopwatch when the “X”
is no longer visible.
- Repeat with each one of the other solutions.
- Record the times in the table.
( this application type question will be asked- ask the teacher to explain if you can
not do this)
The reaction equation is given below:
Na2S2O3 (aq) + 2HC  (aq) → H2O (l) + SO2 (g) + 2 NaC  (aq) + S (s)
1
1. Sketch a graph of concentration against for this reaction (Remember to
t
label the axis and give units). (4)
[4]

86
Question 2
The rate at which calcium carbonate reacts with excess hydrochloric acid is
investigated by timing the amount of gas liberated.
CaCO3(s) + HC(s) → CaC2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O()
Time Volume
of gas
(s) (cm3)
0 0
10 10
16 20
24 28
40 33
60 33
2.1 Plot a graph of volume of gas against time for this reaction on the sheet of
graph paper provided. (6)
2.2 Use the graph to determine the average rate of reaction for the first 20 s.
Include the units in which the rate of this reaction is measured. (3)
2.3 Draw a second graph on the same set of axes for the same reaction, but this
time the reaction is completed in half the time. (2)
2.4 Suggest two different ways in which the reaction conditions can be altered so
that the reaction is completed in half the time. (2)
[13]9
Question 3
Manganese dioxide (MnO2) catalyses the decomposition of a hydrogen peroxide

solution (H2O2(aq)) to water and oxygen.
catalyst MnO2
2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(ℓ) + O2(g)

87
0,1 g of manganese dioxide (MnO2) was added to a 2 mol.dm-3 solution of

hydrogen peroxide (H2O2 (aq)) at 20°C and the volume of gas produced was
collected at standard pressure and measured every minute using a gas
syringe. The result obtained was plotted as shown below:
Graph of volume of oxygen formed vs time
140
Volume of oxygen in cm3
120 Graph A
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time in minutes
3.1 Explain why the gradient of graph A decreases as the reaction proceeds. (2)
3.2 By which time was the catalysed reaction complete? (2)
3.3 Using the reaction information and graph A, calculate the number of moles of
oxygen, O2, produced in the experiment. (4)
3.4 How many moles of H2O2 were used up? (2)
3.5 What mass of manganese dioxide, MnO2, would remain at the end of the
catalysed reaction? (1)
[11]
Question 4
A catalyst speeds up the rate of a reaction. This behaviour of a catalyst can be

explained in terms of the activation energy and the collision theory.
The diagram below shows the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve for a certain
reaction.

88
4.1 Explain in terms of the collision theory and activation energy, how a catalyst
influences the rate of a reaction. (4)
4.2 Redraw the above distribution curve and show the new activation energy
when a catalyst is added to the reaction mixture on the diagram. (2)
[6]
Question 5
Ethanol is produced synthetically by reacting excess carbon monoxide with

hydrogen. The equation for the reaction is:
CO (g) + 2 H2 (g)  CH3OH (g) H< 0
Study the graph below to find out how the concentration of these gases varies during
the process.
3,5
H2(g)
Concentration 3,0
(mol.dm-3) CH3OH(g)
2,5
2,0
CO(g)
1,5
1,0
0,5
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (s)

89
5.1 How long (to the nearest second) does it take for the system to reach
chemical equilibrium? (1)
5.2 Write an expression for the equilibrium constant, Kc, for this reaction. (2)
5.3 Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant KC. (4)
5.4 What is the significance of the calculated value of KC for this reaction? (2)
5.5 Give one condition which when altered will cause an increase in the value of
KC while all the other conditions remain constant. (2)
[11]
Question 6
When nitrogen oxide is treated with oxygen during the Ostwald process in a closed
container at 63C, the mixture gradually becomes reddish-brown due to the
formation of nitrogen dioxide.
2 NO(g) + O2 (g)  2 NO2(g)
6.1 Write down an expression for the equilibrium constant for this equilibrium.
(2)
6.2 When the equilibrium is established at 80C, the value of Kc is 1,002. Deduce
from this whether the forward reaction is exothermic or endothermic, and give
a reason. (3)
6.3 It is commonly stated: “An increase in the pressure inside the container will
favour the forward reaction of this equilibrium.”
Explain the above statement by referring to Le Chatelier’s principal. (3)
6.4 Unreacted nitogen dioxide gas (brown fumes) is expelled through tall
chimneys into the atmosphere.
Give two reasons why this is hazardous to the environment. (2)

[10]
Question 7
Ammonia plays a very important role in the fertilizer industry. It is produced by using
the famous Haber Process which is represented by the following chemical equation:
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g)  2 NH3 (g) ΔH = - 46 kJ.mol-1
In the Haber Process, ammonia has to be separated from unreacted nitrogen and
hydrogen.

90
7.1 Look at the data in the following table and suggest two methods with
reasons for separating the ammonia from the other two.
(4)
Property Ammonia Nitrogen Hydrogen
Appearance Colourless Colourless gas Colourless gas

gas
Boiling point (0C) - 33 - 196 - 253
Solubility in water at
200C (cm3 of gas 68 000 1,5 3,0
dissolved by 100 cm3
water
7.2 Look at the graph below:
The percentage yield of ammonia under different conditions of temperature and

pressure is shown. For example, a percentage yield of 50% means that half of the
nitrogen and hydrogen is turned to ammonia. The other half is unchanged.
What percentage yield of ammonia would you get using each of the following sets of
conditions?
7.2.1 A temperature of 4500C and a pressure of 400 atmospheres? (2)

91
7.2.4 The set of conditions in 7.2.3 is actually used? Explain why these conditions
are used rather than either of the others by using equilibrium principals. (5)
[15]
MUST UNDERSTAND WORK:

• WORKED OUT EXAMPLE:
• Consider the following equilibrium situation:
• CO (g) + H (g) ⇌ H O(g) + CO(g) ΔH = +ve
2 2 2
• ΔH = +ve means that the forward reaction is endothermic while the reverse
reaction will be exothermic (always opposite)
• a) What would the effect on the equilibrium position be if the temperature in the
container was decreased? Explain.
• CO2(g) + H2(g) ⇌ H2O(g) + CO(g) ΔH = +ve
• 1. According to Le Chatelier, the position of equilibrium will move in such a way
as to counteract the change.
• 2. That means that the position of equilibrium will move so that the temperature
is increased again, thus increasing the heat energy in the system.
• 3. Exothermic reactions release heat, so the exothermic reaction, which in this
case is the reverse reaction, will be favoured.
• 4. The concentration of H2O and CO will decrease and the concentration of CO2
and H2 will increase.
• 5. Equilibrium position will shift to the left.
•
3. What would the effect on the equilibrium position be if the temperature in the
container was increased? Explain.
◼ CO2(g) + H2(g) ⇌ H2O(g) + CO(g) ΔH = +ve
◼ 1. According to Le Chatelier, the position of equilibrium will move in such a
way as to counteract the change.
◼ 2. That means that the position of equilibrium will move so that the
temperature is decreased again, thus decreasing the heat energy in the
system.
◼ 3. Endothermic reactions absorb heat, so the endothermic reaction, which in
this case is the forward reaction will be favoured.
◼ 4. As a result, the concentration of H2O and CO will increase and the
concentration of CO2 and H2 will decrease.
◼ 5. Equilibrium position will shift to the right.

92
NEXT ONE YOU MUST UNDERSTAND:
◼ WORKED OUT EXAMPLE:

◼ Consider the following equilibrium situation:
1. N (g) + 3H (g) ⇌ 2NH (g)
2 2 3
◼ Start by comparing the total number of moles of gas on both sides of the
equation:
◼ What would happen if you changed the conditions by increasing the
pressure in the container?
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
1. According to Le Chatelier, the position of equilibrium will move in such a way as
to counteract the change.
2. The equilibrium position will shift in the direction that reduces the pressure.
3. The reaction shifts towards the side with the fewer number of moles of gas,
thereby decreasing the total pressure in the system. The forward reaction will
be favoured. (2 mol is less then 4 mol = left has less mol)
4. The concentration of N2 and H2 will decrease and the concentration of NH3 will
increase.
5. The equilibrium will shift to the right.
Next one to understand:

◼ WORKED OUT EXAMPLE:
◼ The following system is in equilibrium:
2– 2+ –
◼ CoCl + 6H O ⇌ [Co(H O) ] + 4Cl
4 2 2 6
blue pink
◼ Some sodium chloride solution (NaCl(aq)) is now added to the
equilibrium mixture.
◼ State and explain what observations you would make.

93
SESSION 6: ACIDS AND BASES
• In normal chemistry electrons move or can be shared. Here for the first
time its about the movement of PROTONS. The H+ ion is nothing more
than a proton moving. Where electrons can do damage, this can do 1840
times as much damage. Our bodily functions, ranging from the
microscopic transport of ions across nerve cell membranes to the
macroscopic acidic digestion of food in the stomach, are all ruled by the
principles of acid-base chemistry. We use this in industry and even car
batteries.
• We will study acid-base reactions in more detail in this topic.
+
• An acid solution is defined as a solution that has an excess of H or
+
H O ions.
3
–
• A base solution is defined as a solution that has an excess of OH
ions. One will send the proton and one will grab hold of it.
+ –
• A neutral solution has equal concentrations of H and OH ions present
in solution.
–
• An alkali is a soluble base that contains hydroxide (OH ) ions which
can be released into solution.
• Acid-base models are useful in describing the nature of acids and bases.
Next know your definitions, study them:
TERM DEFINITION/EXPLANATION
Arrhenius Acid Acids produce hydrogen ions (H+) in solution
Arrhenius Base Bases produce hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution
Lowry-Brønsted Acid Is a proton (H+ ion) donor
Lowry-Brønsted Base Is a proton (H+ ion) acceptor.
Strong Acid Strong acids ionise completely in water to form a high
concentration of H3O+ ions
Weak Acid Weak acids ionise incompletely in water to form a low
concentration of H3O+ ions
Strong Base Strong bases dissociate completely in water to form a high
concentration of OH- ions
Weak Base Weak bases dissociate/ionise incompletely in water to form a
low concentration of OH- ions
Concentrated Acid Concentrated acids contain a large amount (number of moles) of
acid in proportion to volume of water

94
Concentrated Base Concentrated bases contain a large amount (number of moles)

of base in proportion to volume of water
Dilute Acid Dilute acids contain a small amount (number of moles) of acid in
proportion to volume of water.
Dilute Base Dilute acids contain a small amount (number of moles) of acid in
proportion to volume of water.
Ampholyte A substance that can act as acid or base.
Hydrolysis Is the reaction of a salt with water
Equivalence Point of a Is the point at which the acid /base has completely reacted with
titration the base/acid
End Point of a titration Is the point where the indicator changes colour
Ionisation Constant of Is the equilibrium constant for the ionisation of water
Water (Kw)
Standard solution A solution of known concentration
Acids may donate more then one proton:
A monoprotic acid is an acid that can donate one proton only.

e.g. H Cℓ
A diprotic acid is an acid that can donate a maximum of two protons.

e.g. H2 SO4
A strong acid/base conducts electricity better than a weak acid/base because of the
greater number of ions in solutions, i.e ionises(acid)/ dissociates(base) completely,
provided the concentration is the same.
A strong acid/base reacts very fast due to the high concentration of ions (ionises
(acid)/dissociates(base) completely), provided the concentration is the same
Acids ionise. If there are lots of H+ ions in the solution it’s a strong acid, strong
acids ionises completely.
The mole and calculations are important here, also some stuff you learned in
Organic chem.

95
The bad news here is we will use the mole and concentration calculations a lot! The
good news is you can pass by just doing the basics correct.
The pH scale and pH calculations
Steps to follow when calculating the pH of a base
• Write down a balanced equation for the dissociation reaction of the base.
• Use ratios to determine the concentration of [OH-].
• Use kw to calculate the concentration of [H3O+]
• Substitute the concentration of [H3O+] in the formula pH = -log[H3O+].
In the examples that follow, make sure you can use your calculator and learn
what buttons to use before the exams.
Titrations and Stoichiometric Calculations
Terms
Neutralisation is a chemical reaction in which an acid and a base interact, with the
formation of a salt and water, carbon dioxide will also be formed if a carbonate is
used. (see table above)
A titration is when a standard solution (solution of known concentration) is added to

the sample solution (unknown concentration) until the end point (the point where the
indicator changes colour) is reached. (neutral point is reached)
The following setup is used in a titration: Know the indicator used for a strong
acid and strong base, know all indicators in the table below, they ask it every year:

96
10
20
30
Burette
40
50
Burette stand
Erlenmeyer flask
STUDY the table below so you can choose the correct indicator. For example if they
give you a strong acid and strong base use Bromothymol blue.
pH colour
ACID BASE INDICATOR change
range
Bromothymol
Strong Strong 6,0 – 7,6
blue
Strong Weak Methyl Orange 3,2 – 4.4
Weak Strong Phenolphthalein 8,2 – 10,0
Basic Calculations (MUST BE ABLE TO DO THIS)

Examples
1. Calculate the concentration of 4 g magnesium hydroxide dissolved in 24 ml of

distilled water.
Convert ml/cm3 to dm3 by dividing the volume by 1000.
M[Mg(OH)2] = 24 + 2(16) + 2(1) = 58 g·mol-1
m
n=
M
4
n=
58
=0,06896 mol

97
n
n=
V
0,06896
=
0,024
=2,87 mol∙dm-3
2. Calculate the mass of H2SO4 in 30 cm3 of a
• 0,02 mol·dm-3 solution. Convert ml/cm3 to dm3 by dividing the volume by 1000.
n
• Calculate the number of moles using the formula c=
V
• Calculate the molar mass of H2SO4.
m
• Calculate the mass using the formula n= ,
M
n
c=
V
n
0,02=
0,03
n=0,0006 mol
m
n=
M
m
0,0006=
98
m=0,588 g
Dilution Calculations
Dilution is required when we prepare a certain concentration of a solution from a
more concentrated solution. When diluting a solution, the number of moles does
NOT CHANGE, the number of moles before dilution(n1) = number of moles after
dilution(n2).
From n1=c1V1 (before dilution) and n2=c2V2 (after dilution), it can be deduced that
c1V1= c2V2
Example
Calculate the volume of 0,5 mol·dm-3 H2SO4 that must be added to give 50 cm3 of
0,025 mol·dm-3 H2SO4.

98
Solution
c1 V1 =c2 V2
c1 (0,5)=(50)(0,025)
c1 =2,5 ml
Stoichiometric Calculations
m
If given a mass use n= M to calculate the number of moles, the same formula will be used
to calculate a required mass.
n
If given concentration and volume use c= to calculate the number of moles
V
Use mol ratios to calculate the number of moles of the required substance or solution.
Example n
Calculate the required concentration or volume by using c= V
1. 10 ml of a 0,25 mol·dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution reacts with 0,40 mol·dm-3
H2SO4 according to the given equation for the reaction:
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Calculate the number of moles of the acid reacted.
Solution
Start here:
10
= 0,01
1000
(1000 ml.cm-3 = 1 L.dm-3)
We will also use mole ratios, ask the teacher for help if you do not understand them.
n(NaOH)=cV
= (0,25)(0,010)
=0,0025 mol
n(H2 SO4 ) 1
=
n(NaOH) 2
n(H2 SO4 ) 1
=
0,0025 2
1
n(H2 SO4 )= ×0,0025
2
=0,00125 mol
𝑛
c=
𝑉

99
0,00125
0,40=
V
V=0,00156 dm3
=1,56 cm3
Ka and Kb values
Strong acids have Ka values larger than 1

Weak acids have Ka values smaller than 1
Question 1
Multiple-choice Questions
Four options are given as possible answers to the following questions. Each
question has only ONE correct answer.
1.1. Consider the reaction represented by the equation below:
𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻𝐶𝑂3 − (𝑎𝑞) ⇌ 𝐻2 𝑃𝑂4 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) 𝐾𝑎 > 1
The strongest base in the above reaction is:
A 𝐻2 𝑃𝑂4 −
B 𝐻𝐶𝑂3 −
C 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4
D 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 (2)
1.2. Which ONE of the following represents the products formed during the
hydrolysis of ammonium chloride?
A 𝑁𝐻3(𝑎𝑞) and 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞)

B 𝑁𝐻4 + (𝑎𝑞) and 𝐶− (𝑎𝑞)
C 𝐻𝐶 (𝑎𝑞) and 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞)
D 𝐶− (𝑎𝑞) and 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) (2)

100
1.3. Which ONE of the following is a CORRECT description for a 0,1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3
hydrochloric acid solution?
A Dilute strong acid

B Dilute weak acid
C Concentrated weak acid
D Concentrated strong acid (2)
1.4 The reaction of an acid-acid indicator, represented as 𝐻𝐼𝑛(𝑎𝑞) , with 𝐻2 𝑂() reaches
equilibrium according to the following balanced equation:
𝐻𝐼𝑛(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂() ⇌ 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐼𝑛− (𝑎𝑞) ∆𝐻 > 0

yellow purple
At equilibrium the colour of the solution is purple.
Which ONE of the following will change the colour of the solution from purple to yellow?
A Add 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
B Add 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)
C Add water
D Increase the temperature (2)
1.5. Consider the reaction represented by the balanced equation below.
+ −
𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂() ⇌ 𝐻3 𝑂(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑃𝑂4(𝑎𝑞)
Which ONE of the following is a conjugate acid-base pair?
+
A 𝐻3 𝑂(𝑎𝑞) and 𝐻2 𝑂()
B 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) and 𝐻2 𝑂()
+
C 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) and 𝐻3 𝑂(𝑎𝑞)
+ −
D 𝐻3 𝑂(𝑎𝑞) and 𝐻2 𝑃𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) (2)
1.6. Which ONE of the following compounds will react with sodium hydroxide
(𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻) in a neutralisation reaction?
A 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻𝑂
B 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
C 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝐶𝐻3
D 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻 (2)

101
1.7. Consider the reactant Y in the following reaction:
𝒀 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⇌ 𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐻2 𝑃𝑂4−
The formula of Y is:
A 𝑃𝑂43−
B 𝐻2 𝑃𝑂4−
C 𝐻𝑃𝑂42−
D 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 (2)
Question 2
A Grade 12 class wants to determine the percentage of ethanoic acid in a certain bottle
of vinegar. They titrate a sample taken from the bottle of vinegar with a standard
solution of sodium hydroxide. The equation for the reaction is:
𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂()
2.1. Define an acid in terms of the Arrhenius theory. (2)
2.2. Give a reason why ethanoic acid is classified as a weak acid. (1)
2.3. Explain the meaning of standard solution. (1)
2.4. Write down the names of TWO items of apparatus needed to measure
accurate volumes of acid and base in this titration. (2)
2.5. It is found that 40 𝑚𝑙 of a 0,5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3 sodium hydroxide solution is needed
to neutralise 20 𝑚𝑙 of the vinegar.
Calculate:
2.5.1. pH of the sodium hydroxide solution. (4)
2.5.2. Percentage of ethanoic acid by mass present in the vinegar.
(Assume that 1 𝑚𝑙 of vinegar has a mass of 1 𝑔.) (7)
2.6. The sodium ethanoate (𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎) formed during the above neutralisation
reaction undergoes hydrolysis to form an alkaline solution. Write down an
equation for this hydrolysis reaction. (3)
[20]

102
Question 3
3.1. Nitric acid (𝐻𝑁𝑂3), an important acid used in industry, is a strong acid.
3.1.1. Give a reason why nitric acid is classified as a strong acid. (1)
3.1.2. Write down the NAME or FORMULA of the conjugate base of nitric acid.
(1)
−3
3.1.3. Calculate the pH of a 0,3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚 nitric acid solution. (3)
3.2. A laboratory technician wants to determine the percentage purity of

magnesium oxide. He dissolves a 4,5 𝑔 sample of the magnesium oxide in
100 𝑐𝑚3 hydrochloric acid of concentration 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3 .
3.2.1. Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid added to the magnesium
oxide. (3)
He then uses the apparatus below to titrate the EXCESS hydrochloric acid in the above
solution against hydroxide solution.
3.2.2. Write down the name of the apparatus Q in the above diagram.
(1)
3.2.3. The following indicators are available for the titration:
INDICATOR pH RANGE
A 3,1 – 4,4
B 6,0 – 7,6
C 8,3 – 10,0
Which ONE of the above indicators (A, B or C) is most suitable to indicate the exact
endpoint in this titration? Give a reason for the answer. (3)

103
3.2.4. During the titration, the technician uses distilled water to wash any sodium
hydroxide spilled against the sides of the Erlenmeyer flask into the solution.
Give a reason why the addition of distilled water to the Erlenmeyer flask will not
influence the results. (1)
3.2.5. At the endpoint of the titration he finds that 21 𝑐𝑚3 of a 0,2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3 sodium
hydroxide solution has neutralised the EXCESS hydrochloric acid.
Calculate the number of moles hydrochloric acid in excess. (3)
3.2.6. The balanced equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid and
magnesium oxide is:
𝑀𝑔𝑂(𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑀𝑔𝐶2(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐻2 𝑂()
Calculate the percentage purity of the magnesium oxide. Assume that only the
magnesium oxide in the 4,5 𝑔 sample reacted with the acid.
(5)
[21]
Question 4
4.1. Sulphuric acid is a diprotic acid.

4.1.1. Define an acid in terms of the Lowry-Brønsted theory. (2)
4.1.2. Give a reason why sulphuric acid is referred to as a diprotic acid.
(1)
4.2. The hydrogen carbonate ion can act as an acid and a base. It reacts with water
according to the following balanced:
− −
𝐻𝐶𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂() ⇌ 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
4.2.1. Write down ONE word for the underlined phrase. (1)
−
4.2.2. 𝐻𝐶𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) acts as a base in the above reaction. Write down the formula of the
−
conjugate acid of 𝐻𝐶𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) . (1)
4.3. A learner accidentally spills some sulphuric acid of concentration 6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3
from a flak on the laboratory bench. Her teacher tells her to neutralise the
spilled acid by sprinkling sodium hydrogen carbonate powder onto it. The
reaction that takes place is: (Assume that the 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ionises completely.)
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3(𝑠) → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐻2 𝑂() + 2𝐶𝑂2(𝑔)

104
The fizzing, due to the formation of carbon dioxide, stops after the learner has added
27 𝑔 sodium hydrogen carbonate to the spilled acid.
4.3.1. Calculate the volume of sulphuric acid that spilled. Assume that all the sodium
hydrogen carbonate reacts with all the spilled acid. (6)
The learner now dilutes now dilutes some of the 6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3 sulphuric acid solution
in the flask to 0,1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3.
4.3.2. Calculate the volume of the 6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3 sulphuric acid solution needed to
prepare 1 𝑑𝑚3 of the dilute acid. (2)
During a titration 25 𝑐𝑚3 of the 0,1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3 sulphuric acid solution is added to an
Erlenmeyer flask and titrated with a 0,1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3 sodium hydroxide solution.
4.3.3. The learner uses bromothymol blue as indicator. What is the purpose of this
indicator? (1)
4.3.4. Calculate the pH of the solution in the flask after the addition of 30 𝑐𝑚3 of
sodium hydroxide. The endpoint of the titration is not yet reached at this point.
(8)
[22]
Question 5
5.1. Ammonium chloride crystals, 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙(𝑠) , dissolve in water to form ammonium
and chloride ions. The ammonium ions react with water according to the
balanced equation below:
+ +
𝑁𝐻4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂() ⇌ 𝑁𝐻3(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻3 𝑂(𝑎𝑞)
5.1.1. Write down the name of the process described by the underlined sentence.
(1)
5.1.2. Is ammonium chloride ACIDIC or BASIC in aqueous solution? Give a reason

for the answer. (2)
5.2. A certain fertiliser consists of 92% ammonium chloride. A sample of mass 𝑥 𝑔

of this fertiliser is dissolved in 100 𝑐𝑚3 of a 0,10 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3 sodium hydroxide
solution, 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) . The 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 is in excess.
The balanced equation for the reaction is:

105
𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙(𝑠) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻2 𝑂() + 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)
5.2.1. Calculate the number of moles of the sodium hydroxide in which the sample
is dissolved. (3)
During a titration, 25 𝑐𝑚3 of the excess sodium hydroxide solution is titrated with a
0,11 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3 hydrochloric acid solution, 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) . At the endpoint it is found that
14,55 𝑐𝑚3 of the hydrochloric acid was used to neutralise the sodium hydroxide
solution according to the following balanced equation:
𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂()
5.2.2. Calculate the mass 𝑥 (in grams) of the fertiliser sample used. (8)
5.3. Calculate the pH of a 0,5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3 sodium hydroxide solution at 25℃.
(4)
[15]
Question 6
6.1. Define an acid in terms of the Lowry-Brønsted theory. (2)
6.2. Carbonated water is an aqueous solution of carbonic acid, 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3. 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3(𝑎𝑞)

ionises in two steps when it dissolves in water.
6.2.1. Write down the FORMULA of the conjugate base of 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) .

(1)
6.2.2. Write down a balanced equation for the first step in the ionisation of carbonic
acid. (3)
6.2.3. The pH of a carbonic acid solution at 25℃ is 3,4. Calculate the hydroxide ion
concentration in the solution. (5)
6.3. X is a monoprotic acid.

6.3.1. State the meaning of the term monoprotic. (1)
6.3.2. A sample of acid X is titrated with a standard sodium hydroxide solution using
a suitable indicator.
At the endpoint it is found that 25 𝑐𝑚3 of acid X is neutralised by 27,5 𝑐𝑚3 of the sodium
hydroxide solution of concentration 0,1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3.
Calculate the concentration of acid X. (5)
+
6.3.3. The concentration of the 𝐻3 𝑂 ions in the sample of acid X is
2,4 × 10−4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3 .
Is acid X a WEAK or a STRONG acid? Explain the answer by referring to the answer
in QUESTION 6.3.2. (3)
[20]

106
SESSION 7: ELECTROSTATICS
Grade 12 Revision
Electrostatics Common errors and misconceptions
(a) Calculator skills are severely lacking. Learners use Calculators and work through
old papers and examples from the marking guideline to see if you get the same
answer to teach you calculator skills.
(b) Candidates lacked integration skills related to the vector diagram and to the
Theorem of Pythagoras. (This is easy marks; teachers please do this with
learners)
Suggestions for improvement
(a) Expose learners to vector diagrams (1D and 2D) and vector triangles when
working with forces (electrostatic, gravitational and when determining the resultant of
forces acting on a body).
(b) Remind learners of the vector nature of physical quantities when answering
questions.
ELECTROSTATICS (ELECTRIC FIELDS)
Common errors and misconceptions

𝑘𝑄
(a) Many candidates wrote the formula from the formula sheet as 𝐹 = instead of
𝑟2
𝑘𝑄
𝐸= for electric field. Not tob e confused with force.
𝑟2
(a) Candidates failed to contextualise the definition in context.

Suggestions for improvement
(a) Revisit vector diagrams in 1D and 2D when revising this section

𝑘𝑄
(b) Clarify the distinction between the two equations 𝐸 = 𝑟2
𝐹
and 𝐸⃗ = 𝑞.
(c) Learners confused the negative sign of the charge with vector characteristics.

107
Follow Examination guidelines this is gr 11 work examinable in gr 12.
COULOMB'S LAW
• State Coulomb's law: The magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by one point
charge (Q1) on another point charge (Q2) is directly proportional to the magnitudes of
the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r) between
them:
•Solve problems using the equation
𝒌𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝑭=
𝒓𝟐
for charges in one dimension (1D) (restrict to three charges).
• Solve problems using the equation
𝒌𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝑭=
𝒓𝟐
for charges in two dimensions (2D) – for three charges in a right-angled formation
(limit to charges at the 'vertices of a right-angled triangle').
ELECTRIC FIELD
• Describe an electric field as a region of space in which an electric charge

experiences a force. The direction of the electric field at a point is the direction that a
positive test charge would move if placed at that point.
• Draw electric field patterns for:
o A single point charge
o Two point charges
o A charged sphere

108
• Define the electric field at a point: The electric field at a point is the electrostatic
𝐹
force experienced per unit positive charge placed at that point. In symbols: 𝐸⃗ = 𝑞
𝐹
• Solve problems using the equation 𝐸⃗ = 𝑞
• Calculate the electric field at a point due to a number of point charges, using the
𝑘𝑄
equation 𝐸 = to determine the contribution to the field due to each charge.
𝑟2
Restrict to three charges in a straight line.
Where:
o 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 are the magnitudes of the two charges respectively.

o 𝑟 is the distance between them.
o 𝑘 is called the electrostatic constant and has a value: 9,0 × 109 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚2 ∙ 𝐶 −2 in
free space.
The direction of the force is along the line joining the charges and it is
repulsive for like charges and attractive for unlike charges).
From the equation if two charges of 1 C each are place 1 m apart, they will exert a
force of approximately 𝟗, 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑵 on each other. The magnitude of the charge on
one electron is the smallest known amount of charge; it is called the elementary
charge, e.
𝒆 = 𝟏, 𝟔𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪

109
Since an object cannot gain or lose fraction of an electron, the net charge on an
object must be an integral multiple of this charge. We say that electric charge is
quantised. Qnet=ne to calculate number of electrons transferred, divide the charge by
the charge on a single electron. (On the DATA SHEET)
Let’s do a typical question together.
Two point-like charges carrying charges of +3 × 10 n C and −5 × 10n C are 2 m

apart. Determine the magnitude of the force between them and state whether it is
attractive or repulsive.
SOLUTION
Step 1: Determine what is required
We are required to determine the force between two-point charges given the charges
and the distance between them.
Step 2: Determine how to approach the problem
We can use Coulomb’s law to calculate the magnitude of the force. F = (kQ1Q2)/
r2
Step 3: Determine what is given

We are given and convert, remember to convert nC and make sure you work in m:
• Q1 = +3 × 10−9 C • Q2 = −5 × 10−9 C • r = 2 m
We know that k = 9,0 × 109 N·m2·C−2.
We can draw a diagram of the situation.
Step 4: Check units
Chapter 9. Electrostatics 319
All quantities are in SI units.
Step 5: Determine the magnitude of the force
Using Coulomb’s law we have
Type equation here.
Fnet = (kQ1Q2)/ r 2
= (9,0 × 109)(3 × 10−9)(5 × 10−9) / (2)2 Do the top part first and then divide by 4.
= 3,37 × 10−8 N of attraction
Thus, the magnitude of the force is 3,37 × 10−8 N. However, since the point charges
have opposite signs, the force will be attractive.
Step 6: Free body diagram
We can draw a free body diagram to show the forces. Each charge experiences a
force with the same magnitude and the forces are attractive, so we have:

110
Example for three point charges with the aid of Pythagoras.

We can use this where they give us 3 point charges in electrostatics to determine the
resultant. Please make sure you know how to do this. It is easy marks, but we do
poorly in these questions in the final.
Example:
Solution:

111
For example:
Three point charges form a right-angled triangle. Their charges are Q1=4×10−9 , Q2
=6×10−9 and Q3 =−3×10−9 . The distance between Q1 and Q2 is 5×10−2 m and the
distance between Q1 and Q3 is 3×10−2 m. What will the Fnet electrostatic force on Q1
be? Study the diagram below and try to turn it into a triangle so you can use
Phythagoras.
We all know we can turn this into two Fnet forces by using:
But what do we do with these forces?

We need to draw a triangle and then use Pythagoras for the Fnet also known as FR

112
Please ask the teachers to explain this. There are many examples on this. We will
include examples later, for now its just important to understand how we can calculate
the Fnet with Pythagoras and trigometry.
This covers the first part on resultant forces.
QUESTION1
1.1 What is meant by the term “electric field”?

1.2 What does an electric field line indicate?
1.3 What is the defined direction of an electric field?
1.4 Draw a diagram to show the electric field around a positive point charge.
1.5 Draw the electric field around a positive charge
QUESTION2
2.1 Calculate the electric field at a distance of 30 mm of a +8nC charge.
2.2 Calculate the force experienced by an -4nC charge placed 30 mm from the
+8nC charge
2.3 Two-point charges Q₁= +4nC and Q₂ = -2nC are placed 8 cm apart a long a
horizontal line as shown below. Point X is 5cm from Q₁ on the line between the two
charges.
Q₁= +4nC -------------------------------------------•X-------------------------- Q₂ = -2nC

+ +
+ 5cm +
+ +
+ +

113
2.3. 1 Calculate the magnitude and direction of the electric field at point X due to
charge Q₁ alone.
2.3.2 Calculate the magnitude and direction of the electric field at point X due to
charge Q₂ alone.
QUESTION 3
3.1 State Coulomb’s Law in words
3.2 Three point charges are placed at the corners of a right angled triangle ABC as
shown belowS
4cm
Q₁= -20μC-----A--------------------------------------------- B Q₂ =+ 30μC

+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + 3cm
C Q₃ =-50μC
+
3.2.1 Calculate the magnitude and direction of+ the resultant electric field at point
B due to Q₁ and Q₃ +
+
3.2.2 Calculate the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on charge Q₂
using:
I. The resultant electric field at point B

II. Coulombs Law

114
ELECTROSTATICS ACTIVITIES: HOMEWORK
QUESTION 4
Two identical negatively charged spheres, A and B, having charges of the same
magnitude, are placed 0,5 m apart in vacuum. The magnitude of the electrostatic
force that one sphere exerts on the other is 1,44 x 10-1 N.
4.1 State Coulomb's law in words. (2)
4.2 Calculate the:
4.2.1 Magnitude of the charge on each sphere. (4)
4.2.2 Excess number of electrons on sphere B. (3)
4.3 P is a point at a distance of 1 m from sphere B.
4.3.1 What is the direction of the net electric field at point P? (1)
4.3.2 Calculate the number of electrons that should be removed from sphere B so
that the net electric field at point P is 3 x 104 N·C-1 to the right. (8)
[18]

115
QUESTION 5
Two identical spherical balls, P and Q, each of mass 100 g, are suspended at the
same point from a ceiling by means of identical light, inextensible insulating strings.
Each ball carries a charge of +250 nC. The balls come to rest in the positions shown
in the diagram below.
5.1 In the diagram, the angles between each string and the vertical are the same.
Give a reason why the angles are the same.
(1)
5.3 The free-body diagram, not drawn to scale, of the forces acting on ball P is
shown below.

116
Calculate the:
5.3.1 Magnitude of the tension (T) in the string. (3)
5.3.2 Distance between balls P and Q. (5)
[11
]
QUESTION 6
A sphere Q1, with a charge of -2,5 μC, is placed 1 m away from a second sphere
Q2, with a charge +6 μC. The spheres lie along a straight line, as shown in the
diagram below. Point P is located a distance of 0,3 m to the left of sphere Q1, while
point X is located between Q1 and Q2 . The diagram is not drawn to scale.
6.1 Show, with the aid of a VECTOR DIAGRAM, why the net electric field at point X
cannot be zero. (4)
6.2 Calculate the net electric field at point P, due to the two charged spheres Q1 and
Q2. (6)
[10]
QUESTION 7
7.1 A metal sphere A, suspended from a wooden beam by means of a non-

conducting string, has a charge of +6 μC.
7.1.1 Were electrons ADDED TO or REMOVED FROM the sphere to obtain this
charge? Assume that the sphere was initially neutral. (1)
7.1.2 Calculate the number of electrons added to or removed from the sphere. (3)
7.2 Point charges Q1, Q2 and Q3 are arranged at the corners of a right-angled
triangle, as shown in the diagram below.

117
The charges on Q1 and Q2 are + 2 μC and – 2 μC respectively and the magnitude of

the charge on Q3 is 6 μC.
The distance between Q1 and Q3 is r. The distance between Q2 and Q3 is also r.
The charge Q3 experiences a resultant electrostatic force of 0,12 N to the west.
7.2.1 Without calculation, identify the sign (positive or negative) on the charge Q3.
(1)
7.2.2 Draw a vector diagram to show the electrostatic forces acting on Q3 due to
charges Q1 and Q2 respectively. (2)
7.2.3 Write down an expression, in terms of r, for the horizontal component of the
electrostatic force exerted on Q3 by Q1. (3)
7.2.4 Calculate the distance r. (4)
7.3 The magnitude of the electric field is 100 N·C-1 at a point which is 0,6 m away
from a point charge Q.
7.3.1 Define the term electric field at a point in words. (2)
7.3.2 Calculate the distance from point charge Q at which the magnitude of the
electric field is 50 N∙C-1.
(5)
[21]

118
QUESTION 7
Two-point charges, P and S, are placed a distance 0,1 m apart. The charge on P is
-9 -9
+1,5 x 10 C and that on S is -2 x 10 C.
A third point charge, R, with an unknown positive charge, is placed 0,2 m to the right
of point charge S, as shown in the diagram below.
7.2 Draw a labelled force diagram showing the electrostatic forces acting on R due to
P and S.
(2)
7.3 Calculate the magnitude of the charge on R, if it experiences a net electrostatic

force of 1,27 x 10-6 N to the left. Take forces directed to the right as positive. (7)
Please make sure you can do this one:
Three-point charges form a right-angled triangle. Their charges are Q1 = 4×10−9 C = 4

nC, Q2 = 6 × 10−9 C = 6 nC and Q3 = −3 × 10−9 C = −3 nC. The distance between Q1
and Q2 is 5×10−2 m and the distance between Q1 and Q3 is 3×10−2 m.
What is the net electrostatic force on Q1 due to the other two charges if they are
arranged as shown?

119
Solution
Step 1: Determine what is required
We need to calculate the net force on Q1. This force is the sum of the two
electrostatic forces - the forces of Q2 on Q1 and Q3 on Q1.
Step 2: Determine what is given
We are given:
𝑄1 = +4 × 10−9 𝐶
𝑄2 = +6 × 10−9 𝐶
𝑄3 = −3 × 10−9 𝐶
𝑟12 = 5 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑟13 = 3 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑘 = 9,0 × 109 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚2 ∙ 𝐶−2
Step 3: Draw the free body diagram on Q1.
y-axis
𝐹31
𝐹21
x-axis
Step 4: Determine how to approach the problem.
For calculate the net electrostatic force on Q2 we must add up the two forces using
our rules for adding vectors quantities, because force is a vector quantity. In this case
we use Pythagoras' theorem to calculate the magnitude of the resultant force.
We need to calculate, using Coulomb’s law, the electrostatic force exerted on Q1 by

Q2, and the electrostatic force exerted on Q1 by Q3.
We must use the trigonometric functions (sin, cos, and tan) to calculate the direction
of the resultant force.

120
2 2 2
𝐹𝑅1 = 𝐹21 + 𝐹31
Step 5: Calculate the magnitude of the forces 𝐹21 and 𝐹31
𝑘𝑄1 𝑄2 (9,0×109 )(4×10−9 )(6×10−9 )

𝐹21 = = = 8,63 × 10−5 𝑁
𝑟2 (5×10−2 )2
𝑘𝑄3 𝑄1 (9,0×109 )(3×10−9 )(4×10−9 )

𝐹31 = = = 1,199 × 10−4 𝑁
𝑟2 (3×10−2 )2
Step 6: Calculate the magnitude of the net force.

2 2 2
𝐹𝑅1 = 𝐹21 + 𝐹31
2 2
𝐹𝑅1 = √𝐹21 + 𝐹31 = √(8,63 × 10−5 )2 + (1,199 × 10−4 )2 = 1,48 × 10−4 𝑁
Step 7: Calculate the direction of the resultant force.
y-axis
𝐹𝑅1
𝐹31
𝐹21 𝜃
x-axis
𝑦−𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 1,199×10−4
tan 𝜃 = =
𝑥−𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 8,63×10−5
1,199×10−4
𝜃 = tan−1 ( 8,63×10−5 ) = 54,25°
The final resultant force acting on Q1 is 1,48 × 10−4 N acting at an angle of 54,25o to
the negative x-axis or 125,75o to the positive x-axis.

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Physical Sciences

SESSION TOPIC PAGE

06 ACIDS AND BASES 93-105

© Gauteng Department of Education

The following strategies may be considered when answering the following:

1. Read the question carefully.

1. Hypothesis: A prediction based on the experimenter’s knowledge about the

3. Graphs: When plotting a graph, the dependent variable must be plotted on

4. Conclusion: a generalized statement based on the observations made during

© Gauteng Department of Education

1. Read the instructions before you start answering questions.

2. Use the 15-minute reading time effectively.

3. Do not spend more than 20 minutes on Multiple choice questions.

6. In Physics, it always helps to draw sketch of the situation to help you to

7. When doing calculations, apply the following

8. Make sure you prepare sufficiently. Practice, practice, practice as much as

SELECTED TOPICS COVERED:

Structure physics paper 1 Structure Chemistry paper 2

© Gauteng Department of Education

SESSION 1: Revision–Newton’s laws of motion

Normal force (FN)

Frictional force (Ff)

Static frictional force (fs)

Kinetic frictional force (fk)

Newton's first law of motion

Newton's second law of motion

Newton's third law of motion:

© Gauteng Department of Education

Force - A force is an interaction between two objects resulting in a push or a pull

Static and Kinetic friction Forces

© Gauteng Department of Education

Static friction is present when the object is not moving.

a) Calculate the mass of the box.

© Gauteng Department of Education

Force and free-body diagrams:

Example 2: forces along the horizontal plane (surface)

Steps to be followed when drawing force or free-body diagrams:

1. If there is a surface, draw a line to represent it.

© Gauteng Department of Education

• Force applied down the slope.

• Force applied up the slope.

© Gauteng Department of Education

© Gauteng Department of Education

Newton's first law: An object continues in a state of rest or uniform velocity

© Gauteng Department of Education

Newton’s second law of motion:

Newton's second law of motion

© Gauteng Department of Education

= 173,2N to the right.

We may not use this as Fnet because we have friction.

Fnet will be 173,2 -20N = 153,2N

The acceleration of the block is 3,06 m.s-2 to the right.

Newton’s third law of motion:

© Gauteng Department of Education

Section A: Multiple choice questions (MCQ)

1.1 A physical quantity that is described as a measure of the resistance of a

1.2 A block of mass 4 kg is at rest on a smooth horizontal surface as shown in

What will happen to the block? The block will...

© Gauteng Department of Education