Pnaan 484

HANS E.
JAHNKE
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

AND LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT
IN TROPICAL AFRICA
KIELER WISSENSCHAFSVERLAG VAUK

HANS E. JAHNKE
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

AND LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT
IN TROPICAL AFRICA
KIELER WISSENSCHAFTSVERLAG VAUK
1982
Hans E. Jahnke
Livestock Production Systems -id-Livestock
Development in Tropical Africa
© 1982 Kieler Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk
Postfach 4403, D - 2300 Kiel 1
ISBN 3-922553-12-5
IN MEMORIAM
HANS RUTHENBERG
(1928 - 1980)
V
FOREWORD
by
Dr.P.Brumby
Director General, ILCA
Livestock are vital to subsistence and economic development in

sub-Saharan Africa. They provide a flow of essential food products
throughout the year, are a major source of government revenue
and export earnings, sustain the employment and income of mil
lions of people in rural areas, contribute draught energy and ma
nure for crop production and are the only food and cash security
available to many Africans. The sale of livestock and their pro
ducts often constitutes the only source of cash income in rural
areas, and hence the only way in which subsistence farmers can
buy consumer goods and procure the improved seeds, fertilizers and
pesticides needed to increase crop yields. Where livestock develop
ment has been successfully pursued, a steady increase in the pro
ductivity of food grain production and in the growth of service and
consumer industries is clearly observable.
Many of the traditional livestock production systems of sub-Saha

ran Africa are now in decline. Their future survival depends on
enhancing their capacity to satisfy the subsistence and income
needs of their producers. It also depends on their impact on the
land resources they use. The grasslands and browse in the pastoral
areas of Africa are characterised by low levels of productivity and
high variability in yields, both within and across years. As human
and therefore livestock populations increase, pressure on these un
predictable resources grows, and with it the threat of en'ironmen
tal degradation leading to further decline. There is thus an urgent
need to find ways to accelerate livestock productivity and output,
so that it not only keeps pace with rising populatio~i but also
creates surpluses for market disposal. Opportunities for substantial
progress exist: in the improvement of grazing lands, health control,
animal management practices, and marketing and institutional in
frastructure.
Research and development studies in more than a dozen institutes

in tropical Africa now span several decades. These efforts have
resulted in substantial productivity gains in a number of specific
situations. However, most of these have been achieved under man
Previous P knk
VI
agement conditions which are beyond the means of the majority of

livestock producers. Development efforts have often stressed tech
nical innovations without an understanding of the spectrum of con
sequences that can flow from such interventions in pastoral socie
ties, and the outcome of past investment in livestock development
projects has been generally disappointing. The primary cause of
failure in most cases has been the lack of adequate understanding
of relationships between the biological, economic and social com
ponents of each production system.
Based on this premise, the research efforts of the International
Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) have focussed on the need for
a thorough understanding of these relationships before committing
scientists and physical resources to detailed field and component
research within a given system. Our baseline studies, carried out
in areas representative of the wid, range of ecological and socio
economic environments of sub-Saharan Africa, support the hypoth
esis that research on livestock development must consider produc
tion systems in their entirety. They provide the rationale for
ILCA's systems-oriented research strategy. Hans Jahnke, a staff
member of ILCA from its inception in 1975, has been a key figure
in the formulation of this strategy, and is in a unique position to
provide a synthesis of the information accumulated by ILCA and
other research and development institutes, adding his own careful
and pragmatic approach to the interpretation of the usually scanty
quantitative data available.
The main aim of this book is to improve the planning base for
livestock development in Africa. The author's first task has been
to provide a quantitative assessment of livestock and land re
sources, which forms the basis for dividing the continent into
ecological zones. Livestock production in each zone is assessed by
the products provided, the functions performed and the contribu
tion of livestock to the national economy. This analysis leads to a
classification of the predominant production systems in the region,
ranging from extensive pastoral systems to intensive landless sys
tems. The Jlassification is justified by its usefulness in identifying
livestock development possibilities. The viewpoint expressed here is
that of an economist: change and improvement in different pro
duction systems depend on relative factor endowments, technology
and pricing structure, as well as on the changing nature of pro
ducer objectives and managerial skills. A central theme of the
book is that livestock development cannot be viewed as a parallel
expansion in all existing systems; priorities must be set and devel
VIu
opment choices made on the basis of the relative importance and

potential of each system.
Like other processes of change, livestock development is dynamic
and open-ended. Systems at different stages on the development
path face widely differing constraints on their further improve
ment. Dr. Jahnke's book is particularly valuable in this context, as
it formulates specific development hypotheses amenable to empiri
cal testing in specific production environments. The research task
implied by this analysis is therefore one of ILCA's major objec
tives. It is our hope that this book, which synthesizes much of the
material in other ILCA publications, will prove a valuable source
of information for improving food production and economic devel
opment in sub-Saharan Africa.
Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

January 20, 1982
IX
Acknowledgements
This book has arisen from my work at the International Livestock

Centre for Africa (ILCA) between 1975 and 1981. Without impli
cating anybody in errors and omissions and without claiming to
present a synthesis or consensus of views held there, the book is a
product of the work of that organisation, drawing on resources
provided by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Research.
The complete list of direct and indirect contributors at ILCA

simply is too long for inclusion here and I can only ask the staff
of ILCA as a whole to accept my sincere thanks for their general
support and for their valuable inputs. The book was started and
brought to conclusion under the directorship of Mr. David Pratt
and it is to him that I owe my major debt for intellectual and
administrative support and for continued moral encouragement to
accomplish the work.
The members of ILCA's Programme Committee under the chair

manship successively of Prof. D.E. Tribe and Dr. A. Provost have
provided valuable suggestions and criticisms on earlier drafts. For
their particular efforts I must mention Prof. W. Schaefer-Kehnert,
Prof. C.R.W. Spedding and Prof. H. Ruthenberg.
Valuable background material was provided by FAO; Mr. G.

Higgins helped with statistical data and Dr. J. Hrabovszky provided
planning figures and background calculations and he took the
trouble of commenting extensively on an earliei draft.
The Institut d'Elevage et de Medecine Veterinaire des Pays Tropi

caux (IEMVT) granted me access to their archives; its Director
Gene'ral Dr. A. Provost and its Assistant Director Dr. G. Tacher
took the time for long discussions and provided numerous valuable
suggestions.
The final draft of the work benefitted substantially from sug

gestions and criticisms by my colleagues at the University of Kiel,
in particular by Prof. C.-H. Hanf, Prof. W. Scheper, Dr. R. Miller
Dr. R. Herrmann and Dr. P.M. Schmitz and by Prof. G. Weinschenk
of the University of Hohenheim.
Finally I am grateful for competent technical support at first at

ILCA and then at the University of Kiel, where Ms. S. Lildtke, Mr.
Previou.1s Page BlIY.

x
F. Platte and Mr. H.-P. Schadek compiled statistics, Ms. H.

J~irgensen and Mr. F. Killsen prepared the drawings, Ms. S. Lemke
typed earlier drafts and the tables, Ms. E. Fey and Ms. M. Krause
prepared the final typescript and Ms. H. Kross undertook the
tedious editorial work.
Hans E. Jahnke
March 31, 1982
Kiel, Federal Republic of Germany
XI
CONTENTS
List of Tables XiV

List of Figures XVIII
Acronyms of Organizations XIX
Units and Abbreviations XX
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Aim and Scope 3
1.3 Approach 6
2 RESOURCES FOR LIVESTOCK PReDUCTION 9
2. 1 Livestock 9
2.2 Land 15
2. 3 Resources by Ecological Zone 20
3 LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY 24
3.1 Sector Contribution 24
3.2 Livestock Products 27
3.2.1 Foods 27
3. 2..2 Materials 29
3.2.3 Manure 31
3.2.4 Work , 32
3.2.5 Animals - Reproduction and Growth 35
3. 3 Production and Productivity by Ecological Zone 36
4 LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 42
4.1 Livestock Development 42
4.1.1 Performance to-date 42
4.1.2 The Case for Livestock Development 46
4. 1. 2. 1 Arguments for Livestock Development 46
4. 1. 2. 2 Demand for Livestock Foods 47
4. 1. 2. 3 Demand for Other Livestock Products 50
4.1.3 Development Considerations and Farm Systems 51
4.2 The Systematics of African Livestock Production 52
4. 2. 1 Farming Systems and Ecological Zones 52
4. 2. 2 Livestock Type and Product 54
4.2.3 Livestock Functions 54
4.2.4 Livestock Management 59
4. 3 Livestock Production Systems and their Development 63
5 PASTORAL RANGE-LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 66
5.1 General Characteristics 66
5. 1. 1 Definition and Delimitation 66
5. 1. 2 Types and Geographical Distribution 66
5. 1. 3 Livestock Functions 68
5.1.4 Management Aspects 74
XII
5.2 Production and Productivity 79

5. 2. 1 Range Production and Carrying Capacity 79
5. 2. 2 Livestock Productivity 81
5. 2. 3 Land Productivity 83
5. 2. 4 Labour Productivity and Employment Capacity 85
5. 2. 5 Human Supporting Capacity 87
5.3 Development Possibilities 89
5. 3. 1 Marketing and Stratification 89
5. 3. 2 Livestock Improvement and Disease Control 93
5. 3. 3 Land and Water Development 95
5. 3. 4 Institutional Development and Ranching 99
5. 3. 5 Human Development 102
6 CROP-LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN

THE LOWLANDS 104
6. 1. 3 Characteristics of Livestock Production 115
6.2.1 Fodder Productivity 119
6. 2. 3 Productivity and Tsetse Challenge 126
6. 3. 1 Mixed Farming 129
6. 3. 2 Strengthening the Role of Livestock 134
6. 3. 3 Tsetse Control 142
6. 3. 4 Other Development Paths 149
7 CROP-LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN

THE HIGHLANDS 152
7. 1. 3 Livestock Characteristics 155
7. 3. 1 Dairying - the Example of Kenya 164
7. 3. 2 Livestock in the Development of Subsistence Farms 172
7.3.3 Sheep Development 177
7. 3. 4 Other Development Paths 181
8 RANCHING 182
8. 1. 3 Production Characteristics 184
Xm

8. 2. 1 Fodder Productivity 187
8. 2. 3 Physical Performance and Financial Viability 190
8. 3. 1 Basic Opportunities and Constraints 194
8. 3. 2 Ranching Development in Arid Areas 196
8. 3. 3 Ranching Development in Humid Areas 198
9 LANDLESS LIVESIOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 202

9.1 Definition and Delimitation 202
9. 2 Pig Production Systems 202
9. 3 Poultry Production Systems 206
9.4 Intensive Beef Production Systems 210
9. 5 Development Possibilities 214
Ifn CONCLUSIONS FOR LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT

PLANNING 218
10. 1 The Importance of Planning for Livestock Development 218
10. 2 Production Systems and Strategy Issues in Livestock
Development Planning 221
10. 3 The Role of Monitoring for Livestock Development
Planning and for this Study 226
11 ANNEX 229
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY 241
XIV
LIST OF TEXT TABLES
2.1 Livestock Population in Tropical Africa by Species in 10

Numbers and in Tropical Livestock Units (TLU) 1979
2.2 Distribution of the Ruminant Livestock Population by 13
Species and Regions/Countries in Tropical Africa 1979
2.3 Distribution of the Equine Livestock Population by 14
2.4 Distribution of Pigs and Poultry and of the Human 15
Population by Region in Tropical Africa 1979
2.5 Extent of Ecological Zones by Region in Tropical Africa 19
2.6 Extent of Tsetse Infestation by Ecological Zone in 20
Tropical Africa
2. 7 Ruminant Livestock Population by Species and Ecological 21
Zone in Tropical Africa 1979
2.8 Livestock, Land and Labour Resources by Ecological 22
3.1 Estimated Per-caput Income, Agricultural GDP and Live- 25
stock GDP in Tropical Africa by Country Groups 1980
3.2 Selected Methods of Valuation of Livestock Food Products 28
3.3 Food Production of Livestock in Tropical Africa 1978 30
3.4 Quantity and Valueo of Hides, Skins and Wool Production 31
in Tropical Africa 1979
3.5 Population of Work Animals by Regions in Tropical 33
Africa 1979
3.6 Growth of Livestock Herds and Flocks in Tropical 35
Africa 1969-71 to 1979
3.7 Estimate of the Value of the Standing Stock of Meat 36
Animals in Tropical Africa 1979
3.8 Productivity Indicators of Livestock by Species in 37
Tropical Africa 1975/80
3.9 Availability of Meat and Milk from Ruminants by Eco- 39
logical Zone in Tropical Africa 1975/80
3.10 Productivity Indicators of Livestock Production in 40
4.1 Indicators of Expansion and Productivity Growth in Crop 43
and Livestock Production in Tropical Africa 1963-75
4.2 Livestock Production and Productivity in Africa 1950, 45
1970 and 1975/80
4.3 Regional Average Income Elasticities of Demand for 48
Selected Crop and Livestock Foods in Tropical Africa
1975-2000
4.4 Projection of Domestic Demand for Selected Crop and 49
Livestock Foods in Tropical Africa 1975-2000
4.5 Indicators of Input Requirements of Agricultural 51
Development in Tropical Africa 1975-2000
XV
5.1 Types and Characteristics of Pastoral Production' 67

Systems in Tropical Africa in Dependence of the Degree
of Aridity
5.2 Household Budget and Diet Composition of Different 69
Pastoral Households in West Africa (Chad, Niger and
Mali)
5.3 Utilizable Primiry Production and Carrying Capacity 80
in Dry Rangelands in Tropical Africa
5.4 Productivity of Camels, Cattle, Sheep and Goats in 82
Pastoral Systems in Tropical Africa
5.5 Indicators of Land Productivity in Pastoral Systems in 83
Tropical Africa
5. 6 Indicators o.".ivestock Production and Labour Intensity 86
and Labour Productivity in the Dry Areas of Australia
(1968-1969 tu 1970-1971)
5. 7 Estimate of Human Supporting Capacity (IISC) of Low 88
Rainfall Areas in West and East Africa
6. 1 Suggested Maximum Sustainable R-Values by Soil and 110
Ecological Zone
6.2 Feed Availability and Carrying Capacity in the More 120
Humid Lowland Areas of Tropical Africa
6. 3 Yields and Nutritive Value of Upland Savanna in 121
Katsina and Zaria Survey Areas 1967-69
6.4 Straw Yield ant Nitrogen Content of Crop Residues 122
in the Semi-arid Zone
6.5 Meat and Milk Productivity of Cattle in Selected 124
Countries of the Lowland Crop-livestock Zone of
Tropical Africa 1979
6.6 The Importance of Animal Draught, Tractors and Hand 125
Labour in Meeting the Labour Requirements of Crop
Agriculture in Lowland Tropical Africa 1975
6. 7 Productivity of Trypanotolerant and Zebu Cattle in 127
Three Locations at Different Levels ,f Tsetse
Challenge and Management
6.8 Productivity of Trypanotolerant Cattle Groups Under 128
Different Management Systems and Levels of Tsetse
Challenge
6. 9 Productivity Traits of Trypanotolerant and Non-tolerant 129
Groups of Sheep and Goats
6. 10 Adoption of Agronomic Improvements (Other than Animal 137
Draught) and Yield Development in Cotton Growing in
Mali 1961/62 to 1964/65
6.11 Areas Freed from Tsetse Flies in Nigeria, Zimhabwn, 143
Tanzania and Uganda
7.1 Extent of Highland Areas in Tropical Afric- oy Regions 153
7.2 Agroclimatic Variation within the Highland Zone 154
xvI
7.3 Livestock Contribution to Farm Income in Selected 156

Farming Systems in the Kenyan Highlands
7.4 Milk Production and Productivity by Management 161
Systems and Cattle Breed in Kenya 1974
7.5 Dry Matter (DM) Production in the Process of Land 162
Use Intensification
7.6 Prices and Price Indices for Grade Dairy Heifers, 169
Maize, and Milk 1940-1977
7.7 Changes in Farm Management Data in the Course of 170
Intensification
7.8 Income from Dairying and Total Income in the Course 171
of Intensification
7.9 Gross Value of Production and its Composition for a 175
Typical Subsistence Farm in Ada District
7.10 Analysis of Subsistence and Feed Production Capacity 178
of Typical Ada District Farm Following Traditional
and New Cropping Pattern
8.1 Productivity Indicators of Indigenous Cattle in Tropical 189
Africa
8.2 Liveweight Gains of Adult Zebu Steers under Commer- 190
cial Conditions (Mokwa Ranch, Nigeria)
8.3 Possible Growth Rate of Cattle Breeding Herd as a 191
Function of Weaning Rate and Heifer Mortality
8.4 Possible Offtake Rate of Self-contained Cattle Herd 192
as a Function of Maturity Age and Weaning Rate
8.5 Planned and Achieved Calving Rates on Newly- 193
established Ranches in Tropical Africa
9.1 Comparison of the Performance of African Indigenous 203
Pigs with Swedish Landrace in Southern Africa
9.2 Types of Commercial Pig Production Systems and 204
Major Production Characteristics
9. 3 Estimate of Pig Production and Productivity of Tradi- 205
tional and Commercial Systems in Tropical Africa 1979
9.4 Increase of the Pig Population and of Pork Production 206
1969-71 to 1979
9.5 Increase of the Chicken Population and of Poultry 209
Production 1969-71 to 1979
9.6 Total Beef Fattening Costs in Dependence of Conver- 212
sion Ratio and Daily Liveweight Gain
9.7 Typical Grain/Beef Price Ratios in World Regions 213
9.8 Potential Availability and Feed Value of Main Agro- 216
industrial By-products Suitable for Animal Nutrition
XVII
LIST OF ANNEX TABLES
1 The Ruminant Livestock Population in Tropical Africa

by Country 1979
2 The Equine, Pig and Chicken Population in Tropical
Africa by Country 1979
3 Gene al Agricultural Indicators of Tropical Africa by
Country 1979
4 Extent of Ecological Zones in Tropical Africa by
Country 1979
5 Extent of Tsetse Infestation in Tropical Africa by Eco
logical Zone by Country
6 Distribution of Human Agricultural Population in
Tropical Africa by Ecological Zone by Country 1979
7 Distribution of Cattle in Tropical Africa by Ecological
Zone by Country 1979
8 Distribution of Sheep in Tropical Africa by Ecological
9 Distribution of Goats in Tropical Africa by Ecological
10 Distribution of Ruminant Livestock Units in Tropical
Africa by Ecological Zone by Country 1979
11 GDP, GDP Per Caput and Sector Contributions by
Agriculture and Livestock in Tropical Africa by
Country 1980
XVIII
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 Species Composition of the Livestock Population in 11

Tropical Africa 1979
2.2 Regions of Tropical Africa 12
2.3 The Ecological Classification Scheme Used and Approxi- 17
mate Correspondence with Other Classification Schemes
2.4 The Ecological Zones of Tropical Africa and the Extent 18
of Tsetse Infestation
3.1 Proportion of Agriculture in GDP and Proportion of 26
Livestock in Agricultural GDP in Tropical African
Countries 1980
4.1 Total Costs of Aid-assisted Livestock Development 44
Projects in Tropical Africa 1961-1975
4.2 Diagrammatic Representation of Crop Production and 60
Livestock Production
5.1 Pastoral Peoples of Tropical Africa 70
5.2 Hypothetical Scheme of Food Productivity of the Land 84
in Cropping and Pastoral Land Use
5.3 Effect of Yield-increasing Practices on Range Production 97
in the Sahel
6.1 Suitability Classification and Yields of Major Food Crops 108
in the African Tropical Lowlands by Ecological Zone
at Low Input Level
6.2 Diagrammatic Representation of Farming Systems by 111
Ecological Conditions and Population Pressure in the
Lowlands of Tropical Africa
6.3 Tsetse and Cattle Distribution in East Africa 113
6.4 Delimitation of the Semi-arid Zone in West Africa 114
in Relation to Tsetse Fly Distribution and Zebu
Cattle Predominance
6.5 Distribution of Cattle on the Village Land During the 118
Different Seasons in Golonpoui, Northern Cameroon
7.1 Grade Dairy Cattle Development on Large and Small 167
Farms in Kenya 1935-1975
8.1 Stages in Ranch Development and Water Development 185
9.1 Effects of Intensive Feeding on the Growth Pattern of 211
Cattle
XIX
ACRONYMS OF ORGANIZATIONS
BDPA Bureau pour le Ddveloppement de la Production Agricole,

Paris
CEEMAT Centre d'Etudes et d'Expdrimentation du Machinisme
Agricole Tropical
CFDT Compagnie Frangaise pour le D~veloppement des Fibres
Textiles, Paris
CRED Centre for Research on Economic Development, University
of Michigan
CRZ Centre de Recherches Zoatechniques, Bouak4
EDI Economic Development Institute of the World Bank,
Washington, D. C.
FAQ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Rome
GERDAT Groupement d'Etudes et de Recherches pour le De'veloppe
ment de l'Agronomie Tropicale, Paris
GTZ Gesellschaft ffir Technische Zusammenarbeit, Eschborn
IBAR Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources, Nairobi
IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development,
Washington, D. C.
IEMVT Institut d'Elevage et de Mddecine Vdtdrinaire des Pays
Tropicaux, Maisons-Alfort, Paris
IFDC International Fertilizer Development Centre, Alabama
Ifo Institut filr Wirtschaftsforschung, Mfinchen
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D. C.
ILCA International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addts Abeba
KCC Kenya Cooperative Creameries, Nairobi
LMB Livestock and Meat Board, Addis Abeba
NAPRI National Animal Production Research Institute, Kaduna
OAU/STRC Organization of African Unity/ Scientific and Technical
Research Commission
OMS Organisation Mondiale pour la Santd
SATEC Soci~td d'Aide Technique et de Coopdration, Paris
SEDES Socidtd d'Etudes pour le Ddveloppement Economique et
Social, Paris
UNCTAD United Nations Commission for Trade and Development,
Geneva
UNDP United Nations Development Programme, New York
UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, Addis
Abeba
UNFPA United Nations Fund for Population Activities
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
UNITS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AT 2000 Agriculture: Towards 2000 (FAO publication)

CDW Cold dressed weight
CP Crude protein
DCP Digestible crude protein
DM Dry matter
FU Fodder unit (equivalent to 0. 7 of a starch unit after Kellner)
GD Growing days
GDP Gross don-estic product
GE Grain equivalent
GP Growing period
HSC Human supporting capacity
LW Liveweight
MDE Man-day equivalent
ME Man equivalent
MH Man-hour
MT Metric tonne (the symbol "t" is also used)
n. ap. Not applicable
n. av. Not available
$ United States (US) dollars
TCU Tropical cattle unit (a bovine of 175 kg LW)
TLU Tropical livestock unit (an animal (ruminant) of 250 kg LW)
UBT Unitd de b'tail tropical (an animal (ruminant) of 250 kg LW)
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
Tropical Africa is one of the least developed world regions com
prising most of the world's poorest countries. Agriculture as the
mainstay of the economies hardly keeps pace with population
growth. Self-sufficiency ratios for cereals and other staple foods
are generally declining; the dependence on food imports is increas
ing. The performance of livestock as part of agriculture is partic
ularly disturbing. While some modest productivity improvements
have taken place in cropping, livestock production increases in the
past have been largely due to numeric expansion of herds and
flocks rather than to improvement of the productivity. Major live
stock areas like the Sahel and parts of Eastern Africa provide an
extremely fragile environment in which the constant threat of
droughts affects not only the survival of livestock but that of the
human population as well. Overgrazing and resource degradation
characterize livestock production over much of the region while
the apparent potential in other regions is not used at all. The use
of animal traction for cropping and the integration of livestock
into farming are uncommon. Overall the levels of livestock produc
tivity and of availability of livestock products like meat, milk and
eggs for the human population are the lowest of any world region
which is all the more serious since, in many areas, livestock pro
ducts constitute the major source of subsistence. Even at the pre
vailing low levels of consumption production does not keep pace
with demand and the region as a whole moves towards the position
of a net importer of livestock products despite its apparent poten
tial for livestock production.
For general agriculture as well as for livestock production the
need for development is great and the modest objective of main
taining per caput levels of production constitutes a formidable
challenge in the light of a rapidly growing human population. Ef
forts at agricultural and livestock development will need to be
carefully planned and take account of the pronounced diversity of
the natural and human environment. The agro-climatic conditions
range from extreme aridity in deserts and desert-like areas to ex
treme humidity in areas whose natural vegetation is dense rainfor
ests; in addition altitude intervenes rendering highlands ecologically
different from the low-lying areas. In all ecological zones there
are areas of high population density with intensive forms of land
use as well as vast stretches of land, hardly used and almost void
2
of man and stock. Diversity is further accentuated by the coexist

ence of pre-technical forms of agricul-tur.e and modern forms in
troduced into Africa in the last 100 yea'r, sometimes only in the
past two decades. Shifting cultivation in the rain forests and pas
toral nomadism in the arid zone have existed in their present form
from times immemorial; commercial plantations, ranching, large
scale farming and industrial poultry complexes are "children of the
industrial revolution" (Grigg 1974) transplanted to Africa in recent
times. The distribution pattern of the human and the livestock
populations and the penetration of modern forms of agriculture
have bcen influenced in a manifold and often obscure way by the
presencu of tsetse flies and the diseases they carry, a factor
which is unique to Tropical Africa, and which affects 10 million
square kilometers or 40% of the land area considered here.
Livestock production is a form of agricultural production with

many facets and the manifestation of these facets differs from
one situation to another. It is obvious that livestock production by
a nomad who keeps camels for milk to secure his subsistence is
different from that of a peasant who raises some poultry in his
farm yard for sale on the market. The different livestock species
- camels, cattle, sheep, goats, equines*, pigs and poultry - vary
radically in their management requirements, their production and
productivity and also in the products they supply and the functions
they fulfill. But one and the same species may also be held for
completely different purposes: On some farms cattle are kept to
produce beef for sale, on others to supply clung for the fields and
to provide tractive force in farm work. In addition the same pro
duct and function, say meat for sale, can be provided by radically
different management principles; long-range migration as a form
of adaptation to ecology in ii pre-technical world in one case, and
the application of modern technology in an artificially controlled
environment in another. And the functions of livestock are by no
means restricted to production. The keeping of livestock for pres
tige and the payment of bride price in the form of cattle are
only examples of the role of livestock that pervades the emotional,
social and cultural spheres of many African societies.
Livestock production in Tropical Africa is characterized by great
complexity not only in environment but also in livestock types,
products, functions and management principles and is compounded
by often perplexing interactions with the human sphere. This com
* As a group of species to include asses, mules and horses.
plexity constitutes a formidable challenge for the design of devel
opment efforts, further complicated by the generalized and often
discouraging lack of data. In this light it is not surprising that ef
forts at livestock development are beset with problems and have
done little to improve overall performance levels. Moreover, and
also as a consequence, the reasons for success or failure of such
development efforts are little understood.
The complexity of livestock proddoction and develcjpment in Tropical
Africa is certain to have been rationalized arid broken clown in
many an experienced mind,not but
exist.a. systemaic
• anfl accessible trea
tise of the subject does
o 0
1.2 Aim and Scope

This study aims to 4mprovd She pfahni-nm £J',zfo'r.. vestQo,.. ,
opment in Tropical Africa by' ringin :ordej j'o t ef
livestock production phenomeja thr9illt th* . ,bcept f,.pro;i(.if.%n
systems, by assessing the development .L')bd
0Sss bitltt "th.cb±:.didf.-.
ferent production systems and by*"Drtvldin" ui*nttat., ;.,hirju atio *, .
on the resource base anti productio-t"a:[us, -'" .
To order the phenomena a concept ooaf .Jivest~ck .pldYMTA .t.ott.orms,

is developed with the specific,, puipo.se.of.. b'eng...[iYj' r"th ex ,,
sessment of development opportunitiis and dorjst~r~a'it4+ yli ,'r
often than not, are interwoven with the hum'a6 enytb.frlennt:.'is,
ing agricultural typologies, even if'they 'iaeredtnijly.a~ibl
prove deficient in that respect. The aitefnati'v of p+.Vii+:'
4
atm
groupings from a theory of their differentiation' (e.g.-. itl distarfce *
from the market or the factor proportions av'allal) r
typology that reflects too narrow a spectrum of rea,]it .OiieOn iS
left without an entirely satisfactory solution to th 'probl'e M"
Judgement and pragmatism must still take precendence over prin.
ciple and rigour. The basis of classification in this study, is, pr6
vided by the systems of tropical farming as developed by Ruthen-,,
berg (1980) adapted to the specificities of livestock produc'tion. 'In
spite of their shortcomings the resulting systems are useful fo,
describing real livestock production and in providing a framewor.
for further study.
The systems are also useful for considerations of livestock devel
opment. Poor performance in actual production and in development
shows up in aggregate statistics. But a problem-oriented view
needs to descend on the level of individual livestock producers and
4
on that of development projects to determine causes and remedies.

It is man's management of livestock that is at the root and that
needs to be understood before promising development efforts can
be designed. The systems concept used in this study takes explicit
account of this since it is based on the individual farm unit as the
"building block" (Andreae 1977, Ruthenberg 1980) of a production
system. A livestock production system in the simplest sense is
then nothing but a group of similar management units. This is also
the level at which development efforts normally set in. Projects as
the cutting edge of development (Gittinger 1972) are the smallest
organizational units within which costs are incurred to obtain ben
efits and reach development objectives (Ruthenberg 1977). One of
the advantages of the systems concept followed here lies precisely
in the fact that the unit size and level can be brought in direct
correspondence with the unit size and level of development pro
jects. Consequently it can be attempted to bring together experi
ence from development projects for each production system and to
draw inferences for development possibilities.
Quantitative information on the resource base and on livestock

production and pioductivity is introduced and considered at the
level of countries and also at the level of ecological zones and of
production systems. On all these levels such information is useful
to delimit the development potential and maybe even necessary for
policy and strategy decisions. But this study cannot substitute for
the general absence of reliable statistics. In many cases the esti
mates are to be regarded less as assertions and more as explicit
formulations of opinions and biases. They are then meant to chal
lenge students and policy makers rather than to encourage their
uncritical use.
The scope of the study is delimited in space and time and further
characterized by the specific viewpoint taken.
Tropical Africa has been chosen as the area of investigation. At

the edges country boundaries have been found to be more useful
than the exact geographical limits of the tropics. In this politico
geographical definition Tropical Africa includes all mainland coun
tries except former Spanish Sahara and the countries bordering on
the Mediterranean in the north, and South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland in the south. Madagascar is included. Subdivisions and
country groupings used are given in chapter 2. The area is large
(22 million square kilometers), and important local variations are
often ignored; for the natural environment this particularly refers
5
to the soil types.

The time dimension essentially covers the past two decades and
the same period ahead. This has an important implication for de
velopment inferences. What has been tried out, successfully or not
within that time period of the past is of concern and what is
likely to be possible up to say the year 2000. For many aspects
the inclusion of more distant experience from the past would be
useful if only to show that seemingly new ideas and approaches
are nothing but repetitions of experience long forgotten. By re
stricting the forward view to technical innovations that are already
possible it cannot be excluded that elements are now overlooked
that may change livestock development prospects radically in fu
ture. A particularly intriguing aspect is that of overcoming the
tsetse by the sterile male technique or by the development of a
vaccine against trypanosomiasis. But by and large the view that
enough is known of technical possibilities and too little has been
made applicable and put into practice (Nestel et al 1973) appears
a reasonable basis also for this study.
The viewpoint is that of an economist whose concerns are with
resource assessment, allocation of production factors, productivity
and the contribution of production activities to farmer's objectives,
the design of economic development on project and policy level
and the outcome of development efforts on the farm and in more
aggregate terms. The use of more elaborate economic methodolo
gies is severely limited by data availability and by the size of the
task which prohibits in-depth elaboration of any one particular
aspect. But the viewpoint is still determined by these economic
concerns and is therefore not that of a technical man or a natural
scientist who might be appalled by the manner in which sophisti
cated and detailed aspects of, e. g. precipitation, nutrients, grass
growth, animal reproduction, milk yield, growth and husbandry are
reduced to gross concepts of carrying capacity and livestock pro
ductivity. It is realized that in this process of reduction differen
tiations are lost that may often constitute important development
opportunities and constraints. The need for a technical assessment
of the conclusions reached on the more general economic level and
of their applicability to specific situations must therefore be
emphasized.
The aims, the scope and the restrictions of this study are best
summarized by considering it as a framework useful for devel
opment planning. Some of the information given on resources and
6
production, production systems and development possibilities may

be used directly in concrete planning exercises, but for the most
part there is need for refinement and local adaptation. The con
tribution of this study then lies in the outline of a development
oriented approach and of the concepts required to identify the
type of further information needed and to order information in a
way useful for development planning and implementation.
1.3 Approach
Chapter 2 gives a quantitative overview of the resources engaged
in livestock production in Tropical Africa. The major resource is
the livestock; their numbers are given by species as well as the
distribution of herds and flocks by country groups. Land as the
second major production factor is differentiated by quality and
potential. The concept of ecological zones is introduced; the study
area is subdivided into arid, semi-arid, sub-humid and humid zones;
highland areas are distinguished as a separate zone. A further dif
ferentiation is introduced according to tsetse infestation of the
land. This permits the assessment of the livestock, land and labour
resources together for each ecological zone, a unit which can be
more readily translated in production systems than national units.
Livestock production is the topic of chapter 3. The sector contri

bution by livestock is estimated country by country. Readily avail
able statistics relate to meat, milk and egg production only. An
attempt is made to identify all the different livestock products
and services and to estimate their value. Beside foods there are
materials like hides, skins, pelts, horns and the like, (lung as fuel
and fertilizer, work as field work in cropping and for transport as
well as animals as a result of reproduction of livestock. Quantifi
cation of production by ecological zone allows a comparison with
the resources engaged and provides various livestock productivity
indicators.
Having assessed the resources, livestock production and productivity
of Tropical Africa, the issue of livestock development is introduced
(chapter 4.1). The performance to-date is examined and the case
for livestock development presented. The essential aim of chapter
4 is to link development considerations to the concept of livestock
production systems as developed in chapter 4.2. The typology is
related to farming systems and ecological zones on the one hand
and to the livestock characteristics of the farming systems on the
other. These are the livestock type (species essentially) and the
7
livestock product, the function(s) livestock have in the farming

systems concerned and the livestock management principles. The
systems concept links the view by ecolocial zone to that on the
farm level and to that of development projects whose targets nor
mally are groups of similar production units within an ecolocial
zone.
Five classes of livestock production systems are distinguished:
- Pastoral Range-livestock Production Systems

- Crop-livestock Production Systems in the Lowlands
- Crop-livestock Production Systems in the Highlands
- Ranching Systems, and
- Landless Livestock Production Systems.
They are dealt with one by one in chapters 5 to 9 under the
headings 'general characteristics', 'production and productivity'
and 'development possibilities'.
The general characteristics provide for each class of production
system definitional aspects and delimitations, types and their geo
graphical distribution and livestock characteristics, from species
and product to function and management principles. Within this
general framework a flexible approach is taken to emphasize for
each production system the particularly relevant aspects: For pas
toral systems the social and cultural functions vis-a-vis the sub
sistence function and the role of communal land tenure; for low
land crop livestock systems the importance of crop-livestock inter
actions and the phenomenon of contract herding; for highland sys
tems the role of livestock under increasing population pressure and
for ranching systems the intricacies of management.
Production and productivity levels are characterized for each pro

duction system to the extent possible. Again different facets stand
in the foreground for different production systems: The human
supporting capacity of pastoral systems, the influence of tsetse
flies on livestock productivity in the lowlands and the potential
productivity of highland and ranching systems.
The section on development possibilities is the one most specific
for each production system: For pastoral systems the scope and
limitations of the conventional approaches are emphasized; mixed
farming concepts and the role of tsetse control dominate the dis
cussion for the lowland systems; dairy and sheep development are
8
the major themes for the highlands and management issues again
receive attention in ranching systems.
The chapter on landless production systems in principle follows a
similar outline but is more condensed on account of the reduced
importance of these systems as yet and also because much less
information is available. Traditional and modern pig and poultry
systems are dealt with as well as intensive beef fattening systems.
Their development possibilities are largely viewed in connection
with price ratios and the availability of feeds.
Chapter 10 draws conclusions for livestock development planning
that go beyond the context of specific production systems. Devel
opment planning generally takes place at the national level and
therefore basic policy decisions on general, agricultural and live
stock development have to be applied to a mix of different pro
duction systems. The role of planning under these conditions and
the size of the task are outlined. Specific strategy choices that
result from the view of livestock production and development in
the context of systems are discussed. A central theme is that
livestock development cannot be viewed as the parallel expansion
of all existing systems but requires conscious choices about their
relative place and about the approaches to them in the course of
development. As a final point some of the limitations of planning
in achieving improved livestock performance are outlined as well as
the role of monitoring in complumenting development planning and
in assisting this study in achieving its aim of improving the plan
ning base for livestock development in Tropical Africa.
9
2 Resources for Livestock Production
2.1 Livestock
The main categories of domestic livestock in Tropical Africa are

large ruminants (cattle and camels), small ruminants (sheep and
goats), nonruminant grazing animals (asses, mules and horses sum
marized as equines), pigs and chickens. Other species are not dealt
with in this study, which excludes from consideration important
animal resources like fish and wildlife.
The essential difference among ruminants and non-ruminants is
that the former can be fed on r iughage. Thereby plant material
that is of no direct use for man can be converted into food for
man and into other useful products. Ruminant animals and equines
can be grouped together as grazing animals, i. e. animals that
depend largely on grazing for their feed. Given the similarity of
the feed base, particularly of ruminants, the conversion of animals
of different size and of the different species into reference units
is useful. The tropical livestock unit (TLU) or "unit6 de betail
tropical" (UBT) is commonly taken to be an animal of 250 kg
liveweight. The tropical cattle unit (TCU) is less commonly used,
it is here taken to be the equivalent of a bovine of 175 kg live
weight which, on the aggregate level, is assumed to represent the
average liveweight of a bovine. A small ruminant unit is put at 25
kg liveweight. Due to considerable differences between zones,
breeds, and management systems, these conversion factors should
only be used for gross calculations on an aggregate level. More
accurate calculations would also have to take into consideration
that feed requirements are more directly determined by the meta
bolic weight rather than the liveweight (LW)*. Table 2.1 shows the
livestock population in Tropical Africa. Conversion into TLU is
given for all species although this is normally only done for rumi
nant livestock and possibly for equines.
* The basal metabolic rate (MB) is a function of the surface
area of the animal and related to its liveweight (LW) by the
following formula
MB = a - LW 0 73
a = a constant of MB per kg
metabolic weight
LW 0 7 3 is termed the metabolic weight (see Riviere 1978,

p. 129).
10
Table 2.1: Livestock Population in Tropical Africa by Species in

Numbers and in Tropical Livestock Units (TLU) 1979
1 000 TLU conver- 1 000

Species head sion factor TLU
Camels 11 135 1,0 11 135
Cattle 147 510 0,7 103 257
Sheep 103 865 0, 1 10 387
Goats 125 287 0, 1 12 529
a Sub-total
ruminants 387 797 n. ap. 137 308
Horses 2 899 0,8 2 319

Mules 1 478 0,7 1 035
Asses 7 618 0,5 3 809
b Sub-total
equines 11 995 n. ap. 7 163
c Sub-total grazing
animals (a + b) 399 792 n. ap. 144 471
Pigs 7 244 0,2 1 449
Chickens 426 180 0,01 4 262
d Sub-total pigs
and chickens n. ap. n. ap. 5 711
Source: FAO (Production Yearbook 1979); TLU conversion factors constitute

a compromise between different common practices.
Figures on livestock populations in Tropical Africa are only rarely

based on censuses. In most cases they constitute estimates of
varying statistical reliability. The possibility of comparison in
space and time has rendered these estimates more reliable and
they are certainly the best available on a continental basis. Never
theless they are subject to a margin of error the importance of
which is not known. It is likely to be greatest in the case of
chickens.
11
Table 2.1 shows for the larger animals the numerical importance
of ruminants and within this group of cattle. In terms of livestock
units cattle account for three fourths of the total livestock
population. The relative numerical importance of the different
species is graphically shown in Figure 2.1. Figure 2.2 gives the
regional subdivision of Tropical Africa used in this study and Table
2.2 shows the distribution of the ruminant livestock population in
that region.
Figure 2.1.
Species Composition of the Livestock Population
Ruminants
Mio 137 Mto
TLU 91.4 */ of TLU
total
140
130 Sheep (lOMi ILU
, 7.6 1
120 Camels (11Mio TLU)

- 8.1/.
110, Ooats (12Mi TLU}
= 9.1*
100'
90,
80
70'
60,
Cattle (103MIo TLU)
50. 75.21.
40,
30. Equines Pigs and Chickens
7.2 Mio TLU 5.7 Mbo TLU
20- 4.8% of total 3.8I% of total
10. FAQ Proucton eaOok,179)
Source: FAO (Production Yearbook 1979).

12
Figure 2.2.
Regions of Tropical Africa
/V
lssaua Ivory , Nigeria Central Ethiopia
SuLeone Coast 'AO ricanRep.
Eq
.Gui uaa a o C E NTRA L
I
Gambibi
Upper Volta Za bi
Niger SOUTHERN Mlw
Chad -' Zim
d by
nisnutor
a Excluded from most statistics for lack of data
Source: Map projection FAO (Higg~ins et al 1978); regional sub

division by author.
13
Table 2.2: Distribution of the Ruminant Livestock Population by

Region/ Camels Cattle Sheep Goats Total Share in

country 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 total TLU
head head head head TLU O
Western Africa 1 694 35 812 33 662 51 818 35 311 25.7
Sahel 1 677 19 174 19 897 21 660 19 255 14.0

Nigeria 17 12 000 8 500 24 500 11 717 8.5
Rest - 4 638 5 265 5 058 4 339 3.2
Central Africa - 4 919 3 270 5 500 4 320 3.1
Zaire - 1 144 779 2 783 1 157 0.8

Rest - 3 775 2 491 2 717 3 163 2.3
Eastern Africa 9 441 79 645 59 405 58 556 76 989 56.1
Sudan 2 500 17 300 17 200 12 200 17 550 12.8

Ethiopia 966 25 900 23 234 17 120 23 131 16.9
Rest 5 975 36 445 18 971 29 236 36 308 26.4
Southern Africa - 27 134 7 528 9 413 20 688 15.1
Mainland - 18 390 6 870 7 830 14 343 10.5

Madagascar - 8 744 658 1 583 6 345 4.6
Total 11 135 147 510 103 865 125 287 137 308 100.0
Figure 2.2 and Table 2.2 indicate that the distribution of ruminant
livestock in Tropical Africa is uneven. Eastern Africa has over one
half of the total population while the ruminant livestock herd in
Central Africa accounts for little more than three percent of tit
total. A similarly low figure holds for the coastal countries of
Western Africa. In terms of the individual countries listed Sudan
and particularly EtHopia stand out for their large ruminant live
stock herds, while Zaire, compared to its size, features very low
numbers. For further interpretation livestock-land ratios would be
14
required; in turn these are only meaningful if related to the po

tential of the land.
The distribution of the equine population follows a pattern
similar, though not identical, to that of ruminants (Table 2.3).
Table 2.3: Distribution of the Equine Livestock Population by
Region/ Horses Mules Asses Total equines

country 1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000 share
head head head head %
Sahel 947 - 1 809 2 756 23.0
Nigeria 250 - 700 950 7.9
Sudan 20 1 680 701 5.8
Ethiopia 1 530 1 446 3 885 6 861 57.3
All other 152 31 544 727 6.0
Total 2 899 1 478 7 618 11 995 100.0
There are two important regions of equines in Tropical Africa, the

Sahel countries and Ethiopia. The concentration is even more pro
nounced if one considers that the figures given for Nigeria relate
to the northern part bordering the Sahel countries and that large
parts of Sudan are ecologically similar to the Sahel countries.
Ethiopia claims over 50% of the horses and asses and almost the
totality of the mules. A sizeable portion of the ass population also
occurs in the Sudan. Natural factors like the presence of the
tsetse fly combined with historical and cultural factors play a role
in their distribution. Land availability is not a determining factor
and a relationship to the distribution of the human population does
not appear to exist.
Table 2.4 gives an indication of the distribution of pigs and
chickens in Tropical Africa. The pig population of Tropical Africa
stands at 7.2 million head. The distribution is influenced by reli
gious (particularly but not exclusively islamic) taboos which ex
plain the low numbers in the Sahel countries, Sudan and Ethiopia.
The coastal countries of Western Africa including Nigeria and Cen
15
tral Africa on the other hand have almost two thirds of the total
population. The number of chickens is estimated at some 426 mil
lion head, a figure which is probably subject to a considerable
margin of error. Their distribution follows relatively closely that
of the human population. The ratio ranges from one to two birds
per person throughout Tropical Africa. The higher figures tend to
be found in the more humid countries.
Table 2.4: Distribution of Pigs and Poultry and of the Human

Population by Region in Tropical Africa 1979
Region Pigs Chickens Agricultural

1 000 1 000 population
head I head 1 T
Western Africa 3 310 45.7 193 577 45.5 37.4

Central Africa 1 750 24.2 26 989 6.3 12.8
Eastern Africa 484 6.7 136 958 32.1 36.4
Southern Africa 1 700 23.4 68 656 16.1 13.4
Total 7 244 100.0 426 180 100.0 100.0
2.2 Land
An important complementary resource to livestock themselves is
land. The calculation of land availability and of land livestock
ratios is only meaningful if the quality of the land is taken into
account. As a first approximation the quality of the land for live
stock production as well as for crop production can be character
ized by the agro-climatic conditions, in particular by the length of
the growing period. In the low-lying tropics the growing period is
a function of moisture availability rather than the temperature
regime, which is the important determinant in the temperate
zoner. It is only in the tropical highlands that temperature be
comes a factor to be considered for the ecological zonation. The
classification used here is based on growing days (GD) as defined
by FAO (Higgins et al 1978). By that definition a growing day is
a day during which precipitation exceeds potential evapotranspi
ration. To the total thus calculated are added those days immedi
16
ately preceding or following the growing period during which pre

cipitation exceeds half the potential evapotranspiration. While this
approach is primarily geared toward cropping agriculture the im
plications for range productivity, fodder production and livestock
are direct. It should nevertheless be borne in mind that the grow
ing periods are to be taken as general indicators rather than spe
cific estimates of the length of the growing period e. g. of grass
or of livestock.
The grouping into arid (less than 90 GD), semi-arid (90-179 GD),
sub-humid (180-269 GD) and humid (over 270 GD) is the author's.
The highlands range from semi-arid to humid though they are de
fined here as land where mean average daily temperature is less
than 200 C during the growing period. The terms "arid", "semi
arid", "sub-humid" and "humid" have received definitions by a
number of authors (Thornthwaite 1948, Troll 1966). The specific
interpretations here are meant to make them into useful catego
ries for the specific purpose at hand, livestock development in
Tropical Africa, not to challenge or replace their established cli
matological meaning in the strict sense. It is believed that the
suggested categories are also in line with common conceptions of
relative abundance or scarcity of water that are implied by the
terms humid and arid. Figure 2.3 shows the grouping of the zones
and their relationship to other classification schemes commonly
applied to Tropical Africa. Zonations developed for West Africa
have a relatively straight-forward relationship with average annual
rainfall. Zonations commonly used in East Africa are based on
moisture indices which express the relationship between rainfall
and evaporation. Various refinements have have been developed
over time. Figure 2.3 shows for the example of the indices used
by Pratt and Gwynne (1977) that an approximate relationship to
the zonation by growing (lays used in this study can also be estab
lished. Figure 2.4 gives a map of the ecological zones of Tropical
Africa defined by growing days and Table 2.5 shows their extent
by region.
Figure 2.3.
The Ecologicut Classification Scheme Used and its Approximate Correspondence
with Other Classification Schemes
WEST-AFRICAN SPECIFICa) PRESENT CLASSIFICATION EAST-AFRICAN SPECIFICb)
ANN"TAL DAYS OF
RAINFALL CHEVA- AUBRE- ECO- GROWING MOISTURE
(nn) LIER VILLE KEAY LOGICAL PERIOD PRATT AND GWYNNE INDEX(MI)
0 _ (1933) (1949) (1959) ZONE P.A. (1977) 60
DESERT DESERT -57 TO-60
200 SAHARIEN SAHARIEN IRY ARID -51 TO-57
SAHARO- SAHEL ARID 0 - 90 50
400 SAHELIEN ARID -42 TO-51
5po mm
600 SAHELIEN SAHELO- 01- 36 -40
SOUDA- - 3EMI-ARID -30 To-42
800 NIEN SUDAN ARID
SEMI- 90 - 80
180 30
1000 SOUDANAIE SOUDANO- 1000 mm DRY SUB-
GUINEEN -1 MI 20 HUMID TO -10 TO-30
1200 GUINEA MI 20OSEMI-ARI- 20
SOUTHERV:
1400 GUINEA SUB-
HUMID 18o
10-20-1 270
GUINEEN GUNEN .500 min HUI.0
16oo FORESTIEF DERIVED "N.T
SAVANNAH HUMID TO
SA0N A--MI 0 DRY SUB- 0
1800RAIN
200 GRANE FORE HUMID 270 - 365

2200 FORET
--------
Lines of approximate correspondence of definitions.
a) The zones have a more or less direct relationship with annual rainfall.
b) Zonation is based on the relationship between rainfall and evapotranspiration as indicated by
the moisture index.
Source: Compiled by the author.

18
Figure 2,4.
The Ecological Zones of Tropical Africa and the
Extent of Tsetse Infestation
200 10. 0. to. 20* 30- 40- SOl
30
o"0.
270
-- ISOLINE OF 270 ' /

i GROWING DAYS 1 80 "J.)A. 618
to- <90 ARID 180

go-leo SEMI-ARID 20f
180-270 SUBHUMID 90 " 27
.> 270 HUMID I -180
20' ~ HIGHLANDS
'//,TSETSE
t0 00 to0 20. 30, 40. S0
Source: FAO (Higgins et al 1978), Ford and Katondo (1973).

19
Table 2.5: Extent of Ecological Zones by Region in Tropical Africa

(1 000 sqkm)
Ecological Western Central Eastern Southern Total

zone
Arid 3 990 - 3 015 1 322 8 327 37.3
Semi-arid 1 442 74 1 047 1 487 4 050 18.1
Sub-humid 1 187 805 959 1 907 4 858 21.7
Humid 707 3 029 94 307 4 137 18.5
Highlands 4 61 718 207 990 4.4
Total 7 330 3 969 *5 833 5 230 22 362 100.0
Source: Author' s compilation by planimetric estimation of extent of ecological

zones in each country using the isolines of FAO (Higgins et al 1978);
the results were checked against FAO' s more detailed ecological
zonation for verification of orders of magnitude.
Table 2.5 points to the importance of arid areas in Western and

Eastern Africa, of humid areas in Central Africa, of more interme
diate ecological zones in Southern Africa and of the highlands in
Eastern Africa. It also shows that these ecological zones cut through
regions and -as the base calculations show- through individual coun
tries as well. The need to use ecological zones in addition to coun
tries as reference units is therefore obvious.
Within a given ecological zone tsetse flies and trypanosomiasis must

be regarded as the biggest single obstacle to livestock production.
This is due to their wide spread and to the absoluteness with which
they render livestock production on a permanent basis impossible.
Unlike most other diseases the tsetse and trypanosomiasis comlex is
tied to the land through the habitat requirement of the tsetse flies.
Tsetse infestation is therefore an inherent factor of land quality or
productivity for livestock in Tropical Africa. Figure 2.4 shows in
addition to the ecological zones the distribution of tsetse flies in
Tropical Africa. Table 2.6 gives an estimate of the extent of tsetse
infestation by ecological zone.
Almost 50% or 10 million square kilometers of the total land area

20
Table 2.6: Extent of Tsetse Infestation by Ecological Zone in

Tropical Africa
Ecological Tsetse-infested Tsetse-free

zone 1 000 sqkm %a 1 000 sqkm
Arid 1 038 12.5 7 289

Semi-arid 2 036 50.3 2 014
Sub-humid 3 298 68.2 1 560
Humid 3 741 89.7 396
Highlands 195 19.7 795
Total 10 308 46.1 12 054
a) Of total land area
Source: Compiled by the author after Ford and Katondo (1973) and FAO
(Higgins et al 1978); the maps of tsetse infestation by species
groups were superimposed over the map of ecological zones
and the infested areas were determined by a planimetric method.
is infested with tsetse flies and by implication not usable or only

seasonally usable by livestock. These figures are probably on the
high side. The maps on which the estimates are based are construc
ted by connecting points of proven or assumed tsetse infestation,
which tends to push the boundaries of infestation outwards, and
within large tsetse belts complete infestation is usually assumed.
Thus considerable portions of the arid zone and of the highlands are
shown as infested when for all practi-al intents and purposes they
are tsetse-free. Areas shown as free of tsetse flies can generally be
assumed to carry no risk of trypanosomiasis for livestock. This does
not mean that all the tsetse-free area is available for livestock. It
contains cultivated area, forests, waste land and land too dry for
any use.
2.3 Resources by Ecological Zone
Table 2.7 gives the distribution of the ruminant livestock population

by ecological zone. The figures constitute rough estimates and must
be taken for their orders of magnitude rather than their precise
21
values. In comparison with the proportion of land area in the

different ecological zones (Table 2.5) the distribution is again
uneven. The arid zone occupies 37% of the land area and harbours
a high 30% of the ruminant livestock population inspire of a
grazing potential that must be assumed low. The greatest relative
concentrations are found in the semi-arid zone. As humidity in
creases livestock density decreases. The humid zone accounts for
19% of the land area but for only 5% of the livestock population.
The highlands stand out with the highest livestock concentration
(17% of the herd on only 4% of the area).
Table 2.7: Ruminant Livestock Population by Species and Ecological

Ecological Cattle Sheep Goats Ruminantsa

zone 1 000 head 1 000 head 1 000 head 1 000 TLU
(0) (%) (%) (%)
Arid 31 462 37 063 48 287 41 697

(21.3) (35.7) (38.6) (30.4)
Semi-arid 45 454 23 071 33 215 37 446
(30.8) (22.2) (26.5) (27.3)
Sub-humid 32 758 14 153 20 266 26 370
(22.2) (13.6) (16.2) (19.2)
Humid 8 814 8 177 11 586 8 148
(6.0) (7.9) (9.2) (5.9)
Highlands 29 022 21 401 11 933 23 646
(19.7) (20.6) (9.5) (17.2)
Total 147 510 103 865 125 287 137 308

(00.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0)
a) Including camels
Source: Compiled by the author; distributional information from

World Atlas of Agriculture (1976), OAU/STRC (1976)
and informal sources; totals correspond with country
figures by FAO (1980); the whole of the camel population
has been put into the arid zone.
22
The availability of land and labour for livestock production cannot

be established with any precision because these resource categories
cannot be delimited as production factors specific to livestock.
Land in the definition used continues to include arable land.
Labour engaged in livestock production cannot be separated out
from total agricultural labour on the zonal level. Furthermore in
formation on the distribution of the non-ruminant livestock is too
vague to allow their allocation to the different ecological zones.
The figures and ratios in Table 2.8 therefore have to be inter
preted with caution.
Table 2.8: Livestock, Land and Labour Resources by Ecological

Ecological Livestocka Landb Labourc

zone
1 000 1 000 ha/ 1 000 persons
TLU % sqkm % TLU ME % /TLU
Arid 41 697 30.4 7 289 60.5 7.5 11 193 12.2 0.3
Semi-arid 37 446 27.3 2 014 16.7 5.4 30 919 33.7 0.8
Sub-humid 26 370 19.2 1 560 12.9 5.9 20 552 22.4 0.8
Humid 8 149 5.9 396 3.3 4.9 20 277 22.1 2.5
Highlands 23 646 17.2 795 6.6 3.4 8 808 9.6 0.4
Total 137 308 100.0 12 054 100.0 8.8 91 749 100.0 0.7
a) Ruminant livestock only

b) Tsetse-free land only
c) Total population economically active in agriculture, I. e. agricultural population in
man-equivalents (ME)
Source: Compiled by the author; for details of the estimation of the livestock and land
resources see the previous tables and text; the distribution of the human popu
lation is based on censuses and estimates for each country used by FAO as
background material for AT 2000; the country totals correspond with the popu
lation figures in FAO (Production Yearbook 1979); to derive the economically
active proportion in the agricultural population the continent' s average share
of 38. 5 %has been applied to each zone.
23
The arid zone shows the highest land-livestock ratio and the low
est labour-livestock ratio while possessing the highest proportion of
the ruminant livestock population. The figures for this zone support
notions of low productivity of the land, of high importance of
livestock for employment and subsistence and the precariousness of
subsistence if its sole source was to be livestock (3 TLU for an
economically active person). The more humid areas have less land
available for a livestock unit but to a certain degree this is offset
by the higher productivity of the land. Total land area per TLU
progressively increases with humidity but tsetse infestation reduces
the availability of land to similar levels in all of the more humid
lowland zones. Interpretation of the labour livestock ratios is ha
zardous because of the importance of cropping in these zones. The
low livestock population in the humid zone results in the highest
labour- livestock ratio here. The highland zrne stands out for both
a low land-livestock ratio and a low labour-livestock ratio pointing
to considerable pressure on the resources.
The non-ruminant grazing animals (equines i. e. horses, mules and

asses) account for the equivalent of 7.2 million TLU. From their
distribution by country (Table 2.3) and knowing that in Ethijpia
equines are distributed over all zones one could guess at an even
distribution of the equine population over the arid, semi-arid and
highland zones. Thus the equines would add 2.4 million TLU to
each of those zones that have already the highest grazing pressure.
The distribution of pigs is by tendency the inverse of that of
grazing animals. The greatest concentrations are found in the
sub-humid and humid zone. They cannot be sensibly expressed in
area densities. The same holds for the chicken population the
distribution of which is related to the distribution of the human
population.
24
3 Livestock Production and Productivity

3.1 Sector Contribution
The average per caput income in Tropical Africa in 1980 is esti
mated at $ 285; the average contribution of agriculture to the GDP
is 29% and the average contribution of the livestock sub-sector to
the agricultural GDP is estimated at 17.4% (Table 3.1). Total live
stock production is valued at slightly over five billion dollars*.
The contribution of the livestock sub-sector to the national eco
nomies varies a great deal. The country groups that represent the
more humid zone (coastal countries in Western Africa, Central Afri
ca) show a low contribution. Countries with a large proportion of
arid lands like the Sahel countries and Sudan display relatively high
figures as does Ethiopia with a large livestock population both in
the lowlands in the highlands. Figure 3.1 gives the share of agri
culture and the share of livestock for the individual countries. Va
riation is considerable. The quadrants established by the lines of the
weighted averages for these values lend themselves to a cautious
interpretation:
- Quadrant I comprises relatively poor countries in which agriculture
still accounts for a high proportion of total GDP; at the same time
their ecolocial conditions allow cropping to be the main component
of agriculture; extreme examples are Rwanda and Burundi.
- As one moves to Quadrant I1the countries are, because of their
ecological conditions, more dependent on livestock; example are the
Sahel countries of Niger and Chad; extremely high values for the
importance of livestock are shown by Mauritania and Somalia.
- Quadrant IIIshows countries with a relatively more advanced eco

nomy as ir" ated by the lower share of agriculture and a well
established livestock industry accounting for a relatively high pro
portion of livestock products in agricultural production; Zimbabwe
represents that situation well.
* This refers to the value of meat, milk, eggs, wool, hides and skins
only, the only livestock products that normally enter national
accounts. If one were to add the estimated value of the other
livestock products like work and manure and the stock increases
(see the following sections) this figure would easily double.
25
Table 3.1: Estimated Per-caput Income, Agricultural GDP and

Livestock GDP in Tropical Africa by Country Groups
1980
- all values in 1975 prices -
Region GDP Share of Share of Livestock

/country group per caput agric. a livestockb GDP
/country
$ % million
Western
Sahel 186 34.3 32.6 646
Nigeria 466 24.4 11.0 965
Rest 428 30.8 5.0 238
Central
Zaire 85 21.5 4.0 21
Rest 577 18.1 8.8 103
Eastern
Sudan 300 38.2 36.3 765
Ethiopia 94 45.1 33.0 458
Rest 184 36.1 24.9 995
Southernc
Mainland 328 29.6 21.0 708
Madagascar 242 34.5 20.7 151
Total/averagec 283 29.0 17.4 5050
a) In GDP
b) In agric. GDP
c) Excluding Namibia and Botswana
Source: Compiled by the author from background material to FAO

(1979); the GDP figures are derived from national accounts
for 1975; the share of agriculture in GDP is based on nation
al valuation procedures; the share of livestock is calculated
from the ratio of the gross value of production of that sub
sector to the total agricultural sector; the figures for 1980
are derived by projection of the trend 1965 to 1974 with cor
rection for anomalies like the drought in the mid-seventies
and the recovery of the livestock Industry thereafter.
AL__ FIGURE 3. 1.
60 BUR
I N PROPORTION OF AGRICULTURE IN GDP

a_
oR.WA
Z
IAND PROPORTION OF LIVESTOCK IN
I AGRICULTURAL GDP IN TROPICAL
U A
oAFRICAN COUNTRIES 1980
0E0
I II i oETH
JMOZ !oUPV
CA *TAN
o ANG ANGOLA MLW MALAWI
G CA %BENG 1 , BEN BENIN MOZ MOZAMBIQUE
MLW
I
I oANG
I
oMLI BUR BURUNOI MTN MAURETANIA MTN
oMAD CAM CAMEROON NGA NIGERIA
*CAM I I CAR CENTRAL NGR NIGER

AFR.RER RWA RWANDA
-- I----- eighted
.0.... i---- Aver ge-- - + _ CHA
C A - CHAD
HO - - RA RAD
LIB
o I oKEN CON CONGO SEN SENEGAL O
TOG oNGA I ETH ETHIOPIA SOM SOMALIA
oe I GAB GABON SUD SUDAN

0o oZIM GAM 6AMBIA TAN TANZANIA
I0- GHA GHANA TOO TOGO -
GU I GUINEA UGA UGANDA

IY1I"I IVC IVORY COAST UPV UPPERVOLTA
IZAM KEN KENYA ZAI ZAIRE
I LIB LIBERIA ZAM ZAMBIA
-- CON I MAD MADAGASCAR ZIM ZIMBABWE
oGAB I MLI MALI
Weghted
Average
Weih ...... ... LIVESTOCK IN AGRICULTURA LGDP
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 Ori.)
Source: CompIed by the author from sources as in Table 3.1.

27
- The countries in Quadrant IV are rich in natural resources

Gabon, Congo as extremes) and/or are well advanced on the path
to general economic development (Ivory Coast); agriculture there
fore shows a reduced relative importance in the overall economy.
At the same time these countries lie in the humid zone which
explains the particularly low share of livestock.
The data base does not allow interpretation to be carried much

further. The statistics suffer from problems of consistency among
countries in quantity accounting and in valuation, problems in prin
ciple of putting market values on the subsistence portion of pro
duction and problems of currency conversion.
Furthermore the figures for Evestock production only include meat,
milk and eggs as food products and hides, skins ar:d wool as non
food products. Livestock products like manure as fertilizer and
fuel, agricultural field work, transport work and the like are ig
nored. It is therefore necessary to look at the valve of livestock
products more closely.
3.2 Livestock Products
3.2.1 Foods
The main products of livestock are meat, milk and eggs including
their derivatives. The use of national prices is only one method of
valuing them and of making them comparable to other foods and
products. Table 3.2 shows a selection of different valuation
approaches. For comparison the resulting value ratio of livestock
product to grain is shown for each approach.
Each valuation method has its particular use and its particular
constraints. Domestic prices are an expression of a country's ag
gregate demand and supply situation; given the market imperfec
tions and the importance of subsistence production they often re
flect a statisticians hunch more than objective data. The applica
tion of a world market price is useful for the valuation of export
production and import substitution. The method is used by FAO in
its study 'Agriculture: Toward 2000' (AT 2000 1979) as a consis
tent price basis for long-term projections of self-sufficiency
ratios; price differences between countries resulting from their
internal supply ands demand structure are neglected. The calorific
value of livestock foods is important where they are the main
subsistence basis; this often implies a luxury consumption of
28
Table 3.2: Selected Methods of Valuation of Livestock Food

Products
Valuation basis Meat Milk Eggs Grain
Average domestic
pricesa
Index 240 100 600 60
Ratio to grain 4.0 1.7 10.0 1.0
World market pricesb
0 1 200 200 900 160
Ratio to grain 7.5 1.25 5.6 1.0
Calorific valuec
Mcal/t 2 400 700 1 500 3 400
Ratio to grain 0.7 0.2 0.4 1.0
Protein valuec
kg/t 150 35 110 70
Ratio to grain 2.1 0.5 1.6 1.0
a) As established by Klayman (1960); in principle they reflect the

weighted average of the prices used for calculation of sectorial
contributions in national accounts; grain refers to maize; wheat
equals 100
b) According to FAO (AT 2000); grain refers to wheat; absolute
values on 1975 basis
c) Calory and protein contents to be regarded as averages useful
for rough aggregate estimates only
Source: FAO (AT 2000, 1979), Clark and Haswell (1970), Klay
man (1960) and various informal sources.
protein while the diet is deficient in energy. Consideration of the

protein value is one way of accounting for the particular nutri
tional quality of livestock foods. It does not fully account for the
effect of upgrading whole diets from a protein-deficient level.
29
All methods can be used to relate the value of livestock foods to

other foods, grain being the most common reference commodity.
The value of livestock products can therefore be expressed in grain
equivalents (GE) defined according to the different valuation
methods. The use of the term grain equivalent will in this study be
restricted to grain equivalents as derived from average domestic
price ratios. The conversion factors are therefore 4.0 for a weight
unit of meat, 1.7 for that of milk and 10.0 for that of eggs. These
grain equivalents can also be converted into $ values by using the
base price of $ 160/t as an import parity price for wheat and ap
plying the GE ratios. Thus meat would be worth $ 640/t, milk 272
and eggs 1 000 (about 4 cents per piece).
Table 3.3 shows the total production of meat, milk and eggs in
Tropical Africa both in physical quantities and in grain equivalents.
The grand total food production from livestock comes to 35 million

GE tonnes. Ruminants account for almost 80%, cattle alone for 50%.
Milk is the most important commodity; meat follows closely, eggs
account for a sizeable 13%. A consistency check can be carried out
in relation to the preceding section. There the value of livestock
production - essentially food products only - was estimated at $ 5.1
billion. If the above figure of 35 million GE tonnes is converted to
a monetary figure at $ 160 per GE tonne the value would be $ 5.6
billion. This discrepancy is well within the 'confidence limits' of the
type of calculation carried out here, particulary if one considers
that two important livestock countries, Namibia and Botswana, were
omitted from the former calculations. A more specific aspect can
also be examined: The contribution of livestock to food production
in Tropical Africa. If the main food crops are converted to grain
equivalents (grains and pulses at the conversion factor of 1.0, roots
and tubers at 0.25) food crop production can be estimated at 100
million GE tonnes. Livestock would then account for 25% of total
food production in grain equivalents. Of course this implies a valua
tion of livestock products over and above their calorific value and
over and above their protein value since based on average domestic
price ratios. Valuation at the suggested level of world market prices
on the other hand would lead to a higher figure for the contribution
of livestock to food production.
3.2.2 Materials
The term materials is to refer to non-food livestock products that

can be regarded as farm outputs. This excludes manure which
30
Table 3.3: Food Production of Livestock in Tropical Africa 1978
Livestock Quantity Grain equivalents

species/product 1 000 t 1 000 t T
Camels Milk 2 200 3 740 10.8

Cattle Meat 1 079 7 916 22.9
Milk 5 627 9 566 27.8
Sheep/goats Meat 809 3 236 9.4
Milk 1 507 2 562 7.4
Sub-total ruminants n. ap. 27 020 78.3
Pigs Meat 234 27 020 2.7

Chickens Meat 522 2 088 6.1
Eggs 446 4 460 12.9
Sub-total non-ruminants n. ap. 7 484 21.7
Grand total n. ap. 34 504 100.0
Total meat 3 544 14 176 41.1

Total milk 9 334 15 868 46.0
Source: FAO (Production Yearbooks 1979 and 1978); milk production of

camels haG been put at 200 kg/head which is conservative in
comparison with the figures surveyed by Dahl and Hjort (1976).
normally is used as an input for crop production although in its use

as fuel it could be classified as livestock materials. In the restricted
sense the major materials from livestock are hides, skins and wool.
Pelts of Karakul sheep are of localized importance only. Horns,
hooves and even intestines, scrota and the like are also used but
31
valuation on an aggregate level appears impossible. By-products

from the processing of food products, e. g. bone meal, can be
mentioned but as yet their role is minor in Tropical Africa. Table
3.4 shows the quantities of hides, skins and wool produced and an
estimate of their value.
Compared to the value of $ 5.6 billion for food products the non
food products worth $ 420 million constitute 7.5%. The values can
not be readily converted into grain equivalents.
Table 3.4: Quantity and Value of Hides, Skins and Wool Production
Product Quantity Unit Value of

value production
1 000 t $/t million $ %
Hides 318 800 254 60.5

Sheep skins (fresh) 63 800 50 11.9
Goat skins (fresh) 82 800 66 15.7
Wool (greasy) 33 1 500 50 11.9
Total n. ap. n. ap. 420 100.0
Source: FAO (Production Yearbook 1979); unit values constitute

the author' s estimates based on informal sources.
3.2.3 Manure
The value of livestock droppings for soil fertility is recognized by

most tropical farmers and livestock holders. In addition manure is
used for fuel and as a building material. Valuation will here con
centrate on the yield-increasing effect as a proxy for the value in
all uses although it is realized that manure plays a crucial role as
fuel in many areas. If the alternative of manure application to
fields exists it must be concluded that the farmers rate the fuel
value of dung ever higher than its fertilizer value.
The agronomic value of manure lies in its contents of organic

matter and of nutrients. Livestock are not net producers of
organic matter or of nutrients; they merely act as a vehicle for
32
the transfer of these components. The two essential aspects of

any method to make use of manure are (1) to achieve a degree of
concentration of the droppings/nutrients and (2) to have that con
centration of nutrients at the most useful place. Strategic herding,
night kraaling, folding, stabling etc. serve to achieve the concen
tration. Cropping on manure sites or transport of manure to the
crop fields ensure that the manure is at the desired location.
According to these different methods but also in dependence of
the ecological zone, quantity and quality of manure vary tremen
dously in Tropical Africa (Coulomb et al 1978); thus the
N-content was found to be between several percent of the dry
matter and zero which makes all the difference between a yield
increasing effect and no effect. The organic matter contained in
manure is usually only attributed an effect if accompanied by
doses of mineral fertilizer and if proper tillage is practised
(Coulomb et al 1978, Charreau 1975). From the very heterogeneous
data sources (e. g. Dupont de Dinechin et al 1969, the sources
given in Coulomb et al 1978 and in FAO 1975 b) a rule of thumb
can be derived according to which the manure from two livestock
units would increase crop yields at low levels (say 600 kg) by 50%.
One "manure-effective" TLU can therefore be attributed the value
of 150 kg of grain equivalents for its manure production alone.
This already constitutes a heroic generalization. To calculate the
value of manure for all of Tropical Africa one would have to
make estimates of the portion of manure collected, of the losses
due to degradation, of the portion actually applied to fields, and
one would need to take account of differences among the
ecological zones.
3.2.4 Work
Work for which livestock are used includes land improvement (e. g.
contour ploughing, drainage ploughing), soil preparation (e. g.
ploughing, hoeing, harrowing), crop husbandry (e. g. seeding with
drills), crop processing (e. g. threshing) and on-farm transport.
Off-farm transport is importantly connected to trade and
marketing.Particular facets of livestock work are the drawing of
water in arid areas both for livestock watering and for human
consumption, the transport of homesteads in nomadic livestock
husbandry systems and finally the fact that livestock walk them
selves to the place of sale and slaughter. The two most important
categories of animal work are traction on one side and transport
33
on the other. Traction refers to the employment of the tractive

force of animals in crop production, transport to the translocation
of loads. The most important species used for work are cattle, the
group of equines and camels. The population of draught cattle has
recently been estimated by FAO (AT 2000 1979). Of the equine
and camel population one half are classified as work animals in
Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Population of Work Animals by Regions in Tropical

Africa 1979
Region/country Cattlea Equines b Camels b Total

1 000 1 000 1 000 1 000
Western 2 220 1 877 848 4 945 20.1
Sahel 1 086 1 379 839 3 304 13.4
Nigeria 1 019 475 9 1 503 6.1
Rest 115 23 - 138 0.6
Central 63 71 134 0.5
Zaire - - -
Rest 63 71 - 134 0.5
Eastern 9 090 3 897 4 310 17 297 70.4
Sudan 1086 351 839 2 276 9.2

Ethiopia 5 074 3 431 483 8 988 36.7
Rest 2 930 115 2 988 6 033 24.5
Southern 2 058 156 - 2 214 9.0
Mainland 956 154 1 110 4.5

Madagascar 1 102 2 - 1 104 4.5
Total 13 431 6 001 5 158 24 590 100.0
a) FAO (AT 2000) figures for 1975 plus own estimates for Namibia and Bots
wana (50 000 each) extrapolated to 1979

b) 50 %of total population of that species
Source; FAO (AT 2000 and Production Yearbook 1979) and own estimates.
34
There is a total of 25 million work animals in Tropical Africa.

Ethiopia accounts for about one third. The Sahel countries, Sudan,
Nigeria and Eastern Africa also show concentrations. Coastal West
Africa and Central Africa are virtually void of any work animals.
Thus these areas are not only low in livestock foods but have also
remained as the classical areas of the hoe and the head load, part
of the bane attributable to the tsetse fly (Nash 1969). As far as
traction work is concerned there is no simple method of valuation.
In particular it would be misleading to look at traction in terms
of only one production activity or only one effect. Thus even if
animal traction is exclusively used for cash cropping the econoloics
of subsistence cropping are likely to be affected, the effect on
area productivity (yields) is likely to be overlain with effects on
labour productivity, the cropping pattern, the cost structure and
the risk situation (Munzinger 1981). Finally the value of traction is
also influenced by the application of complementary inputs like
fertilizers, irrigation or simply better husbandry standards as ex
pressed e. g. in row planting. Cass6et al (1965) therefore see the
major value of animal traction in the general increase in the farm
capacity which allows to multiply by a factor the beneficial ef
fects any other improvements may have on agricultural production,
a factor that can only be quantified for specific situations. The
introduction of a pair of draught oxen is generally believed to in
crease the cultivation capacity of a family engaged in traditional
hoe farming by a factor of 2 or 3 (Hrabovszky 1980, Munzinger
1981). But there appears no way of deriving from this a general
izeable value of animal traction.
The valuation of transport is more straight-forward. The different

types of transport work by the different animal species can be
brought to the common denominator of tonne-kilometers performed
per day. The body weight of the animal and the weight of the
load determine tractive force, possible speed and duration of
transport work per (lay. Performance per day is estimated at be
tween two to five tonne-kilometers for bovines and equines, up to
17 for camels (Clark and Haswell 1970). Clark and Haswell
examined the value of transport for a wide range of situations in
terms of prices actually paid and converted this into grain
equivalents per tonne-kilometer. The figures vary from 1.7 to 11.8
GE kg per tonne-kilometer. A basis for valuation of specific per
formances therefore exists. There is, however, hardly a basis from
which to attempt an aggregate quantification of transport work
performed by livestock in the whole of Tropical Africa.
3.2.5 Animals - Reproduction and Growth
Herds and flocks reproduce themselves. Additions to the existing

stock must therefore also be considered as livestock products.
Table 3.6 shows the development of livestock populations over the
years of the 1970s, the period for which complete and more or
less consistent data series are available.
Table 3.6: Growth of Livestock Herds and Flocks in Tropical

Africa 1969-71 to 1979
Species Numbers Numbers Index Growth Growth Growth

1969-71 1979 1979 rate rate rate
1 000 1 000 (69-71 69-71/79 74/79 78/79
head head -100) To p.a. % p.a. O
Camels 10 395 11 135 107.6 0.8 5.4 1.4

Cattle 132 181 147 510 111.6 1.2 2.8 2.1
Sheep 93 860 108 644 115.8 1.6 4.9 1.4
Goats 112 779 125 286 111.1 1.2 4.3 1.6
Equines 11 729 11 993 102.3 0.3 1.5 1.3
Pigs 5 405 7 271 134.5 3.3 4.5 3.5
Chickens 355 772 453 472 127.5 2.7 5.5 4.2
Source: FAQ (Production Yearbooks, various years).
All grazing animals suffered from the drought in the years 1972 to
1974 and recovered rapidly thereafter. An analysis of the growth
pattern shows for all species a normalization from about 1977 or
1978 on. The production values have been determined for 1978 and
it appears reasonable to take the rates of 1978/79 as indicators of
'normal' growth.
The value of growth is a function of the value of the standing

stock. Ideally the valuation of the standing stock and of growth
have to take into account all the products the particular livestock
species provides; the discounted value of this stream of production
over time would constitute the value of the standing stock from
which the value of growth could be derived. Here a simpler ap
36
proach has been chosen by which ruminants, pigs and poultry are
valued at their meat value. By this principle a TLU (250 kg live
weight, 125 kg dressed weight) is valued at 500 GE kg or $ 80.
Pigs and chickens have a higher value per TLU because of a higher
dressing-out percentage. Table 3.7 summarizes the valuation.
Table 3.7: Estimate of the Value of the Standing Stock of Meat

Animals in Tropical Africa 1979
Species Standing stock Unit value Total value

1 000 TLU $/TLU million $
Cattle 103 257 80 8 261
Sheep 10 387 80 831
Goats 12 529 80 1 002
Pigs 1 449 110 159
Chickens 4 262 110 469
Total 131 882 n. ap. 10 722
Source: FAO (Production Yearbook 1980); valuation by the author (see text).
The meat animals in Tropical Africa (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and
chickens) represent a standing value of over $ 10 billion. This does
not include the value of camels and equines. Livestock probably
constitute the most valuable asset of the rural population in Tropi
cal Africa apart from land. Growth rates of between 1.2 and 5.5%
(Table 3.6) represent an addition of $ 130 to 600 million to the
annual production value of livestock.
3.3 Production and Productivity by Ecological Zone

Figures of partial productivity are arrived at by relating production
to a production factor or resource employed in production. A
common productivity figure for livestock is one that relates pro
duction to the livestock resource. Table 3.8 expresses the pro
duction of milk and meat - the two most readily quantifiable pro
ducts - per animal for the different species. The calculation of
such average figures does not imply uniformity for the whole of
Tropical Africa. The purpose is (1) to allow aggregate comparisons
37
of world regions and (2) to assess any specific situation within the
region in terms of deviation from the calculated mean.
Table 3.8: Productivity Indicators of Livestock by Species in Tropi

cal Africa 1 9 7 5 / 8 0 a
Species Meat Milk Meat Milk GE

kg/head kg/head kg/TLU kg/TLU kg/TLU
Camels - 200 - 200 340
Cattle 13 39 18.5 56 169
Sheep/goats 3.5 7 35 70 259
Pigs 33 - 165 - 660
Chickens 1 100 - 400
(1 3 6 0 )c
a) All figures relate to production per annum. In order to achieve
consistency among different sources and to avoid anomalies
informal averages have been used for the years between 1975
and 1980
b) Camel meat is consumed but neglected here to account for milk
yield which as an overall average may be slightly high
c) Including 1 kg of eggs per bird and year
Source: FAO (AT 2000 and Production Yearbooks, various years).
By global standards the figures of production per head given in

Table 3.8 are extremely low, lower tEdn in any other region of the
world (Jasiorowski 1973, FAO ProducCon Yearbooks). The produc
tivity picture improves somewhat when production is related to a
livestock unit since this takes account of the generally small size
of African livestock. The inter-species comparison of combined
(meat and milk) productivity points to the superiority of non
ruminants and to the particularly low productivity of cattle.
From the African livestock producer's point of view the low figures
of meat and milk productivity are less disturbing and the calculated
38
differences among species less meaningful. Production is almost

costless with the exception of the labour input and even here op
portunity costs are low. Livestock, particularly ruminants, give im
portant additional products and serviccs like manure, traction and
transport. In many cases livestock provide the only means of sur
vival in a harsh environment not suitable for any other type of
land use. In addition livestock constitute an investment unaffected
by inflation that pays a significant dividend not only in terms of
low cost production but also in terms of growth. The low produc
tivity figures are real enough but they do not imply that livestock
have a low value in the eyes of the African husbandry man.
Table 3.9 relates meat and milk production from ruminants to the
ecological zones. Milk production is concentrated in the arid zone.
In contrast possibly to expectations the arid zone (i. e. the zone
with the harshest climate) is the most important dairy zone of
Tropical Africa in spite of quite sucessful dairy development in
the highlands. The arid and the semi-arid zones together account
for 55% of the meat production and 63% of the milk production.
The sub-humid and the humid zones an the other hand which in
principle have a much higher potential in fodder productivity pro
duce little meat and milk. This situation is clearly reflected in
the availability of animal products for the human population*. In
the arid zone one person consumes of 24 kg of meat and 137 kg
of milk which is high by most standards. But here meat and milk
are not additions to the diet but its main component. In the
humid zone availability drops to a low level of 3 and 7 kg
respectively. The semi-arid zone in spite of a high volume of live
stock production shows relatively low figures on a per-caput basis
because of the high population densities in this zone. Inclusion of
food production from other species (pigs and poultry) would im
prove the picture for the humid zone somewhat but would not sub
stantially alter the overall pattern.
The figures in Table 3.9 present an incomplete picture because the
products play different roles in the different _oes and because
they are complemented by different additional products. In the
arid zone food production for subsistence by all ruminants and the
transport performance of camels are important. In the semi-arid
and the sub-humid zone food production for the market and the
role of cattle for crop agriculture (manure, traction) become im
* In the following the fig ires relate to the rural population i. e.
to the total agricultural population in FAO terminology.
39
Table 3.9: Availability of Meat and Milk from Ruminants by

Ecological Zone in Tropical Africa 1975/80
Ecological Meat Milk

zone 1 000 t % kg/person a 1 000 t To kg/persona
Arid 708 26.0 24.3 3 969 42.2 136.5

Semi-arid 788 29.0 9.9 2 014 21.4 25.2
Sub-humid 570 20.9 10.7 1 381 14.7 26.0
Humid 167 6.1 3.2 363 3.9 6.9
Highlands 487 18.0 21.3 1 674 17.8 73.4
Total/average 2 720 100.0 11.4 9 402 100.0 39.6
a) Agricultural population
Source: Compiled by the author based on Tables 3. 8 and 2. 8 incorporating

considerations from later chapters on the different production sys
tems suggesting a higher than average cattle milk yield in the high
lands (50 kg/head against 35 kg for the other zones) and a lower than
average milk yield of sheep and goats in the sub-humid and humid
zones (5 kg/head against 7. 5 kg in the other zones).
portant. Meat production from goats (and pigs and poultry) gain in
relative weight in the humid zone. The highlands are characterized
by the predominance of sheep over goats, the advances in milk
production and, in particular in Ethiopia, the importance of animal
traction and transport by equines.
The derivation of productivity indicators for land and labour is

hampered because these production facLors cannot be delimited to
be specific to livestock production (compare section 2.3). This in
fluences interpretation of the figures in Table 3.10 and makes it
inadvisqble to attempt the computation of a total productivity
measure for all resources combined.
40
Table 3.10: Productivity Indicators of Livestock Production in

- based on meat and milk production from ruminants
converted to kg of grain equivalentsa -
Ecological Livestock b Land c Labourd

zone P.g/TLU kg/ha kg/ME
Arid 230 13 856
Semi-arid 176 33 213
Sub-humid 168 30 225
Humid 177 30 63
Highlands 206 60 544
Average 196 22 293
a)Conversion factor for milk 1. 7,for meat 4.0; production and produc
tivity figures from Tables 3. 8 and 3. 9
b) Ruminant livestock only
c Tsetse-free land
d) Total agricultural work force
Source: Compiled by the author; for details see preceding zables and text.
The highest livestock productivities are found in the arid zone due
to the high milk productivity of camels, and in the highlands due to
the higher average yield of cattle. Differences among the other
zones are too small for interpretation. As a result of the high
animal-man ratio in the arid zone labour productivity is also the
highest. 850 GE kg per man is equivalent to about 330 GE kg per
person. This would meet energy requirements in the form of grain
but not if livestock products are consumed. Land productivity is
highest in the highlands and lowest in the arid zone which cor
responds with the respectivw ecological potentials. Land productivity
in all zones is low when compared to cropping which even at low
levels would yield 600 GE kg/ha. However, this comparison is prob
lematic. In the arid zone cropping is not a real possibility over
41
most of the area; for the other zones there are definitional prob
lems since the resource land is not differentiated according to live
stock land and cultivated land.
Some of the crucial problems of livestock production in Tropical

Africa become apparent from the analysis:
- Livestock is concentrated exactly in the areas with the lowest

ecological potential.
- Livestock provide a precarious subsistence if they are the sole

means as is the case in much of the arid zone.
- Animal protein is very scarce in the zones that in principle have

a high fodder producing capacity.
- Particularly in the non-arid zones the non-food products (manure,

traction, transport) play an important role that must not be over
looked.
- The highlands is the only zone where present livestock productiv

ity is on a higher level, where the ecological potential appears
considerable and where tsetse flies do not constitute a major
constraint.
42
4 Livestock Development and Production Systems
4.1 Livestock Development

4.1.1 Performance to-date
Livestock development between 1950 and 1970 has been analysed
by Jasiorowski (1973). Over that period livestock production in
Africa (meat and milk from all species) increased at an annual
rate of 2.1 and 2.3% respectively. To determine the significance of
such an increase it must be related to the human population. On a
per caput basis meat and milk production decreased during that
period. The decrease was only slight but the level in 1950 was
already significantly below the world average and was even more
so in 1970. In 1950 Europe (including USSR) produced 2.1 times as
much meat per caput as Africa and 7.1 times as much milk. By
1970 the ratios were 4.5 and 10.5 respectively. This stagnation of
per caput production of meat and milk in Africa is associated
with low and stagnant animal productivity. Over the 20-year period
meat and milk productivity showed minimal increases only, a
decrease even for beef. Production increases were therefore mainly
the result of growth in animal numbers and that hardly kept pace
with the growth rate of the human population which for the
period under concern was 2.4% per annum. Industrialized countries
showed a substantial increase in per caput production during that
period, almost exclusively as a result of increased animal
productivity.
The relevance of livestock development experience between 1950

and 1970 is ambiguous. Many African countries underwent commo
tions preceding and following independence. Concentrated efforts
at agricultural development and development aid generally did not
take on large dimensions before the mid-sixties. It therefore ap
pears useful to look at livestock development within the framework
of general economic and agricultural development during a more
recent period. Figures are available for the period 1960/63-1975/77
(UNCTAD 1979, FAO (AT 2000 1979), de Montgolfier-Koue'vi and
Vlavonou 1981). During that period overall economic growth varied
a great deal, but on average the GDP of Tropical African coun
tries rose at a remarkable rate of 4.3% in real terms. There was
a positive correlation between the overall growth rate and the
GDP per caput. It averaged 3.2% per annum in the least advanced
countries, 4.1% for the middle group and 6.1% in the two oilpro
ducing countries. The trend for agricultural production was less
43
favourable. It slowed down appreciably towards the end of the pe

riod and progressed by only 1.2% per year on average between
1970 and 1975 against 2.7% between 1963 and 1970. In over half
of the countries agricultural production grew more slowly than
population leading to a decline in per caput output in several
regions including the Sahel, Eastern Africa and Nigeria. The self
sufficiency ratios for agricultural products fell in practically all
countries. Fo the group of cereals the decline was from 96% in
1963 to 92% in 1975. Growth in livestock production also fell be
hind, particularly after 1970. The importing countries of Central
and Western Africa were forced to turn to the international mar
ket to complement their meat supplies after their traditional irm
ports from the Sahel were abruptly curtailed, while in Eastern
Africa exports of fresh and canned meat collapsed. The countries
of the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia and Somalia) as well as Sudan,
which export live sheep to the Middle East, found themselves un
able to meet the sharp increase in demand from the latter region,
which now imports live sheep as well as meat from Australia.
Table 4.1 provides estimates of production increase and productivi
ty growth.
Table 4.1: Indicators of Expansion and Productivity Growth in Crop

and Livestock Production in Tropical Africa 1963-75
Agricultural Annull growth rate 1963-75 (%)

production Total Productivity a Expansion b
Crops 2.1 0.4 1.7

Beef 1.4 0 1.4
Mutton, goat meat 1.2 0 1.2
Total meat 2.0 0.2 1.8

a) Yields per unit area in the case of crops; production per animal in the
case of livestock
b) Expansion of cultivated area in the case of crops; expansion of herds
and flocks in the case of livestock
Source: de Montgolfier-Kouevi and Vlavonou (1981) after FAO (Production

Yearbooks).
44
The expansion of crop production did not keep pace with the
growth of human population. Moreover the production increase was
mainly due to area expansion rather than yield increases. Such a
development path is limited in its scope and indicates the contin
ued predominance of traditional production techniques. Deviations
from this average pattern exist for different crops, regions, coun
tries and sub-periods (de Montgolfier-Kouevi and Vlavonou 1981)
but do not change the overall picture of unsatisfactory perform
ance. In the case of beef and mutton/goat meat no increase in
productivity is recognizable at all. Numeric growth rates are
Figure 4.1. b
Total CostsP of Aid-assisted Livestock Development Projectsc
M $ in Tropical Africa 1961-1975
450
400- (J As approved,not necessarily as disbursed
350 b)British aid not included __ -__

c) Not including tsetse control operations
300
250
200 ._
150
100- ,
1961-1965 1966-1970 1971- 1975

Western Africa Central Africa I Eastern and
Tropical Africa Southern Africa
Source: Wissocq (1978).

45
less than half of that of the human population. Figures for total
meat are somewhat more favourable due to relatively high numeric
growth rates of the pig and poultry populations and due to some
productivity increase in poultry production. Overall production and
productivity increase is less than that of crops, significantly less in
the case of ruminants. This performance has to be seen against
substantial livestock development efforts from the 1960s on (Figure
4.1). Aid-assisted development projects have been taken as an in
dicator because they are better documented and because they make
up the bulk of development efforts.
Table 4.2: Livestock Production and Productivity in Africa 1950,

1970 and 1975/80
Indicator Total Africa Tropical Africa

1950 1970 1975/80
Per caput productiona
Meat (kg) 12.0 11.1 8.6
Milk (kg) 32.6 31.5 29.7
Production per animal
Beef/veal (kg) 13.9 13.6 13.0
Mutton/goat meat (kg) 3.1 3.5 3.5
Pork(kg) 34.1 41.1 33.0
Milk from cattle (kg) 50.9 57.6 39.0
Milk from sheep/
goats (kg) 7.2 6.6 7.0
a) Production related to the total human population
Source: Jasiorowski. (1973) for first two columns; third column FAO
(Production Yearbooks, various years) and other sources as
indicated in section 3. 3.
46
The total costs of livestock development efforts between 1960 and

1975 are estimated at over $ 600 million (Wissocq 1978). The sig
nificant increase in development efforts only set in in the 1970s
and it can be argued that their effects could not show before an
adequate gestation period. But there is general disappointment with
the performance of livestock development projects up to the present
(see e. g. UN 1977, Goldschmidt 1980, ILCA 1980b, Jahnke 1976 a,
Sandford 1980, Ferguson 1979). Major development agencies are
contemplating withdrawal from the African livestock sector alto
gether. Improvement of livestock production as a result of on-going
projects does not appear to be imminent.
In summary experience with livestock development to-date is dis

appointing. Agricultural development as a whole has fallen behind
overall economic growth and the shortfall is particularly serious for
the livestock sector. The per caput availability of livestock foods in
Africa has not improved and whatever increase in production there
is mainly due to herd and flock increase rather than productivity
increase. Traditional production systems have simply expanded main
taining traditional techniques.
Table 4.2 compares per caput availability and animal productivity in

Africa 1950, 1970 and 1975/80.
Jasiorowski (1973) commented the figures for 1950 and 1970:
"Twenty Years without Progress". The figures for 1975/80 are not
strictly comparable since referring to Tropical Africa only but they
are generally lower. Expansion of the comment into "Thirty Years
without Progress" appears justified.
4.1.2 The Case for Livestock Development
4.1.2.1 Arguments for Livestock Development
A number of arguments in favour of livestock development are

technically based and relate to the protein requirements for human
nutrition, to the possibility of converting through livestock roughage
and residues that are otherwise unusable, to the need for animal
draught in crop production, to the possibility of increasing soil
fertility through the application of manure etc. Other arguments
relate to the precarious existence of pastoralists in dry areas which
painfully comes to the open in drought periods and to the degrada
tion of the natural resource base in these ar.
47
All these arguments may have their justification but they are all
based on needs and possibilities. Needs and possibilities may be real
enough but there are just as many needs and possibilities to direct
efforts into alternative directions. There are even strong arguments
against livestock development like the conversion losses in livestock
production or the social injustice in providing few with luxury foods
while the poor majority barely subsists. It would indeed be very
difficult to argue in favour of livestock development if it were not
for one factor: Demand for livestock products, or more precisely,
effective demand. People want livestock products and they are
prepared to pay for them. Willingness to pay for livestock products
which exists on practically all income levels generates income for
the livestock producer and this is a pre-requisite for production
development and a good starting point for obtaining the cooperation
of livestock producers in development efforts. Nutritional, ecolo
gical, social, political and humanitarian considerations have their
place for specific situations but they cannot carry the argument for
or against the development of a whole economic sector for a con
tinent. Demand for livestock products is the strongest single arg.u
ment for livestock development.
4.1.2.2 Demand for Livestock Fuods 4,,
Already demand for livestock foods in Tropical Africa has outrun

supply, as predicted early-on e. g. by FAO (1970) and SEDES
(1969b), leading to shortages, price increases and finally ever-in
creasing imports of meat and milk which characterize the situation
today (ILCA Bulletins 3, 4 and 5, 1979 and 10, 1980). FAO
(AT 2000 1979) provides the most consistent and comprehensive
projection of demand for livestock foods in Tropical Africa up to
the year 2000.
The basic premises are continued growth of the human population

estimated at an average annual rate of 2.9% for Tropical Africa
between 1975 and 2000 and continued economic growth. Different
scenarios are constructed for the latter; only the most conservative
one is used here which is close to a trend projection at a growth
rate of 5% per annum in real (1975) prices. Considerable variations
are assumed among countries so that for the group of the least
advanced this scenario implies stagnation or a slight decrease of
per caput incomes while the most advanced or resource- richest
countries show an annual growth of 3.0 percent and more. Income
is translated into demand growth for crop and livestock products via
income elasticities of demand (Table 4.3).
48
Table 4.3: Regional Averagea Income Elasticities of Demand for

Selected Crop and Livestock Foods in Tropical Africa
1975-2000
Region/ Crop foods Livestock foods

country Cereals Roots Meat b Milk Eggs
Western
Sahel 0.24 0.22 1.04 0.53 0.90
Nigeria 0.16 - 0.09 1.08 1.20 1.20
Rest 0.33 - 0.16 1.08 1.23 1.10
Central 0.51 - 0.03 0.97 1.09 0.90
Eastern
Sudan 0.22 - 0.18 0.81 0.90 2.00
Rest 0.24 - 0.05 1.01 0.77 1.10
Southern 0.14 0.17 0.84 0.95 1.00
Tropical Africa 0.22 - 0.07 0.98 0.82 1.10
a) Weighted according to slare in overall consumption of food
products; average over analysis period
b) Excluding edible offals; including game
Source: de Montgolfier-Kou~vi and Vlavonou (1981) after FAO

(1979d).
The income elasticities show substantial variations among different

foods and, for a single commodity, among different countries and
regions. Generally the coefficients for livestock foods are substan
tially higher than those for the staple foods, i. e. roots and cere
als. Income elasticities of demand for oil crops, pulses, bananas,
fruits and vegetables take an intermediate position. Those for
sugar approach the level of livestock foods. The coefficients impli
citly express the effect of income levels, share of subsistence in
production, availability (and price levels) of alternative foods, cul
tural factors and the like which differ among the countries. An
open question is the extent to which the income elasticities are
49
overlain by price effects. Particularly in the case of livestock

products the shortfall in supply has led to rapid price increases and
curbed demand accordingly. There is reason to assume that the
income elasticities of demand thoroughly corrected for that effect
would be higher, possibly substantially higher, than indicated.
Demand projections based on the elasticities given (Table 4.4)
would then constitute an underestimation. Due to the relatively
aniform growth rate of the human population the growth rate of
3otential demand to the year 2000 is more uniform in regional
terms. Only the average figures for Tropical Africa are therefore
)resented in Table 4.4 for the different commodities.
Table 4.4: Projection of Domestic Demanda for Selected Crop

and Livestock Foods in Tropical Africa 1975-2000
Food item Annual growth rate (%) Increase 2000/1975

per caput total by factor
Crop foods
Cereals 0.4 3.4 2.3
Roots - 0.1 2.9 2.0
Livestock foods
Meat 1.2 4.2 2.8
Milk 0.8 3.8 2.5
Eggs 2.2 5.2 3.6
a) At constant (1975) prices
Source: de Montgolfier-Koudvi and Vlavonou (1981) based on FAO

(1979d).
Table 4.4 shows that even for a commodity with a low income
elasticity of demand like root crops total demand will double over
the analysis period. For livestock products demand is projected to
increase by factors between 2.5 and 3.6. These are the factors by
which domestic supply would need to increase if self-sufficiency
ratios, presently already below 100%, were to be maintained. This is
generally regarded as a minimum goal of any development plan.
Higher economic growth rates as implied by alternative scenarios
and/or higher income elasticities would lead to an accelerated
50
growth in demand. All indications are therefore for a growth rate

of demand for livestock foods that is much higher than the growth
rates in production achieved in the past.
4.1.2.3 Demand for Other Livestock Products
Population growth and economic growth translate into a growing

demand for other livestock products as well. This may be shown
for two examples, fertilizers and power as farm inputs, which can,
at least in part, be provided by animal manure and traction. The
demand for fertilizers and power is derived from the demand for
crops on one side, the production possibilities and costs on the
other. The necessary computations are complex and require as
sumptions, country by country and for each crop, about possibili
ties of area expansion, likelihood crf intensification, level of com
plementary inputs and the like. They have been carried out at a
considerable level of detail and sophistication by FAO (AT 2000
1979) but can still only be considered orders of magnitude. At the
same time the figures no longer constitute projections but an as
sessment of the agricultural development path that is desirable and
possible given that the necessary resources are found and that
certain policies are implemented (FAO AT 2000 1979).
Fertilizer requirements are estimated to increase almost ten-fold

by the year 2000 to meet production goals which are still essen
tially only the maintenance of present self-sufficiency ratios. The
foreign exchange burden of meeting these requirements by import
of mineral fertilizers is enormous even without allowance for
further price increases and the logistical difficulties of distribution
which may be just as serious. At the farm level they may trans
late into problems of cost and availability that make the substitu
tion by animal manure at least in part an important alternative.
Power requirements are estimated to increase at a rate that could
theoretically be met by the population increase. However, contin
ued urbanization, increased income level and the specificities of
certain natural environments make a trend toward mechanization
more likely. Accordingly it is estimated that the mechanization
factor in Tropical Africa (i. e. the proportion of total power in
puts into crop production expressed in man-day equivalents that is
met by animal traction or by tractors) increases from 14% in 1975
to 16% in 2000 (Jahnke and Sievers 1981). The absolute increase in
power inputs and the growth in mechanization requirements again
provide for substantial scope for the use of livestock for work.
Past experience with tractorization programmes in Tropical Africa
51
Table 4.5: Indicators of Input Requirements of Agricultural

Development in Tropical Africa 1975-2000
Input Level Level Increase 1975/2000

1975 2000 p. a. by factor
Fertilizers 612 5 799 9.4 % 9.5
(1 000 t)
Power inputs 14 123 27 357 2.7 % 1.9
(million ME)
Source: de Montgolfier-Kouevi and Vlavonou (1981) after FAO

(AT 2000, 1979).
is not encouraging, and the prospects for the future are further
clouded by rising energy costs. There is therefore reason to be
lieve that the demand for draught animals will increase, at least
in those areas that are ecologically suitable for livestock hus
bandry.
4.1.3 Development Considerations and Farm Systems
Livestock production takes place on the farm level, within rural
decision-making or management units. The sector statistics of
livestock production and productivity are the aggregate outcome of
decisions made by farmers. These decisions reflect the specific
aspirations of the farmers as well as the specific constraints under
which they operate. Similarly development intentions have to be
translated into policies and projects ultimately influencing de
cisions at the producer level in order to become effective and so
raise, as the aggregate outcome, sector performance. To link to
sector considerations the analysis of farms* is therefore important
* The conventional notion of the teom 'farm' does not readily
apply to some forms of livestock enterprises (e.g. feed-lots,
ranches, pastoral herding units). For convenience it is used here
as synonymous with the more general term 'agricultural
management unit'.
52
because farms are major decision points in agricultural development

(Ruthenberg 1980).
Farms can be viewed as systems i.e. entities of interrelated ele
ments. Several activities are closely related to each other by the
r.c, imon use of the farm's labour, land and capital, by risk distri
btrion and by the joint use of the farmer's management capacity.
System theory can then be usefully employed as the guideline for
description and analysis of these entities.* In par icular this allows
the introduction of the concept of hierarchy. Any iarm is part of a
hierarchy of systems, belonging first to the larger system of the
rural area (or ecological zone or sector) and, secondly, consisting
of various activitities and elements which themselves can be looked
upon as systems or sub-systems. Micro-organisms in the soil are a
sub-system of the soil system; the soil system is a sub-system of
the crop-producing system and that in turn is a sub-system of the
farm system. The livestock system is also a sub-system of the farm
system. In some cases the livestock (or cropping) system encom
passes the whole of the farm system because livestock production
(or cropping) constitutes the sole activity of the farm.
The farming systems' approach provides a scheme that is useful for

the description and analysis of farms for the purpose of general
agricultural development (Ruthenberg 1980). Such a scheme has to
be developed for the more specific purpose of livestock develop
ment. The 'systematics' of African livestock production is to
provide a guideline for the orderly approach to farm systems in
Tropical Africa, for description and analysis that is useful for live
stock development.
4.2 The Systematics of Af:ican Livestock Production
4.2.1 Farming Systems and Ecological Zones

To look at individual management units becomes cumbersome and
often impossible when the interest is in the outcome for larger
aggregates or even a continent. It is then useful to group man
agement units which are similar in their structure and in their
production functions. Such a gtouping is also called for when there
* The wording follows Ruthenberg 1980. For the basic reasoning
see Bertalanffy 1973; Dent and Anu*,rson 1971; Emery and Frist
1971; Forrester 1972; Fuchs 1973; K.irsch 1974; Laszlo 1972;
Walter 1973; and Woermann 1959.
53
are important inturactions among the management units. This is the

case with farms sharing a water resource in an irrigation perimeter
or with pastoral management units sharing a communal grazing
resource and cooperating in the herding task. Such groups are
commonly referred to as farming systems (Ruthenberg 1980). In
this definition the management units are the building blocks
(Andreae 1977) of a farming system. A tdistinction is therefore
made between any given farm unit which, as it stands, is a system,
and classes of similarly structured farms which are classified as
belonging to a certain farming system. In both cases the term
system is appropriate because the variance of the whole is less
than the sum of the variance of the parts (Laszlo 1972, p. 41).
The grouping and delimitation of farming systems can be effected
in different ways (e. g. Duckham and Masefield 1970, Grigg 1974,
Andreae 1977, Ruthenberg 1980), but the way in w, ich the land is
used is a central consideration. The large groups normally distin
guished are grazing systems, tillage (or annual crop) systems and
perennial crop systems. Since the interest here is in livestock the
former are referred to as range-livestock systems and the latter
two - if livestock are present at all - as crop-livestock systems.
The term livestock production systems is used in this study to de
note farming systems of interest for the study of livestock and
livestock development. The livestock production system may refer to
a sub-system of farm systems grouped together into a farming
system or it may represent the total farm system. It may also re
late to particular groups of farms engaged in livestock production
within a broader farming system.
A useful additional grouping of farming systems, particularly of

livestock production systems, is by ecological zones as defined in
section 2.2. Placing farming systems in the context of ecological
zones has the particular advantage of providing information of the
basic resource endowment (livestock-land, land-man ratios, extent
of tsetse infestation, productivity of the land) since the aggregate
resources have already been broken down to the level of ecological
zones. The large classes production systems distinguished in this
study are
- range-livestock production systems, of which one sub-class, pas
toral systems, are concentrated in the arid zone, while another,
ranching systems, are found in all or most ecological zones;
- crop-livestock production systems in the more humid areas (with
special consideration given to systems in the highland areas); and
54
- landless production systems or production systems that are large

ly independent of the specific ecological conditions prevailing.
These large classes can be further sub-divided into so cal!ed
"types" of farming or livestock production. A feature of these
classes and types is that their characteristics can be readily
brought down to the farm level or level of the decision-maker
which is considered particularly relevant for development. A sys
tematic treatment of these characteristics, of their developmental
implications and of their use for further systems' classification
has been given by Ruthenberg (1980) for tropical farming systems
in general and is adhered to in this study. Elaboration is therefore
only required for the livestock aspects of farming systems.
4.2.2 Livestock Type and Product
Livestock production is characterized by the livestock type and by

the livestock products. The livestock type may be designated by
the species (camels, cattle, goats, sheep, horses, asses, pigs,
chickens) or species groups like equines or ruminants. Breed groups
like the trypanotolerant animals also sometimes constitute useful
units. -he livestock products essentially are meat, milk, eggs,
hides, skins and wool as farm outputs, and manure and work as
farm inputs. Animals, as the constituents of reproduction and
growth, have also been considered as products. The different live
stock products have been dealt with at some length in chapter 3.2.
No further elaboration appears needed here.
4.2.3 Livestock Functions
General: The functions of livestock refer to the mode of action or

activity by which livestock fulfill their purpose. Partially the func
tions of livestock are tied to the livestock products. In the case of
meat and milk, the related function of livestock is to provide in
come and subsistence tOirough their sale or consumption while with
manure, the function of livestock is to provide an input to crop
agriculture thereby increasing production and income. The differ
entiation of products and functions allows the differentiation of
livestock production systems even if they are based on the same
product, e.g. herd growth for security, for social reasons (prestige)
or for a pure income objective. It is also a prerequisite for the
realistic valuation of livestock products because the value of meat
for export can be judged differently from its value as a source of
subsistence. The following functions can be fulfilled by livestock
55
- the output function (subsistence, income and nutrition)
- the input function (crop inputs and farm integration)
- the asset and security function

- the social and cultural functions.
The output function: The production of food and non-food products
for home consumption provides subsistence. If the products are
partially or wholly sold they generate cash income. For a man
agement unit that trades a farm input like manure livestock fulfill
an income function although the farm that uses that manure in
crop agriculture may look at it as a crop input. If livestock con
stitute the only source of subsistence one can hardly talk of a
nutritional role of livestock that goes beyond that implied by sub
sistence. If the livestock products, possibly after trading, serve to
upgrade an otherwise deficient diet of say root crops a particular
nutritional role can be attributed to the livestock products. The
nutritional role of livestock products also assumes importance from
a more aggregate view. For the production unit that sells livestock
products the income function of livestock stands in the foreground.
From the national point of view, however, the livestock products
may be valued for their nutritional importance to certain vulner
able groups of the population for which they become available or
if the livestock products are destined for export the income func
tion, from the national point of view, is enlarged to include the
foreign exchange effect of these exports.
The input function: If livestock are used for their manure or for
their work capacity they fulfill a farm input function. The inter
actions of a livestock sub-system with a cropping sub-system (or
between a pure grazing system with a pure cultivation system as
distinct but interrelated management units) may be very complex
going beyond the simple provision of a farm input. This function is
then better described as farm integration (e. g. Brinkmann 1922).
The farm integrative function refers to all the different effects
livestock may have on the productivity of the resources engaged in
agriculture thereby rendering the farm more productive than it
would be without the livestock enterprise. Examples are:
- The productive use of non-arable land within the farm;
- the productive use of otherwise (seasonally) unemployed labour;

56
- the conversion of low-value crops and crop residues to high val

ue animal products by feeding them to livestock;
- the yield increasing effect of including fodder crops in crop

rotations;,
- the balancing of production and market risks of cropping by the

livestock enterprise (see security function).
The input functions of livestock in mixed farming systems can

therefore take on many different forms. It covers very different
degrees of integration of the livestock sub-system into the overall
farming system.
The asset and security function: One aspect of the risk balancing
effect of livestock is simply that it is a non-cropping activity.
There is the likelihood that not both, crop production and "non
crop" production, are affected by a negative deviation from the
expectation at the same time. Other aspects are that some lines
of livestock production (milk, eggs) provide a regular income as
opposed to cropping and that livestock can be readily sold to solve
a liquidity problem of the farm. All this adds to the farm's econ
omic security. But livestock have an additional security function by
being an asset. This becomes obvious when seen in the context of
traditional agriculture, where any combination of the following
characteristics may apply (Barth 1973, Mc Cown et al 1979):
- Arable land is communally owned or 'on loan' from the clan or
group; it is not a disposable asset;
- cropping is principally undertaken for subsistence but periodically

yields a saleable surplus;
- cropping is carried out on a low technological level; capital in

puts are limited to seed and simple equipment;
- commercial banking institutions are not present or are not

trusted.
Under these conditions surplus from cropping cannot be invested in

land or in other factors of agricultural production. It is likely that
a balance is struck between the drudgery of labour in agricultural
production and the satisfaction of returns to labour essentially in
the form of subsistence. The situation is different if livestock are
57
present in the economy. Agricultural surplus can be converted into

livestock through sale, exchange or even direct feeding of crops.
Livestock have a savings account function by being recognized as
private property, by being a relatively safe and durable form of
storing wealth, by earning interest in the form of offspring, and
by being readily disposable and convertible into cash or other val
ued things (liquidity). Livestock are better than a savings account
because they are unaffected by inflation and remain under com
plete control of the investor or those he trusts.
The asset and security function is not limited to the rural popula
tion. Even town-dwellers may prefer investment into livestock over
other investment venues. In many cases the asset or security func
tion of livestock contributes more to the understanding of a live
stock production system than the production of meat and milk or
the provision of farm inputs like manure and traction*. The func
tion should conceptually be seen in sharp contrast to the keeping
of cattle for social and cultural reasons like prestige and social
cohesion. Of course the ownership of livestock adds to prestige
and makes it easier to obtain assistance from other people. But
this is the case with any form of savingF account or monetary
wealth and is a derived phenomenon limited neither to livestock
nor the developing world. At the basis is the asset role of live
stock.
Social and cultural functions: The functions of livestock so far de
scribed essentially relate to agricultural production, subsistence,
income, and wealth and may be summarized as the economic func
tions of livestock. If livestock are important for production, subsis
tence and wealth it is to be expected that man takes an interest
in livestock and places a value on them. The more important the
economic functions of livestock, the greater that value will be.
The social and cultural role of livestock (for an individual one
might include the emotional role) is here viewed in the restricted
sense of a role that cannot be explained fLom the economic func
tions alone. In other words the question is whether livestock in
Tropical Africa have a value that goes beyond their economic val
* Doran, Low and Kemp (1979) argue that if cattle are held as
a store of wealth the overall supply response is likely to be
negative and that this is one of the reasons for the phenomenon
of overgrazing. Their observations are based on cattle holders in
Swaziland, but are proposed to be valid for Tropical Africa as
well.
58
ue. Such a role could be attributed to livestock if they influenced

social relationships in a way that cannot be deduced from the
economic value of livestock or if the value placed on livestock and
the social sanctions governing dealings with livestock were dispro
portionate with the economic value of livestock. Enough examples
are known from Tropical Africa to confirm such a social and cul
tural role. Thus there are societies in which brideprice has to be
paid in cattle and no other carrier of value is accepted; only
through the transfer of cattle can marriage bd !kgitimized (Dyson-
Hudson 1972). There are also societies ip which cattle are valued
for their long horns, camels for their racing capabilities; both
traits appear quite unrelated to any economic function of live
stock. At this stage, without reference to a specific production
system the social and cultural function of livestock needs no
further elaboration. The function exists but is often overlain by
other functions and often disguises management principles that can
be related to straightforward economic motives. In general terms
two conclusions can be drawn:
- The more diversified and the more important the economic

functions of livestock are in a traditional society the more likely
it is that also social and cultural values are attached to them.
- While one has to guard against overemphazising the non-econ
omic motives in livestock keeping in Tropical Afria it might be a
serious mistake to gnore social and cultural functions of livestock,
particularly as they are likely to affect development efforts.
Other functions and conclusions: Some other functions of livestock

deserve mention. Thus transport has only been viewed so far in its
importance for agricultural production. Transport by livestock,
however, can also be a specialized commercial undertaking. The
Sahara caravans are possibly the most striking example. Livestock
have also been instrumental in providing military strength through
the mobility and the thrust they make possible. These functions
have lost in importance which is partly the reason for what Grigg
(1974) terms the secular decline of pastoralism.
By and large, however, the output function, the input function, the
asset and security function and the social and cultural function
represent the functions of livestock in Tropical Africa. The most
puzzling may be the social and cultural function but it is believed
that the distinction of the asset function from what is otherwise
often mixed together in the terms "prestige" or "irrational" helps
59
to render this aspect more tractable. In industrial societies devel

opment has implied a narrowing of livestock functions and special
ization towards one product. One aspect of that specialization is
that species for production (essentially cattle, pigs, poultry) are
different from those for affection, recreation and cultural events
like horses and dogs, that banking institutions have replaced live
stock as savings accounts and that motor power and mineral ferti
lizer have largely replaced animal traction and manure. To see the
multitude of actual and potential functions of livestock in Tropical
Africa is not only important for an understanding of the livestock
production systems but also for the achievement of livestock de
velopment.
4.2.4 Livestock Management
General: Livestock production tends to be more complex and more
demanding on management than crop production. Figure 4.2 illus
trates the differences:
- Firstly livestock production implies the management of two
"crops", fodder and livestock. In the case of extensive grazing
there might be little work directly associated with the growing of
fodder but the management complexity of matching fodder supplies
with feed requirements throughout the year remains.
- Secondly the management of livestock and grazing affects sub

sequent fodder productivity (e. g. overgrazing that results in poor
plant recovery). It also affects the productivity of the basic pro
duction factor land in the long run (e. g. overgrazing that leads to
irreversible degradation of the land).
- Thirdly the output from livestock is not just the products for
sale and subsistence but also the herd to carry forward to the
next production cycle. Production decisions in one year have, in a
much more pronounced way than is the case with cropping, an ef
fect on production in the following years.
This comparative complexity of livestock production remains, no
matter how simple the livestock production enterprise and how
specialized the function of livestock.
The complexity of farming systems increases considerably if both
crop and livestock production are carried out and if these sub-sys
tems interact. A multitude of competitive, supplementary and
60
Figure 4.2.
Diagrammatic Representation of Crop Production and
Livestock Production
CROP PRODUCTION LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
LABOUR LAND CAPITAL LABOUR ILAND ICAPITAL
ROP PRODUCTION ODDERPR0CT10
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
OUTPUT
OUTPUT
SU-S.a SALE SUB'I CARRYI" SALE
LSUBSISTENCE b FORWARD
complementary relationships with respect to the production factors

and to the total output have to be taken into account.
Apart from these general considerations livestock management can

be characterized by three aspects:
- The feeding regime,
- the grazing land tenure, and
- the herding arrangements.
The feeding regime: The feeding regime refers to the way in

which the feed (and water) requirements of livestock are matched
61
with supply. A first distinction can be drawn according to the in

tensity kin terms of labour and capital input or in terms of the
land input) of the feeding regime. The most extensive form is that
in which the livestock are largely left to themselves in collecting
their feed. Large-scale ranching with a peripheral fence ap
proaches this situation in arid areas. Small ruminants scavenging in
villages in the hurnid zone is another example. More normally a
degree of control is exercised over the grazing requiring essentially
the input of labour (herding) or the input of labour and capital
(fences for sub-division, rotational grazing). A higher intensity
level is reached when fodder is grown. This may be harvested by
the animals themselves or cut and brought to the animals (stall
feeding), which is yet another step in intensification. The feeding
of concentrates to the animals may be regarded as the most in
tensive feeding regime, particularly if this constitutes the main
part of the ration.
The second important characteristic of the feeding regime is the
way in which the feed and water requirements of livestock (which
for physiological reasons are of a continual nature) are adapted to
the fluctuations in supply. In the temperate zones the fluctuations
are essentially due to the cold season that arrests plant growth. In
the tropics the role of the cold season is played by the dry season
with moisture as the limiting factor. An essential difference is
that the water constraint is more amenable to correction through
the application of capital and labour (e. g. irrigation) than is a
temperature constraint. The two essential ways of adaptation are
herd management on the one hand and pasture management on the
other. In herd management the variables determining seasonal vari
ation are the calving pattern and the product and sales strategy.
Thus seasonal calving and the sale of say 8-month-old feeder
stock result in a peak biomass (and thus fed requirements) just
before selling and a small herd between then and next year's calf
crop. Through the distribution of calvings on two peaks and the
adoption of steer fattening activities feed requirements can be
evened out more. Staggering calvings evenly throughout the year
and switching to milk as the main product results in an almost
constant pattern of feed requirement throughout the year. Pasture
management, on the other hand, can be used to influence the
carrying capacity or feed availability throughout the year. From a
situation of stationary grazing with no fodder conservation, fluc
tuations can be reduced variously by rotational grazing, fodder
conservation and the introduction of irrigated fodder production or
even complete stall feeding (zero grazing).
62
The essential task is neither to even out feed requirements nor

feed availability per se but to adapt the two to each other. For
both pasture management and herd management a reduction in the
fluctuation pattern calls for higher labour and capital inputs and
for higher managerial skills, and is therefore linked to the inten
sity level of the production enterprise.
The grazing land tenure: Most of the African grazing lands are
communal property. Maintaining an appropriate level of livestock
numbers is the crucial element in good management of the range
lands. However, when livestock are owned by individuals and when
land is common property, no individual has adequate incentive to
contain the number of his stock so that together with his neigh
bours' stock, the aggregate numbers on the common land would be
optimal*. For if this indixidual adds additional animals to his herd
he will secure for himself all the benefits that arise from the
additional production; but the costs imposed by these additional
animals, in terms of the lower amounts of grazing available on av
erage per head for all the animals and of the increased environ
mental degradation caused by overgrazing, will not fall on this in
dividual alone but will be shared by everyone else whose livestock
use the common land. For this reason this individual, and every
other one similarly, will be inclined to go on adding extra live
stock beyond the point at which the aggregate extra costs which
these livestock impose (and which are shared) exceed the aggre
gate benefits (which are not shared). Moreover, even if the indi
vidual is not particularly inspired by greed (or need), he will be
disinclined to take any action that might improve the grazing, e.
g. by investment or by reducing th( size of his own herd, because
some other individual is likely to appropriate the benefits from
this improvement by increasing the size of his herd. The inevitable
consequence, therefore, of private ownership of livestock and
common ownership of land is an excessive increase in livestock
numbers, having already reached the point where saturation leeds
to overgrazing as well as low fertility and high mortality rates.
The general argument has come to be known as "The Tragedy of
the Commons"**. This general argument will be the subject of
* For a formal presentation of the discrepancy between the
social optimum and the private optimum in communal grazing
see Crotty (198C).
** Following an article of that title by Garrett Hardin which ap
peared in Science in 1968. The wording of the argument used
here is largelytaken from Sandford (1980).
63
more detailed scrutiny in the context of specific production sys

tems, particularly of the pastoral production system in the arid
zone.
The herding arrangements: On large-scale livestock production en
terprises the hiring of labour for herding and other livestock
related work is a normal practice. It is a central task of man
agement then to ensure that the herding practices are in line with
the objectives of owrn'rship. This is ensured by supervision and
arrangements of punishments and incentives. The dichotomy bet
ween herding (or livestock management) and ownership is often
most pronounced in smallholder situations, particularly in the so
called contract herding arrangements, common in Vest Africa. For
part of or all over the year livestock are entrusted by the owner
to herdsmen often of a distinct ethnic group that are renowned
for their expertise in livestock husbandry. In West Africa this
typically involves cultivators as the livestock owners and FIlani as
herders. These livestock are taken on migrations of varying extent.
The remuneration for the herders is normally in kind (milk and
share of the offspring). The advantage for the owner is that he
can devote all his attention to his crops with all his labour re
source available for the peak requirements in cropping, and that
damage to the crops by livestock is avoided. The disadvantage for
the owner/cultivator is that he foregoes much of the output, that
his herd is managed to maximize the herdmen's benefits (e. g.
milk) rather than his own and that he loses manure and work as
potential inputs to his cropping activities. The arrangement works
fine if the owner's main interest is in the ;:,;et and security
function of livestock. Problems arise, however, when such systems,
normally low in livestock productivity, are to be improved. Devel
opment efforts would have to be directed at both herder and
owner, or would have to venture into the complexity of breaking
up traditional social arrangements and of introding livestock into
the owner's farming system with all the management consequen
ces. Again this aspect requires further scrutiny in the context of
specific production systems.
4.3 Livestock Production System: and their Development
Comprehensive classification schemes of production systens tend to
produce a large number of boxes for all possible combinations of
phenomena. When applied to reality a high proportion of boxes
remain empty because they are not app icable or because time and
space do not permit to investigate the ,eal systems comprehensive
64
ly. The aim here is not to provide a rigid and comprehensive clas
sification scheme. It is merely suggested that an orderly procedure
be followed when approaching livestock production in an area as
huge and heterogeneous as Tropical Africa, incorporating a few
key features for the differentiation of production systems.
As a first step livestock production is put in the context of the

large classes of farming systems and in the context of the princi
pal ecological zones. This ensures that livestock production as a
form of land use is seen in relationship to other forms of land
use, in particular cropping. It also gives an indication of the basic
resource endowment, of the potential of the land, of the existence
of a tsetse constraint, and of livestock-man and livestock-land
ratios. The characteristics of livestock production are then asses
sed by the type of livestock and the livestock products, by the
function livestock have and by the management principles of pro
duction.
In the arid zone pastoral range-livestock systems predominate.
Ruminants are by far the largest species group and milk is the
main product. The subsistence function and the social and cultural
function of livestick play important roles. Management is charac
terized by an extensive adaptive form of migration and by the
overgrazing syndrome.
As the zones become more humid the cropping potential grows,
the crop-livestock systems are increasingly subject to tsetse chal.
lenge. The input function and the asset and security function of
livestock gain in weight. More intensive feeding regimes become
possible. Although grazing is normally communal the overgrazing
syndrome is often less pronounced because of low livestock densi
ties. Contract herding is common for cattle. Pig and poultry pro
duction systems assume importance in the humid zone.
The crop-livestock production systems of the highlands are charac
terized by particularly high densities of human and livestock popu
lation. Tsetse flies are largely absent. Milk and sheep production
are important. The output function of livestock tends to stand in
the foreground. A particular facet is the existence of intensive
feeding systems which is connected with the individual land tenure
that prevails in many parts.
These essentially indigenous livestock production systems contrast
with introduced systems like ranching and modern intensive dairy,
beef, pig and poultry units. For these the commercial output func
tion of livestock prevails and management is similar to that in any
other part of the world.
The justification for applying a concept of livestock production

syste-ms lies in its usefulness for livestock development. Livestock
development, like general development, does not imply the parallel
expansion of all production activities. Within one system it implies
changes in factor combinations, technologies, intensities, and pro
duct mixes; the species of livestock may alter, their functions may
change and existing management principles be replaced. The po
tential for change and improvement is likely to be different in
different production systems due to constraints imposed by factor
endowment, livestock functions and management standards. Dif
ferent development efforts are required to reduce the constraints
and to make best use of the opportunities. Development may also
call for the concentration of efforts on one system at the expense
of another or for the transformation of one system into another.
The concept of livestock production systems allows the discussion
of livestock development in terms of concrete policies, strategies
and projects as they ultimately affect the individual livestock pro
ducer.
66
5 Pastoral Range-livestock Production Systems

5.1 General Characteristics
5.1.1 Definition and Delimitation
Rangeland is defined as "land carrying natural or semi-natural

vegetation which provides a habitat suitable for herds of wild or
domestic ungulates" (Pratt and Gwynne 1977, p. 1). Range-live
stock production systems are production systems based on the use
of the natural or semi-natural vegetation via domestic animals, in
particular ruminants. Range-livestock production systems take the
form of ranching systems, which are dealt with in another section,
and of pastoral systems. In pastoral systems the main product is
milk and the main function of livestock is subsistence, although
social and cultural functions are also important. Management is
characterized by the adaptation of the feed requirements of the
animals to the environmen through migration; land tenure is
communal. The term pastoral system will be used in the following
as a short form for pastoral range-livestock production systems.
5.1.2 Types and Geographical Distribution
Pastoral systems are associated with the arid done i. e. the zone
that is too dry for cropping to serve as the base for subsister.ze.
However, migrations do take pastoralists into wetter areas and
there are several higher rainfall areas with a tradition of pastoral
land use although the land has arable potential (e. g. the areas of
the Bahima in south-western Uganda, the highland areas of Narok
District in Kenya and the areas used by the Tutsi herders in
Rwanda and Burundi). Pastoralists in West Africa have had a tra
ditional presence in the higher rainfall areas south of the Sahel
and this has been accentuated by te drought of the early seven
ties. Nonetheless pastoral systems can be considered systems of
the arid zone. Here they constitute the major production system in
terms of area used and in terms of food production.
Notwithstanding the common basic characteristics of the pastoral

production system as a whole different types can be distinguished.
Partly these are the result of differences in the specific natural
environment. The factor of overriding importance is arnual rainfrll.
The magnitude of average annual rainfall is negatively correlated
with variability of rainfall (Le Hou4 rou and Hoste 1977); a lower
rainfall also indictes a low reliability thereby increasing the im
67
pact of aridity. Table 5.1 gives some of the features of pastoral

systems that by tendency vary with the degree of aridity.
Table 5.1: Types and Characteristics of Pastoral Production

Systems in Tropical Africa in Dependence of the
Degree of Aridit
Indicators Degree of aridity

very high high medium
Annual rainfall (mm) 0-200 200-400 400-600
Growing period 0-50 50-75 75-90

(days p. a. )
Type of pastoralism nomadic transhumant agro

pastoralism a pastoralism a pastoralism
Supplement to live- oasis products wildlife grain
stock products
Migration erratic and medium to short-range

long-range long-range
Lead species camel, goat mixed cattle, sheep
a) Transhumant pastoralism is based on more or less regular seasonal migrations from

a permanent homestead which is lacking in pure nomadism
The rainfall brackets in Table 5.1 are not to be taken in a rigid

way, neither is the correspondence between rainfall and growing
days. Toward the more arid part, of the zone it becomes precari
ous to subsist on livestock alone. Thus the desert pastoralists of
the Sahara depend increasingly on an oasis base for watering of
the livestock and to supplement their own diet. In the more fa
vourable areas fodder productivity and cropping potential are high
er but this advantage tends to be offset by the competition for
68
land by sedentary cultivators. Migrations by necessity become

longer as the degree of aridity increases. The hardier species
(camels and goats) gain predominance over cattle and sheep.
Particularly he camel then stands out as the source of milk and
in its function of transporting the homestead.
Land use systems are partly the result of the natural environment
but few if any human communities can by said to utilize their en
vironment in the only possible way (Dyson-Hudson 1972, p. 22).
The threefold classification more or less by rainfall gradient is
sufficient for the purposes here but certainly very crude when the
different pastoral societies are looked at in more detail. In each
one the livestock production system has its own characteristic and
in each one the all-pervading role of livestock in the society takes
on different forms. Some 120 different ethnic groups can be dis
tinguished, some numbering only a few thousand, some millions,
and this differentiation is still crude. Their geograhical distribution
has been mapped in Figure 5.1. Helland (1980) has also compiled
the -rather unreliable- estimates of the size of the different
populations. From this the total number of pastoral people in
Tropical Africa can be assimed to be in the order of 20 million.
About 9 million of these are classified by Helland as agro
pastoralists.
5.1.3 Livestock Functions
The output function: The subsistence function of livestock is by

definition a principal characteristic of pastoral systems. By and
large the areas are too dry for cropping to be the sole basis of
subsistence. Ruminant livestock are the prime vehicle of land use.
The human physiology :equires a continual supply of food. The
main product for subsistence is therefore milk; the use of the
animals is of usufructuary nature. Only rarely are large animals
slaughtered for their meat, but emergency slaughters occur. Small
ruminants constitute a more convenient quantity -, d their meat
finds their way into the diet more often. The dcurre to which
livestock products are supplemented by plant products varies. Even
in the driest areas there are cases and patches with a sufficient
run-on of water to permit cropping. On the c aer end of the
rainfall scale cropping becomes a more regular pcssibility. Some
pastoralists practise cropping regularly e. g. the Karimojong in
Uganda in a zone that approaches the semi-arid. Others do not
crop themselves but obtain crops by barter (many of the Fulani).
Other pastoralists only rarely consume vegetable products, although
this is changing rapidly in some cases (e. g. the Maasai in East
69
Africa. The composition of the diet and the degree to which there
is supplementation by non-livestock foodstuffs is shown for se
lected pastoral groups in West Africa in Table 5.2. The table also
sets the different categories of pastoralists in a tentative way
against the different dietary patterns.
Table 5.2: Household Budget and Diet Composition of Different

Pastoral Households in West Africa (Chad, Niger End
Mali)
Year of study 1950s 1940s 1963 1963 1963 1963 1958

Ethnic group Tubu Moors Touareg Fulani Touareg Fulani Fulani
Pastoralism in 38 % 84 % 80 % 96 % 80% 96 % 57 %
household incomea
Composition of dietb
Milk 22-48% 76% 51% 39 % 33% 24 % 25 %
Meat - 4% 2% 2% 2% 2% -
Millet 22-35 % 20% 47% 58 % 65 % 74% 75 %
Dates 28-43 % - - - - - -
Nomadic
Transhumant
Agropastoralist
a) .ncluding crops cultivated by the pastoralists

b) In terms of calorie equivalents
Source: Swift (1979) on the basis of various primary sources.
The statistical base of the data in Table 5.2 does not allow inter
pretation to be carried very far. Nevertheless, the following fea
tures stand out:
a) On both sides of the scale, i. e. nomadic pastoralism under

70
Figure 5.1: Pastoral Peoples of Tropical Africa
7 ,!:1d¢i4
_
13
i1 i;. ~
j ' i'! i !'! Ir1 ]. t -:i "2
" '. 7 i /4
6 o .- b; ---
PASTORAL PEOPLES OF TROPICAL AFRICA-
AFROASIATIC GROUP
SEMITIC
Murs
BERBER
I- Koun@ta 5I- Ouled Dellm
h
2- Berab6il6 Rlbat Tuareg (Tamacheq)
3- Draks 7" Tajakant
4 Trarza I-Kel
Baogara
2- Kel naqar 5- KKelAdrar
4:
AzAwak
3- Kl Ayr
Shaw1 9- lesserlysal Humir
2HemsI O- Measerlya l Zuruq
3. Mhlaamir I- tlawazma• NORTH CUSHITIC
4- lentusseln 12- Awlad Dimeld
Bejl
5- Ta'aisha 13- Gina
6- Hleni11.11, 14- Ahomda en Ae. 4
l-hhabtya
i-,loigat
15- Selim 2- H adendowa 111 5- lhhrln umm All
3- Amarar M 6- Ahaba
Jamtala EAST CUSHITIC
I- Ze)idiyis 7-Ma'qi 'Afar & Saho
2 Ilam.r 8- She.abla2
3- Kahwahla 9- Hvwawir I- Saho 2- %far
4- Kaliahi sh 10- Hastinlyw Orm
5- haRunin II- ShaiJqiya Oromo
6- MNaIlya
I- Mal 4- Gabra
Sudanese 'Arshsl 2- noratta S- Orma
.I-Rule'alIi 3- GudliE
- '.h 5- Hatahin
2- Ken 1 6- Shukrlya Somali
3- Rula aI Sheriq 7 Raahail 171
4- )ar IJakr 8- Ijhawi,, I- Sob 2- Somali
Other Semitic Other East Cushitic
I-Oaled Slitman 8D 2- Tigre I- Dassenetch 2- Rendllle
NILO-SAHARAN GROUP CONGO-KORDOFANIAN GROUP

SAIlARAN WEST ATLANTIC
: Za~hawa
2- ll eyat
Fr 4- Teds Fulani
5- Daz
3- Bullgeda 6- Kreda I- Tum'ouleur F- 5- iauch
NUIlAN 2- Fouts Djalon 6 Adamaw.
3 Matina 7- Fehlat umm Harnr
Midob 4- iororo
HEI R BENUE-CONGO (B.NTU)
I- Kurta 8- Nyateka
2- Gogo 9- Ovambo
WEST NILOTIC 3- Turu I- Hertero
4- Iram.a II- Tswana
l- Nuer FI - 5- Sukum a 12- Sotho
2- Dink. 6- 'I'M, 13- Swazi
EAST NILOTIC 7-Tullt
. l kw a
Kar imojon. Clu~tea-
Karimojong Claster Kgalad
atTe
II Tswana Twn
o
jiyr 5-Jie c- 'wolme - Nwata
-Nyan6tom 2'-NagtmRohlta Karlmojong nur
d- Malete
3 Toposa- T
7- Turkaa
n
4- Dodoth
Masai Clutter
I- Samhuru 2- Maisai
SOUTII NILOTIC
I- Pokot P 3- Nandi
2- Sebei 4- Iarahaig
72
lowest rainfall and agropastoralism under higher rainfall, gainful

employment and income sources outside pastoralism (including
cultivation practised by pastoralists) are found.
b) Meat contributes a small amount to the diet in all systems.

c) Millet is an important part of the diet even in pure pastoral
systems, where it is largely obtained through bartering.
d) The type of pastoral system practised is not strictly linked to
the ethnic group; even in one area and within the same ethnic
group management units differ in their pastoral production pattern.
It is a contention that grains play a larger role in the diet of
West African pastoralists than is the case in East Africa. Irrespec
tive of the importance of grain in the diet the universal fact is
that livestock constitute the backbone of the subsistence economy.
The "luxury" of engaging in risky crop activities can only be
under-taken because there is livestock to provide a fall-back. How
ever, crops can constitute an important supplement to the diet in
a normal season and help to offset the impact of adverse environ
mental effects due not only to rainfall but also to disease of man
and stock.
The output function of livestock in pastoral systems also includes
monetary income. The degree of commercialization varies but
there is no pastoral group that will not a least occasionally sell
small-stock, old steers and barren cows. During drought even
younger female cattle and camels may be marketed. The cash
requirements of pastoralists are normally small but for many there
are tax obligations, school fees and medical bills; modern con
sumer goods and gadgets have their attraction and sometimes cash
is required to buy food to supplement the diet. Some pastoral
groups like the Somali are known to be very commercial-minded
and the monetary return from livestock plays a considerable role
in the household economy.
Economic versus non-economic functions: The economic functions

of livestock are multiple in pastoral systems and the livestock pro
ducts are put to many uses. The Karimojong society serves as an
example (Dyson-Hudson, 1972, p. 83):
"The milk and blood of cattle are drunk; their meat is eaten,
their fat used as food and cosmetic; their urine as cleanser;
73
their hides make sleeping-skins, shoulder capes, shirts, bell

collars, sandals, armlets, and anklets; their hornes and hooves
provide snuff-holders, feather boxes, and food containers; bags
are made from their scrota; their intestines are used for pro
phecy, and their chyme for anointing; their droppings provide
fertilizer".
Thus even th! value of droppings is fully realized and agro-pasto

ralists concentrate their herds for as much time as possible on
areas that are to be used for cultivation. If the pastoralists do not
cultivate themselves it is common for them, particularly in West
Africa, to enter into arrangements with cultivators whereby herds
are kept on fields destined for cultivation. Animal droppings are
also important for their fuel value. The often scanty production of
dry wood is needed for the building of temporary huts and of
night enclosures for the animals, while green woody vegetation is
left as dry season fodder reserve. In this situation the droppings
may constitute the only available source of fuel. Also work by
animals can be important in pastoral production systems. Bringing
ground water to the surface is a task that often necessitates the
employment of animal power. For the Sahel countries this per
formance by livestock is of considerable importance (Coulomb et
al 1978). The value of livestock for animal traction in crop agricul
ture is also transmitted to pastoralists through the demand c cul
tivators in more favourable areas for live animals from the dry
areas.
The functions so far mentioned are all associated with products.
But it is particularly in pastoral societies that livestock are as
signed additional functions. Again for the Karimojong society
Dyson-Hudson reports that cattle
- are exchanged for other forms of property,

- are used for the acquisition of desired rights,
- are used for the compensation of wrongs,
- form nuclei of common interests that hold kin groups together,
- provide a way to express aspirations,
- mark and reinforce interpersonal ties through their exchange,
- determine to a great degree social status,
- are a source of rich elaboration of speech and song, and
- provide the symbol and path of man's approach to deity.
Partly these functions relate to the asset role of livestock. Given

the multitude of useful products from livestock and given their
74
longevity and reproductive capacity it is normal for livestock to

represent wealth and to be used in social transactions as carrier
of value. But many of the functions cited clearly go beyond the
asset role of livestock. Livestock appear to dominate all walks of
life including the spiritual sphere. These "non-economic" functions
have led to the explanation of livestock in pastoral societies as a
psychological phenomenon ("the cattle complex", Herskovitz 1926).
But this does not do justice to the multitude of the products and
economic functions of livestock combined with the fact that live
stock also act as a store of all these products and functions. If
livestock are the single most important item of value in pastoral
societies, it is not surprising that livestock play a dominating role
also in the socalled non-economic sphere of life but it would be
misleading to see that as the exclusive role. A problem is that the
different spheres cannot be neatly separated. The social institution
of bride price has the economic function of a redistribution of
wealth with all the consequences for production and subsistence.
Camels that are treasured for their racing capabilities also give
advantage in scoutin, and allow the owner to be the first on a
distant piece of land with good grazing. The slaughter of an
animal may be ceremonial but the feast still has nutritional value.
For the purpose here the relevant question is not whether livestock
play a social and cultural role but whether this social and cultural
role prevents pastoralists to make best economic use of livestock.
Of this there is little evidence indeed. In development, however,
the interdependence of economic and non-economic functions of
livestock may create particularly vexing problems.
5.1.4 Management Aspects
Livestock management is characterized by three principles:
- Adaptation to the environment in the attempt to ensure sub

sistence,
- averting risks by the adoption of special management strategies,
and
- adaptation to the institutional environment characterized by
communal tenure of the grazing land.
These principles are interwoven and interdependent with the dif

ferent functions of livestock.
Adaptation to the natural environment: From the point of view of

agricultural evolution pastoralism belongs to the same pre-machine
75
category of land use as shifting cultivation, but this by no means

prevents the type of adaptation being extremely complex and
carefully calculated (Ruthenberg 1980, Schinkel 1970, Grigg 1974).
The central task is to match the erratic and seasonal patterns of
primary productivity with the more or less continual feed require
ments of livestock to achieve a regular daily supply of food. The
elements of the management strategy have been described by
Dyson-Hudson (1972, pp. 43, 44) for the Karimojong:
"1. Since cows yield only as they drop and suckle calves, a con
tinuous milk supply is related both to large herds and a high de
gree of fertility. Sufficient cows are needed to offset the calving
interval of each beast; enough bulls for adequate service are
needed; and fertilicy of both bulls and cows should be such as to
keep the calving interval as short as possible. A herd that is defi
cient in any of these respects will yield only a spasmodic milk
supply (however favourable the environmental conditions).
2. Individual yield depends on the general condition of a beast,

which in turn depends on regular access to adequate grass and
water. In Karimojong country, water and grass are generally suffi
cient in the rainy season; at that time the condition of the ani
mals is therefore good, and their yields are high. In the dry sea
son, water supplies decrease and grasses wither, cattle rapidly lose
condition, and yields fall off sharply. In the rainy season a cow
may give four to five pints of milk a day and still rear a healthy
calf; in the dry season it is often possible to take only a quarter
of a pint or so a day without risk of losing the calf. Again, the
large ox will yield seven pints of blood at a single bleeding in the
rains, and five months later be fit for bleeding again. To take a
similar amount in the dry season would be to risk losing the ani
mal altogether. In sum, a herd large enough to feed a family in
the rains would not necessarily be adequate for the dry season;
and it is in terms of reduced dry-season yields that Karimojong
must calculate minimum necessary herd size.
3. Karimojong say that calves are dropped in every month of the

year, but it is likely that a severe dry season impairs fertility
through a drastic reduction of the animals' general condition. Both
bulls and cows would seem to ieed some time in the improved
conditions of the rains before successful impregnation is accom
plished. To this extent harsh conditions mean not only a present
decrease or interruption of herd yield, they also involve possible
decreases or interruption of yield in the future.
76
4. In Karimojong conditions it is necessary to distinguish between

total yield and effective yield, the one an eo1 ression of animal
production, the other an expression of the food s.-nly available to
humans. Total yield is affected by factors alrt-ddy mentioned. Ef
fective yield is influenced by an additional factor, viz.: the loca
tion (rather than amount) of grazing and water throughout the
year, for this determines the disposition of the herd and hence its
accessibility to the human group which is dependent on it. Thus,
grazing and water may be sufficient to keep the herd in condition
and promote good yields; but where favourable grazing exists only
far from the centers of permanent settlement, then only a part of
the human population (that following and tending the herds) will
benefit".
The resulting grazing pattern is seasonal and involves migrations of

varying lengths at varying times of the year with the whole herd
or with parts thereof. A mix of species is usually held to make
best use of the total vegetation and to account for their varying
comparative advantages in walking ability, hardiness, milking ability
etc. Herd size is larger than that required in the good season to
account for the lowered productivity and availability of the ani
mals duiing the dry season. The proportion of females is h .h be
cause the females are the milkers and therefore the most useful
constituents of the herd.
Risk-averting strategies: In addition to these "normal" exigencies

of livestock husbandry there is the overwhelming risk of the ca
tastrophe which either takes the form of prolonged drought re
ducing carrying rapacity and production dramatically or of
sweeping disease decimating the herds. Given the fact that pas
tures are communal and access is not normally limited to a
specific number of animals or to a specific individual the risk
averting strategy by the pastoralist bears the following key fea
tures:
- Herd size is maximized the limiting factor being labour for

herding, water drawing and the like. This ensures the highest
chance of being left with a viable core herd after disaster has
struck.
- Different animal species are kept. The mixes are determined,

beside considerations of walking ability, milk production capacity
and complementary utilization of the vegetation, by the drought
resistence of the different species and their response to favour
able conditions, in particular the recovery rate after a disaster.
77
Herds are split into different management units ro spread the

risk and to accomodate the need to exploit distant pasture while
providing a regular supply of food for the household.
- Emphasis is put on a high proportion of females among all spe

cies not only because of the milk yield but also because of the
reproductive potential of the herd to recover after a decline.
- Crops are grown as a sideline of the enterprise; barter and ex
change arrangements are entered with cultivators.
A particularly important feature of pastoral systems is the estab
lishment of a network of social bonds to guard against risk (Ru
thenberg 1980, p. 337).
- Some of the animals of relatives and acquaintances are kept in
a family's herd and they give some of their animals to other
people, so that in case of disease the losses for any family are
not total.
- Herdsmen lend animals to a neighbour or relative who has lost
his animals through disease or theft, and thus ensure his help in
their own times of need. The tendency to dispose of animals by
lending is encouraged by the fact that large herds entail a rapid
consumption of grass and necessitate long treks.
- The owners of large herds, who in any case do not want to
keep them in one place, lend some animals to poorer members of
the tribe, and in this way guarantee their allegiance.
- If a man wants to marry, he has to give cattle to the bride's
father. In poor families this amounts to one or two, and in rich
families to ten cows and more. If the woman is treated badly by
her hu.,band, she can return to her father without him being
obliged to return the cattle. Conversely, the husband can send his
wife back to her father and demand back his cattle if she behaves
badly or if she is infertile. Consequently, both parties have a
material interest in the success of the marriage, but both are
equally obliged to hoard animals for some part of their lives in
order to meet their obligations if the case arises.
These practices again show that social and cultural functions of

livestock are also meaningful in material and economic terms.
They also protect against the risk of being assessed by a tax rnl
78
lector who will not be able to establish who owns what in this
complex network of allegiances, claims and usufructuary rights
that replaces straightforward ownership.
Communal land tenure: Grazing is the basis for production in pas

toral systems. Grazing is communal and what has been called the
overgrazing syndrome or the tragedy of the commons (section
4.2.2) has an all-pervading effect on this production system. It is
reinforced further by special characteristics of this system (Jahnke
et al 1974):
- Given the harsh environment and the exigencies on the livestock
(long walks, seasonal undernourishment or malnourishment, long
watering intervals, heat stress, little or no protection against
disease) there is no practical possibility for the pastoralists to
increase animal productivity, milk yield in particular.
- In the absence of alternative sources of livelihood production in
crease necessitated by population increase is in linear and direct
relationship with herd numbers.
- The high risk element in this zone necessitates herd numbers
over and above those immediately necessary for subsistence.
The overgrazing syndrome is sometimes related to the motive of

"1greed" on the part of the individual (Sandford 1980), but the mo
tive of "need" may be the driving one. Such a need would imply
that pastoralists are short of grazing. Relating the overgrazing
syndrome to the fact of communal land tenure is a piece of de
ductive reasoning that is only relevant if in fact grazing is scarce.
It is particularly relevant if grazing is scarce for meeting the sub
sistence needs of the people ccocerncd. This leads to the basic
distinction between pastoral systems that are under pressure and
those that are not (Pratt and Gwynne 1977). In both cases there
may be overstocking. In the first case it is accumulation of live
stock above subsistence requirements that is favoured by the exis
tence of communal tenure. In the second case communal tenure
favours, over time, the accumulation of humans above the human
supporting capacity of the land in aggregate. Overgrai.ing in the
first case is a nuisance and a detriment to the nbtual resource
endowment of an area. In the second case overgrazing - whatever
the underlying cause may be- is an expression of human misery
carrying at all times the danger of a catastrophe to human
survival. Empirical evidence points to the existence of both cases,
79
even in close proximity to each other and within one country.

Thus in Ethiopia the Afars in the North are pastoral people under
extreme !;ubsistence pressure while the Borana in the South are
considerel to operate under conditions of ample resources (Cossins,
ILCA, pe!sonal communication). The recurrence of large-scale
human misery connected to droughts, which after ail are not a
new or unexpected phenomenon in dry areas anywhere in the
world, leads one to juspect that on the whole pastoralists in
Tropical Africa overgraze by need rather than greed. A more
detailed look is therefore taken in the following section at the
human supporting capacity of the rangelands.
5.2 Production and Productivity

5.2.1 Range Production and Carrying Capacity
As rainfall decreases it becomes more important as a determinant
of range productivity. The best correlations between rainfall and
herbaceous prime.ry production have been obtained for regions
where the rainfall is below 700 mm. (Blair Rains and Kassam
1980). The empirical relationship established for the low rainfall
region south of the Sahara yields the rule of thumb that one mil
limetre of rain produces 2.5 kg of dry matter per hectare (Le
Hou6 rou and Hoste 1977). In regions of low rainfall woody vegeta
tion is also important in the nutrition of game and domestic
stock. Digestibility varies considerably but in general the protein
content of the leaves and fruits is high. Under low rainfall condi
tions of say 250 mm woody vegetation at a density of 130
plants/ha may still yield about 120 kg of DM (Bille 1979). Given
that this fodder can be made available during the dry season and
that it is of high quality the practice of herdsmen to cut down
branches and trees to make them accessible for the stock can be
readily understood. Or the other hand there is competition be
tween woody vegetation and grass growth so that for the purpose
of calculating carrying capacity the contribution by woody plants
is usually neglected (Blair Rains and Kassam 1980).
For a variety of reasons only a proportion of the potential yield
of fodder plants will be eaten by the animals. Fodder is avoided
because of low palatability; fodder is also destroyed through
trampling, wind arid fire and consumed by wild vertebrates and in
vertebrate animals. It is often assumed that between a third and a
half of the potential ungrazed yield of an area will be used in the
growing season and that during the dry season half of the poten
80
tial yield may be consumed (Blair Rains and Kassam 1980). Since
the bulk of the yield is produced during the wet season the overall
utilization rate must be assumed to be well below 50%. Bille
(1978) suggests 30% as a more realistic estimate.
The feed intake in dry matter of cattle as the major reference

species is often put at 2.5% of the body weight (Ministere:
"Mdmento"l). For the standard TLU of 250 kg this is equivalent to
6.25 kg per day or 2 280 kg per year. Whether this is sufficient
for maintenance and production depends on the energy content,
the digestibility, the content of digestible protein, the level of
other essential nutrients and eiements and the availability of wa
ter. Other factors that intervene are disease, stress (climate,
walking long distances), husbandry methods etc. Table 5.3 gives
estimates of carrying capacity in dependence of the annual rain
fall.
Table 5.3: Utilizable Primary Production and Carrying Capacity in

Dry Rangelandsa in Tropical Africa
b
Annual Consumable fodder Carrying capacity
rainfall (dry matter)
mm kg/ha ha/TLU
100
200 150 15.2
300 225 10.1
400 300 7.6
500 375 6.1
600 450 5.1
a) Excluding flood plains which may produce 3 600- 8 000 kg/ha

b) 30 % of total above ground herbacious growth
Source: Blair Rains and Kassam (1980), Le Hou6rou and

Hoste (1977).
81
The carrying capacities given by Pratt and Gwynne (1977) for East
Africa are not directly comparable but there appears to be a cor
respondence. Fox very arid conditions (rainfall at 200 mm or
below) the carrying capacity is put at 42 ha/TLU the next better
zone which can be approximated to rainfall between 200 and 400
mm is estimated at 12 ha/TLU.
5.2.2 Livestock Productivity
Livestock productivity can also be assumed to vary with the aridity

but no quantitative estimate is available and the relationship is
less clear because the animals migrate between the zones. Table
5.4 shows animal prodt tivity figures derived from a survey of
available literature on pastoral livestock. Blood from cattle and
camels as a source of food is neglected. In some pastoral groups
fallen animals are eaten and this could double the consumption of
meat but has not been taken into account. The conversion of pro
duction into grain equivalents and calories makes inter-species
comparisons possible and allows to estimate the supporting capa
city of livestock for people if the diet is exclusively based on
meat and milk.
The figures in Table 5.4 show camels and small ruminants to be
twice as productive as cattle. This is due to the high milk yielding
capacity of camels on the one hand and the high meat producing
capacity of sheep and goats (and their good milk production capa
city) on the other. While 100 TLU of cattle meet the subsistence
requirements of 12 persons, an equivalent herd of camels would
support 23, of sheep or goats 28. The comparative advantages of
the different species and the usefulness of a species mix preclude
concentration on one species according to productivity indicators
only. However, the differences in productivity are remarkable.
Camels stand out further for their provision of transport, sheep
and goats are notable for their reproductive capacity which allows
high rates of growth to be achieved. Particularly the latter
characteristic is important for recovery after drought or disease
incidence. Maximum herd growth rates have been estimated for
camels at 8%, cattle 11% and sheep and goats at over 40% (Dahl
and Hjort 1976). Table 5.4 also rllows an inference as to the
importance of trade between pastoralists and cultivators. If the
prevailing terms of trade are indeed 1.7 kg of grain for 1 kg of
milk and 4 kg of grain for 1 kg of meat as implied by the price
ratios underlying the grain-equivalent-concept the pastoralists
improves his subsistence basis significantly by trading. From the
82
average TLU he obtains 152 Mcal by consuming the livestock

products directly. If traded for grain he receives 340 kg grain
contributing 1 150 Mcal to his diet. Measured in calories his
subsistence has improved by the factor 7.5.
Table 5.4: Productivity of Camels, Cattle, Sheep and Goats in

Pastoral Systems in Tropical Africa
Production Cattle Camels Sheep/ Mixed

goats herda
Milk kg/head 66.2 248.2 22.0 n. ap.

kg/TLU 94.5 248.2 220.0 161.3
Meat kg/head 9.6 7.4 3.5 n. ap.

kg/TLU 13.7 7.4 34.5 16.3
Total GE kg/TLUb 215.5 451.3 512.0 339.2

Mcal/TLUc 99.0 191.4 236.8 151.9
Supporting capacityd
persons/100 TLU 11.8 22.8 28.2 18.1
a) According to the share of the different species in TLU in the
arid zone
b) 1. 7 GE kg/kg of milk, 4. 0 GE kg/kg of meat
c) 700 kcal/kg of milk, 2 400 kcal/kg of meat
d) According to calorie requirements at 2 300 kcal per person
per day or 840 Mcal per year
Source: Production per hoad by species from Dahl and Hjort
(1976); TLU conversion according to rates used in this
study.
Livestock productivity as indicated in Table 5.4 is higher than that

underlying estimates of zonal production and productivity in section
3.3. The latter distribute estimated total production in Tropical
Africa over the different zones including the arid zone considered
here. The figures in Table 5.4 essentially are derived from ob
served production and yields in pastoral situations on one side and
from a herd modelling exercise to extrapolate from individual yield
to total herd yield on the other. They are probably overestimates
because they neglect the proportion of the herds and flocks that
is not (and possibly cannot be) exploited to the same degree
throughout the year and over the years given the variable environ
ment and the migratory mode of life of pastoralists. But all
aggregate estimates of livestock productivity in Tropical Africa are
based on guesswork in one way or another; all that can be said is
that the figures in Table 5.4 are probably on the high side.
5.2.3 Land Productivity

Inspite of productivity differences among species pastoralists keep
mixed herds, because the different species are complementary in
products, growth rates, functions, feed requirements, ecological
adaptability, management requirements and sensitivity to drought
and disease risks. Animal productivity for any one species can be
expected to be dependent on aridity but not necessarily in a linear
fashion. Toward the upper end of the rainfall scale (500 mm and
above) response to increasing rainfall diminishes; toward the lower
end it increases. Milk production is probably more sensitive than
meat production. To a degree these effects are offset by herd
composition and other management principles (camels predominate
Table 5.5: Indicators of Land Productivity in Pastoral Systems in
Tropical Africa
Annual Milk Meat Total food HSC a

rainfall GE persons/
mm kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha Mcal/ha sqkm
200 10.5 1.1 22.1 9.9 1.2

300 15.8 1.6 33.2 14.9 1.8
400 21.1 2.1 44.2 19.8 2.4
500 26.2 2.6 55.1 24.7 2.9
600 31.4 3.1 65.9 29.5 3.5
Human supporting capacity according to calorie requirements
and if met exclusively by meat and milk
Source: Tables 5.3, 5.4.

84
in the more arid parts, milk cows are not taken on long migra
tions but left with the families in more favourable areas etc.).
The assumption of a linear relationship between livestock produc
tion and annual rainfall is therefore not as unrealistic as it ap
pears at first sight, and may serve as an approximation. Table 5.5
is based on the productivity estimates of the average pastoral TLU
given in Table 5.4 and on the carrying capacities in Table 5.3.
The figures in the last column of Table 5.5 may be regarded as
the critical population densities for the different rainfall zones. At
the lower end of the scale they are reached at one person per
square kilometre, at the higher end at 3 to 4. Population densities
that appear extremely low in absolute terms already represent
critical values if subsistence is to be met from livestock alone.
The productivity of the land is extremely low if used via livestock
to support a human population, but of course that is the only way
to support any human life at all in much of this zone. The low
productivity also shows if compared to crop production
(Figure 5.2).
Figure 5.2.
Hypothetical Scheme of Food Productivity of the Land in
FoodProduction Cropping and Pastoral Land Use
Mcallho
~mile everyother year,
10D0
-OOkglha(1020Mcol)
900.-----____ ___-____
with cropping
800. _ _-- __
600 - leton
a/r ea,
I3of
SO0kg/ha (567Mcal)
200 -
with pastoralism ___
I ofarea
to00- 40k/. 13M

1[SIa W
- ~152
ho/TLU -7
4 0 9
h~
3
N ailai
100 200 300 4UO 500 600 700 Annual
Source: Compiled by the author; for details see Table 5.5 and
text.
85
At 600 mm a millet crop may be grown every other year yielding

600 kg/ha or 2 040 Mcal which corresponds with an average land
productivity of 1 020 Mcal/ha. As rainfall decreases both yields
and cultivation intensity (proportion of arable land) decrease and
at 300 mm regular cropping is almost impossible. But at 400 mm
if only one tenth of the area is cultivated and if only 400 kg are
harvested the area productivity is seven times higher than if food
has to be produced via livestock. This explains two phenomena to
be observed throughout the arid zone of Tropical Africa. Firstly,
cropping encroaches onto rangelands. Cultivators achieve much
higher levels of land productivity than pastoralists do even if
regular crop failures are included in the reckoning. Two years of
complete failure and two years with miserable yields may be off
set by one bumper crop (meaning 800 kg or so) and production
from the land is still much higher than through any other form of
use. In the longer term, however, cultivation may well lead to land
degradation in this zone (FAO, Higgins et al 1978). Secondly
chancy cropping is practised by many pastoralists in extremely dry
areas with extremely low yield expectations. Tuaregs are known to
grow millet in areas with less than 200 mm achieving not more
than 80 kg of grain per hectare if things go well. But with 80 kg
of grain one man meets one third of his subsistence needs and is
all the better off for that.
5.2.4 Labour Productivity and Employment Capacity
In the developed countries the dry areas are used for extremely
labour-extensive production systems. Animal-labour ratios are be
tween 320 to 810 and gross output per labourer between $ 8 000
and 15 000 for Australian ranches (Table 5.6). On modern African
ranches it is common to employ one herdsman for 100 head of
cattle. The animal-labour ratio expressed as TLU per man would
thus be about 70. At an offtake rate of 20% and prices as in
Table 5.6 the gross output per labourer would be in the order of $
1 600. But these figures relate to ranching. In pastoral systems
animal-labour ratios and labour productivity figures are radically
different. For the arid zone of Tropical Africa as a whole which
is dominated by the pastoral land use system an animal-labour
ratio (TLU/ME) of 3 has been estimated (compare section 2.3).
For every economically active rural person there are 3 TLU or
about 5 head of cattle rather than 100 in modern African ranching
or hundreds in Australian ranching. In dry countries that are
particularly rich in livestock and dominated by pastoral land use
like Mauritania, Somalia and Botswana the national ratios are 7.7,
86
Table 5.6: Indicators of Livestock Production and Labour Intensity

and Labour Productivity in the Dry Areas of Australia
a
(1968-1969 to 19 7 0 - 1 9 7 1 )
Indicator Relatively Less Poor

favourable favourable
Stocking rates 8-12 30-40 100 and more

(ha/TLU )b
Livestock: labour 320-570 670-810 about 705
ratio (TLU/ME)c
Area: labour ratio 3 000-7 700 13 600-29 000 52 000-69 000
(ha/ME)
Cattle offtake rate 21-34 12-19 26
(%7)
Cattle offtake per 101-106 95-173 184
labourere (head p.a.)
Offtake per labourer 8 000-8 500 7 600-13 800 14 700
($/ME)d f
a) Three-year averages for average properties in the different regions as

defined by the surveys of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics. All
figures rounded
b) The original statistics use cattle units (an adult bovine) which has been
taken to be equivalent to a TLU

c) ME = man equivalent; equivalent to one person working on the property
for 50 weeks a year

d) Converted from Australian $ at the rate of 0. 9 per US $
e) Including operator
f) Average selling price of $ 80 per animal
Source: Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Australia (1970).

87
12.3 and 7.9 TLU/man respectively. Labour productivity is in the

order of $ 50 per man instead of over a thousand or thousands in
ranching. Labour productivity in pastoral systems is therefore very
low, or to put it the other way around, pastoral systems are
labour-intensive; they have a high employment capacity at low
levels of renumeration*.
In spite of the high labour availability there is evidence that a la

bour constraint may be operating in pastoral production systems
(Barth 1973; Dyson-Hludson 1972; Jacob 1963). Torry (1973) pro
vides the most detailed quantitative evidence of a labour constraint
for the case of the Gabra in Kenya near the Ethiopian border.
Gabra normally work 9 hours per day and about 3 000 hours per
annum, only to secure subsistence. Children above the age of 7
years are fu!ly employed in the production process. Two to three
families (of about three to four persons) group themselves into
homestead units to economize in herding and watering. Conspi
cuously high are the labour requirements of watering which absorb
roughly half of the total working time. Camel watering is toil
some. It implies walking over long distances, a time-consuming or
ganization of water use at the well, and in particular working in a
"human chain" to bring the water from a deep well to a through.
Torry estimates that 80 to 90% of the total population are re
quired for herding, watering, management and domestic tasks.
Ruthenberg (1980) concludes that labour hours per labourer are
higher and return per hour of work lower among the Gabra than
in any other tropical farming system.
5.2.5 Human Supporting Capacity
Pastoral production systems are the dominant form of land use in

the arid zone. They are essentially aimed at subsistence. The low
productivity of livestock, land and labour combined with the high
animal-man ratios lead to the question of the human supporting
capacity (FAO, Higgins et al 1978) or the critical population den
sity (Allan 1965) of that zone. Relationships between the natural
* With 160 kg of milk and 16 kg of meat per TLU total produc
tion is 336 GE kg which can be valued at $ 54 ($ 0.16/kg). The
value of livestock and meat exports per agricultural worker in
1978 was $ 66.2 in Mauritania, 50.3 in Somalia and 122.1 in
Botswana. This does not take into account subsistence produc
tion; the exported livestock products on tha other hand are va
lued at higher prices.
88
productivity of the land and human supporting capacities have been

established on different bases for West Africa and for East Africa
(Table 5.7).
Table 5.7: Estimate of Human Supporting Capacity (HSC) of Low

Rainfall Areas in West and East Africa
West Africa East Africa

Annual HSC Agroecological HSC
rainfall zone
mm ha/person ha/person
very arid 189.0
200 75.5
300 53.3
400 41.3 arid 48.0
500 34.0
600 28.5
semi-arid 14.0
Source: Blair Rains and Kassam (1980), Pratt and Gwynne

(1977).
These figures have been translated into equivalents for zones de
fined by growing days (Blair Rains and Kassam 1980), the classi
fication used in this study. For the zone with the number of the
growing days ranging from 1 to 74 the average calorie production
per ha from livestock was put at 20 000 kcal. Since protein is not
limiting calculations can be made on a calorie base alone. At a
daily requirement per person of 2 300 kcal an average of 42
hectares is required in this zone. The zone with less than one
growing day is 183 660 ha in extent, the zone with between 75
and 89 growing lays 82 517 ha. Using the figure of 20 000 kcal
for the total arid zone (less than 90 growing (lays) the arid zone
of 7 422 sqkm could carry a human population of 17 million. This
figure holds if the population is to subsist on livestock alone. FAO
(Higgins et al 1978) has made more detailed calculations that
include cropping but strictly adhere to ecological principles of land
use which demand long rest periods of the land in this zone and
89
which reduce the stocking rates to the sustainable level in the

long run. They estimate the human supporting capacity of the arid
zone to be 12 million people. These figures stand against an
estimated rural pastoral population of 20 million alone (Helland
1980) and -i figure of 29 million for the total rural population in
this zone ts derived from the 1975 population figures by adminis
trative unit and extrapolated to 1980. The arid zone and by
implication the pastoral land use system appears to suffer from
acute overpopulation. The notion of pasturalism under pressure is
on the whole more valid than the notion of a free-ranging hus
bandry man with an abundance of livestock and land resources at
his disposal.
5.3 Development Possibilities
5.3.1 Marketing and Stratification

Marketing is of porticular importance for pastoral production sys
tems in the arid zone:
- The arid zones constitute the source of the livestock flow. They
are the extensive breeding grounds from which marketing starts.
- Marketing poses particular problems in the dry areas where dis

tances are great and infrastructure is lacking.
- The opportunity for marketing cattle is important in the context
of taking cattle off the range, thereby tackling at least the
symptom of the pastoral overgrazing syndrome.
All pastoralists sell at least occasionally some of their livestock

for cash. Evidence on the price response of supply by traditional
cattle owners is conflicting. Reports of inverse supply/price rela
tionships (Carlisle and Randag 1970; Lele 1975, p. 58, Doran et al
1979) conflict with others of "normal" behaviour (Hill 1970, Kha
lifa and Simpson 1972). There appear to be two reasons for this
conflicting evidence. Firstly it is not always easy to differentiate
between the cause and effect of price and supply movements; an
observed negative price-supply relationship may as much be the re
sult of reduced marketing forcing prices up as the other way a
bout. Secondly the observations may be partial relating to only one
market or one season or to only one function of livestock (cash
income versus total income that includes subsistence versus the
90
asset function of livestock); interpretation of price responses is

then easily carried too far.
The justification of marketing projects does not generally venture

into the sphere of pastoral behaviour. On the contrary their par
ticular attraction lies in the' possibility of staying clear of the
complexities of production, operating on the doorstep of the
system rather than getting involved in it. Existing traditional
marketing systems are perceived to suffer from inefficiencies,
abuses in market conduct and technical imperfections the relief of
which would benefit the pastoral system (Herman 1979). But
studies of traditional marketing systems show that, in spite of
being complex and traditionally based, they generally perform well
their function of distributing livestock and meat products at
reasonably low costs (Herman 1979, SEDES 1969 a, Staatz 1979).
For the case of Upper Volta Herman specifies evidence of a high
degree of competition at most stages of the marketing circuit, as
shown by low concentration ratios and the absence of overt collu
sion. Cattle flows appear responsive to changes in relative prices
among alternative markets and over the year. Market infornation
seems to be readily available to producers and marketing circuit
does not support an abundance of non-productive individuals, as is
commonly alleged; the much maligned "intermediary" is found to
provide useful services to both producers and merchants. Spatial
price differentials and traders' margins are reasonable consistent
with transportation and transaction costs. Even the traditional
marketing method of trekking has its advantages and wholesale
replacement by more modern methods like rail, lorry or even air
is seldom justified because they are more expensive; in rail and
truck transport in particular skrinkage losses become a major cost
item.
Efforts to develop pastoral production systems via marketing

therefore have to take into account
- that the structure and performance of existing traditional mar

keting is generally satisfactory;
- that the existing system does not appear to discourage produc

tion and supply of livestock from the dry areas, and
- that trekking as a method of transport is more efficient and

less costly than commonly assumed.
91
There is the question then in which way marketing projects could

have a beneficial effect on pastoral production systems. The rea
soning normally takes recourse to the stratification of the live
stock industry that is to be achieved via marketing efforts. Most,
if not all, of the many studies relating to West African livestock
development have endorsed in principle a livestock development
strategy based upon the stratification of production*. The term
stratification, literally to arrange in layers, normally bears two
different though related meanings for livestock development:
- The arrangement of the process of meat production into separ
ate stages - breeding cow/calf herds, growing out, fattening, pro
cessing - with each stage located geographically to make use of
the comparative advantage of each eco-climatic zone;
-. the arrangement of land use management in district systems,

extensive grazing, extensive crop production, intensive fodder/pas
ture production, intensive crop production, mixed farming etc.,
again to make best use of the differing resource endowment.
In the 'ideal' regional model production units in the extensive
range areas would specialize as primary producers. They would be
encouraged to sell all suzplus males as "immature" rather than
mature range animals. Intermediate stage producers in more fa
vourable areas would grow out the immatures to, larger sizes suit
able for slaughter or for fattening. The fattening units located
close to the consumption centres would constitute the final stage
in the stratification chain.
Two key assumptions underly the proposed beneficial effects of
stratification on the arid areas:
- By selling animals at younger ages, the stocking rate of exten
sively managed rangelands could be initially reduced, and, by main
taining somewhat larger and more productive breeding herds on a
given range site, incomes could be equalled or improved through
the sale of large numbers of immature animals, albeit at substan
tially lower per kilogramme and per head prices.
- Stock owners would collectively agree to limit stock numbers in
accordance with approved stocking rates in order to increase fer
tility and milk yields and at the same time decrease mortality.
* Ferguson (1979) summarizes the literature. The following para
graphs on stratification follow closely his account.
92
Stratifications strategies do not normally contain any elements

that would render the second assumption a likely direct outcome.
With respect to the first assumption Ferguson's analysis has done
much to reduce expectations. This is the result of three factors:
- The existing marketing system is fairly efficient and there are

no great margins available for distribution neither to the pastor
alists nor to production stages down-stream as pointed out above.
- The significance of hoarding of animals and of the availability
of animals apparently unneccessary for the pastoralists tends to be
greatly exaggerated. For \Vest Africa Ferguson estimated that even
if all non-breeding herd males could be sold at the age of 18
months, the maximum possible increase in cow/calf herds would
only be in the order of 10-20 per cent. If reduction of animal
numbers is the aim a reduction in the number of animals in all
categories must be achieved.
- Demand and consequently the price structure of animals is such
that cattle whic*h double in weight between the age of two and
six years more than quadruple in value. Because the incremental
cost per unit of time/cash of retaining an animal beyond two
years of age is very low the logical strategy is to keep males in
herds until near peak values are obtained.
Ferguson calculated that the price per kilogramme of immature

animals would need to double before it wculd be more advan
tageous for primary producers to sell immature rather than mature
categories. Such a doubling of the weight price is hardly possible
because the price differential for higher quality animals in Tropi
cal Africa is generally very low and may even be negative. There
are therefore also on the part of the intermediate or final stages
of production no great margins available for redistribution.
Expectations from the possibilities of marketing and stratification

are generally exaggerated. Practically all attempts of stratification
suffer from under-supply of livestock from the pastoral areas and
government interventions in marketing tend to replace perceived
inefficiencies in the marketing system by real ones. There is un
doubtedly a place for marketing projects and stratification
schemes but the effects on production and productivity in the
pastoral areas will remain modest.
93
5.3.2 Livestock Improvement and Disease Control

Marketing efforts operate on the doorstep of pastoral production
systems. Efforts of improving the livestock take place within the
production system acting on the livestock resource directly. In
principle this refers to selection, breeding, and disease control but
one may also include improved husbandry methods like culling,
castration, herding practices and supplernentary feeding. In prac
tice the possibilities are limited. With respect to general hus
bandry practices one has to assume that the pastoralists already
do the best they can given the environmental conditions, the pres
sure on the resources and the basic production objective of sub
sistence. In this -espect pastoralists are no differnt from other
tropical farmers (Ruthenberg 1980, p. 4). Innovations like the in
troduction of exz.tic livestock breeds or massive supplementary
feeding and the like at'e of a purely hypothetical nature for the
environment concerned. There remains disease control as the clas
sical approach to improving pastoral systems. It also is a logical
one given the interest of pastoralist in their livestock resource and
the limitations of other approaches.
Pastoral production systems are particularly vulnerable to certain

types of disease. Thus long treks and frequent intermingling of
different groups of animals provide ideal opportunities for the
extensive spread of rinderpest, anthrax, blackleg and contagious
bovine pleuro-pneumonia, the great infectuous diseases of African
livestock; exposure to wildlife on route and concent:ation of stock
on river and lake shore grazings during the driest part of the year
provide further opportunities for infection (Ellis and Hugh 1976,
Sere 1979). Efforts at controlling these diseases have a long his
tory in most African countries. With the advent of improved vac
cines they are now effective and safe for :he stock treated. The
problem lies in the mobility of the herds, the extensive nature of
the production system and a continued measure of distrust among
many pastoralists. Comprehensive control approaching eradication is
therefore difficult to achieve and foci linger on. This is aggravated
by the lack of control of herds moving across national boundaries.
Thus international efforts are called fui. A good example is rin
derpest which could only be brought under a measure of control as
a result of the international J P 15 campaigns (L6pissier 1971).
Disease control, particularly rinderpest control, has been subjected

to a number of evaluations (Tremblay 1969, G-. pary and Dillmann
1976, Felton and Ellis 1976, Sere 1979). 'the technical achieve
94
ments have often been overstated and in spite of successes these

diseases are far from eradication (Provost et al 1980). But it is
likely that favourable cost-benefit ratios have been achieved. The
most detailed study confirms the high economic returns from the
disease control in the case of Nigeria (Felton and Ellis 1976). An
interesting aspect of the study is the importance it attaches to
the assumed productivity increases and the general effects on the
pastoral production system. It is critical whether a disease control
programme in a pastoral situation simply reduces losses, increases
herd numbers and thereby increases pressure on the land, or
whether it can be assumed to improve productivity. The conclu
sions Felton and Ellis (1976, p. 35) drew in this respect for the
case of Nigeria deserve to be quoted:
"The success of j P 15 in eliminating outbreaks of the disease
must have restored producer confidence and enabled them to
concentrate more on productivity than on survivability of their
animals. Willingness to send an unusually high proportion of
females for slaughter from 1968 onwards suggests that the
removal of the rinderpest risk enables owners to respond to
ecological pressures by changing herd structure towards
greater efficiency. It may be argued, therefore, that j P 15
was more likely to have lessened the impact of the drought
which began in 1972 than to have increased the problems
that were experienced. Further support for this view may
be drawn from the fact that the numbers o" animals saved
by j P 15 represented such small proportions of the total
cattle population that rinderpest eradication per se could
not have contributed significantly to the overgrazing problem
inthe drought."
Rinderpest control - and rinderpest may stand as proxy for most

diseases that can be dealt with by vaccination (Sere 1979)
therefore constitutes an effective means and a commendable first
step in pastoral development, particularly since successful veterin
ary campaigns, probably more than anything else, help to gain the
pastoralists' confidence and to prepare them for further devel
opment efforts. They have the advantage of showing a quick effect
while other improvement measures may have a long gestation
period (Sandford 1980). The apparent danger of simply adding to
an overstocking problem by allowing more animals to survive is not
borne out by the Nigerian experience. The elemination of the dis
ease hazard seems to have induced the pastoralists to keep more
efficient herds. In any case the alternative of leaving these dis
95
eases unchecked is not feasible; indiscriminate mortality of all an

imals regardless of sex and ages renders any production system a
wasteful exercise. No one can therefore seriously advocate the
withdrawal or curtailment of communicable disease control as a
method of limiting livestock populations (Ferguson 1979, p. 103).
The argument is more difficult for other diseases. Internal and ex
ternal paraites impair animal productivity. Tick-borne diseases, in
particular East Coast fever, are the cause of high calf mortality
with consequent reduction in herd performance. Others like foot
and mouth disease affect most African cattle only lightly but are
barriers to international trade. Given the low productivity of the
system it is doubtful whether all diseases should be tackled with
the same degree of intensity as sometimes demanded (Boudet et
al 1980, p. 99). A go-slow approach as advocated by Ferguson
(1979, p. 103) appears more realistic. In particular the disease
control measures that have to be carried out in regular and short
intervals like tick control or that require accompanying veterinary
diagnosis to be effective (tryponosomiasis, internal parasites) re
quire a higher level of organization and productivity than is com
mon with pastoral production systems. Cost reimbursement by the
livestock owners deserves careful examination when expanding con
trol to other diseases, while in the case of the potential great
epizootics there is general agreement that for control to be ef
fective the service has to be rendered free of charge.
Disease control as such does not affect the basic mode of produc
tion. Pastoral systems function more smoothly with effective dis
ease control but they are still production systems aimed primarily
at subsistence and operating under the contraints of a marginal
environment, communal land tenure and high population pressure.
Disease control may be a pre-requisite but the extent to which
general development of this production system can thereby be
achieved is obviously limited.
5.3.3 Land and Water Development
Again the improvemnt of the natural resource base can take many
forms. In principle improvements can include fodder conservation,
drainage, removing scrub, fencing to permit rotational grazing, fer
tilization, water supply and others. A particular improvement lies
in abstention from use of the grazing land at appropriate times
(Crotty 1980). Timing and density of stocking greatly affect the
productivity of grazing land. If land is grazed heavily during sea
96
sons of sparse growth, the valuable species that grow during these
seasons will be exterminated and the pasture will be populated by
less valuable species. If part of the land is left ungrazed during
the growing season - and preferably a different part every year
grazing can be conserved and used as fodder during the dormant
season, when fodder has a much higher value. It is well known
that such practices alone and in combination increase primary pro
ductivity as illustrated by relatively recent results provided by
ILCA (1980) for the Sahelian rangelands (Figure 5.3).
ILCA also showed that the use of the inputs tested was not econ
omically feasible. But this is not the whole story. Given communal
grazing with many cattle owners each having a small number of
cattle grazing communal land it will not pay any individual to
apply inputs of a land improving nature including deferment of
grazing. Even if these inputs were financed from the outside, their
beneficial effect depends on the control of grazing. The individual
grazier cannot hope, under conditions of communal grazing, to gain
from land-improving abstinence from grazing; rationally, the guid
ing principle for the individual operating on communal grazing land
as understood here, must be, "graze it or lose it". That is, if the
individual keeps his cattle off the communal grazing to conserve
valuable species or fodder for use in the dormant season, the pas
turage that his cattle forego will be eaten by the cattle of other
people (Crotty 1980). The obstacle to land improvement is there
fore a multiple one:
- The communal grazing land tenure prevents an individual from

making an effort,
- economically the use of modern inputs to the land can hardly be
justified,
- if nonetheless efforts are undertaken they cannot be brought to
technical fruition because this would require control over grazing
for which there is generally no adequate mechanism.
A particular aspect of resource management are grass or bush
fires. The regular firing of the vegetation has beneficial effects
like facilitation of herbacious regrowth after the rains, bush con
trol, and destruction of parasites like ticks. There is also the det
rimental effect of destruction of vegetation as reserve feed. The
call to suppress fire altogether (Boudet et al, p. 94) is problem
atic. The differential effect of different types of fire (point in
97
time, intensity) on the vegetation demands judicious use of this

instrument rather than abandonment (see Pratt and Gwynne 1977
for a more detailed discussio,). Again, however, there is the need
for institutional arrangements to implement and control these
measures and to bring about a reconciliation of the differing in
terests of individuals.
Figure 5.3.
Effect of Yield-increasing Practices on Range Production
in the Sahel (kg DM/ha)
kg DMho
2000"
1750
100
!
1250 .. .
750
0
CONTROL DEFERRED DG PLUS D PLUS DO PLUS
GRAZING SCARIFI- FERTI- SC PLUS
(DO) CATION(SC) LIZER FERTILIZER
Source: ILCA (1980a).

98
Water development does not show the same degree of dependence

on institutional arrangements as other aspects of resource im
provement, at least not directly. Prima facie water development
shows its beneficial effects irrespective of the grazing practices.
The instailation of a new water supply is technically possible
without any form of grazing control. It is understandable therefore
that water development rather than range improvements has been
the major line of development in the arid zone. More funds have
probably gone into water development than into any other im
provements in the arid zone, particularly over the last two dec
ades. There is, however, a conspicuous absence of any assessment
of costs and benefits. The basic effect of water development on
pastoral production is
- to allow the keeping of more animals in a given area,
- to open up additional areas,
- to allow dry-season grazing of certain areas,
- to permit a more even distribution of animals and of land use,

- to reduce walking distances,
- to reduce the risk and potential impact of a drought.
The counter-effects of water development can be the destruction

of the vegetation in the vicinity of a water point through high
animal concentrations and the lifting of an effective limit to ani
mal numbers to the detriment of the range and its long-term car
rying capacity. In relatively good years a higher number of animals
can be kept through water development. In poor years when the
primary productivity of the range becomes the binding limit the
crash of animal population and consequent human misery may be
all the more dramatic. It is probable that water development in
the Sahel has contributed to the seriousness of the effects of the
drought in the early 1970s. It is now generally agreed that water
development in order to avoid the potential negative effects has to
be seen in the context of resource management as a whole (e. g.
Boudet et al 1980, Pratt and Gwynne 1977). This includes institu
tional arrangements for the utilization of the water but also for
the management of the pasture resource.
99
5.3.4 Institutional Development and Ranching

The natural environment already puts a strict limit on improve
megts-that are possible and economically feasible in pastoral pro
duction systems. Communal land tenure restricts possibilities fur
ther and adds the risk that improvement measures simply add to
the existing overgrazing syndrome. Therefore - and also because
the need is felt for local decision-making bodies in the develop
ment process - an increasing number of projects combine the in
troduction of technical improvements with an attempt at institu
tional development and tenure reform. This normally takes the
form of pastoral associations in which pastoralists are encouraged
to group themselves together, to be associated with a more or less
rigidly delimited piece of land and to be collectively charged with
a number of functions. These functions are different and include
not only land tenure reform and communal resource management,
but also the provision of services, communication of information,
external relations and the building and maintenance of community
cohesion and morale (Sandford 1980).
While land tenure reform is only one of many functions, the asso
ciation of a group of identified pastoralists with an identified
piece of land by its very nature implies a move in the direction of
a situation in which responsibility for livestock and for land is in
one and the same hand. Such a development has the additional
advantage of involving the local populace in decision-making and
providing a forum for discussion within and with the outside. The
question of interest here is whether such institutional development
provides the necessary conditions for production development as
well. This would imply that overuse of the range is stopped and
that new inputs can be used to increase production and productiv
ity rather than entailing stock increases to the long-term detri
ment of the production system. This is linked to the question of
why pastoral societies have not developedi appropriate institutional
arrangements in the first place. In any society if there is a seri
ous discrepancy between social and private nterests people get
together and formulate binding rules for the common good.
Examples of such rules governing grazing exist in many pastoral
societies (Horowitz 1978, Sandford 1980). The most elaborate
probably is the "dina" codified in its present form by Cheikou
Ahmadou (1818-1845), regulating usage of the interior delta of the
Niger Riger in Mali (Horowitz 1978). Most traditional grazing con
trol measures, however, are oriented toward ethnic groups rather
than individuals and livestock numbers. They are effective against
100
outsiders but hardly against rising population pressure from with

in*.
By and large therefore existing institutional arrangements are in

sufficient for effective grazing control. The weakness of pastoral
societies in this respect is sometimes attributed to the colonial
regime (Sandford 1980) and to deleterious development notions of
African governments (Baker 1975). The view emphasized in this
study is that human population due to its unprecedented rate of
increase has simply outgrown its own capacity for institutional
adaptation. if pastoral societies had only been slow in adopting
a-'equate institutional measure this could be rectified by fostering
such developments in the context of development projects. If pas
toral societies have outgrown their resource base institutional
change may still be important but cannot by itself provide a solu
tion for all the members. The real problem of communal land then
is that it has allowed populations to increase and unnoticeably
surpass the threshold of critical densities. In this light efforts at
institutional development in pastoral societies take on a different
meaning: They are neither a prerequisite for nor a complement to
production development; rather they are a means - and probably a
necessary one - of bringing the basic resource pressure under
which pastoral systems operace to the open.
The group ranch development in Kenya's Maasailand is the oldest

approach to combining production development with institutional
reform and illustrates the basic dilemma. Land was demarcated,
groups were formed and formally registered and committees were
set up to represent the groups, organize resource management and
take loans on behalf of the group for productive investments (dips
and water supplies mainly), but little was achieved in actual land
use and production. The fundamental problem overstocking was not
solved or even touched on. The group ranch scheme was not able
to check the increase in stock numbers. When land adjudication
legislation was conceived the allocation of stock rights was to be
a central part of the legislation, in the same way that land rights
were to be allocated as part of adjudication, but this was not
achieved (IBRD 1977).
* The drastic exception is the control the Borana exercise over

their own population demanding infanticide if a mother bears a
child outside the age cycle.
101
The root of the problem is in the already high pressure on the

grazing resource. This translates into a situation in which a large
number of poorer members of the society live on or near the sub
sistence level. Their intere!ts are in conflict with those of the
richer members who benefit from the modern inputs and from
commercialization of production. Both groups share for different
reasons the unwillingness to reduce stock numbers. Thus 40 to 50%
of the stockholders in Kenya's Maasailand (Kajiado and Narok)
were in 1972/75 at or below the basic subsistence level (IBRD
1977), and their situation deteriorated as a result of group ranch
ing because traditional redistributive mechanisms like the small
man herding the big man's livestock in return for milk and ani
mals becomes less necessary and less attractive for the large herd
owner (Jahnke et al 1974). With respect to production and general
resource management the group ranch project does not appear to
have been sucessful. But there was a real impact in that the
Maasai began discussing their problems openly, namely over
stocking, land shortage and the need to move out of pastoralism
into other profitable occupations.
The endpoint of pastoral development may be seen as a situation

in which the pastoralists manage their own resources at a higher
level productivity and in accordance with ecological principles of
sustained yield while basically maintaining their characteristic life
style. It may also be seen as a form of modern commercial
ranching to which group ranching and the like are only transitional
forms (Pratt and Gwynne 1977, IBRD 1968). Whether either is
possible is largely determined by the resource availability. In prin
ciple the pastoralist is not opposed to the idea of private land.
The few powerful members of the Maasai society who were allo
cated individual property are the envy of the others. They also
show that transition to modern forms of management and com
mercial production is not so foreign to the pastoralists as might
be thought. But the existing resource base simply does not allow
the allocation of sufficient land to each individual family.
If arid countries like Mauritania and Somalia organized their land
use in the form of modern ranching their agricultural population
would have to be reduced by a factor of 50. Millions of people
would need to find gainful employment elsewhere to allow a few
to reap the benefits from highly labour-productive ranching. Even
if the goal is more modest, an intermediate type of "pastoral
ranch", feasibility depends on resource availability. In some pas
toral situations like in eastern Senegal (Fulani) and southern
102
Ethiopia (Borana) population pressure on the resources is still low

enough (or environmental conditions are favourable enough) to
allow progress to be made with technical improvements embedded
in new institutional arrangements. But in general this in not the
case.
5.3.5 Human Development
The scope for development of pastoral systems is extremely

limited. With time and with institutional change accompanying
technical improvements the production systems may develop to
provide a more ample subsistence and income base but hardly for
all of today's pastoralists and their progeny (IBRD 1968, Annex 2,
pp. 1,2):
"A major problem in any move from subsistence herding to

commercial ranching is thus (paradoxically) not so much the
livestock problem of surplus and under-conditioned animals
as the human problem of surplus and under-trained people
for whom some jobs and homes must be found outside the
proposed ranch enterprise".
This impasse of the pastoralists is worsened by aspects that Grigg

(1974) treats under the heading of the secular decline of no
madism. The pastoralists lost their military advantage over peas
ants with the development of modern weaponry, with colonization
and with the building up of stronger governments. They also lost
their power over arable farmers through the abolition of slavery
and through the establishment of the colonial rule. Finally, pacifi
cation and modernization ended the nomads's monopoly of desert
transport.
By and large development efforts in the pastoral arid zone have to

take on a defensive nature with the aim of
- reducing the effects of drought on the human population
- reducing the effects of overgrazing like land degradation and

desertification
- improving the subsistence basis through the introduction of grain

into the systems.
103
A particularly important measure achieving all these ends consists

of encouraging the trading of animals directly for grain (Pratt and
Gwynne 1977). This improves the subsistence basis of pastoralists
and reduces stock pressure on the range, but it also increases
dependence on external factors (availability of grain) and therefore
the vulnerability of pastoral people.
Pastoral systems are production systems in a waiting room of de
velopment. The term does not mean that development can be ex
pected to set in this area at a later date although this possibility
can never be excluded. Rather development must be expected to
set in elsewhere. Meanwhile the pastoral system fulfills the
waiting room or ante-room fuiction and the policy-maker is held
to relief measures to avoid catastrophies.
Human rather than livestock development is the task in the arid

zones. The livestock production system can only marginally be im
proved upon, and from a certain degree of aridity onwards the
migratory form of land use through livestock is the most efficient.
Human development does not mean teaching pastoralists better
methods of stock raising, but making them fit for occupation in
other zones and sectors, so that the arid zone can be used within
its capacities and continue to be a valuable resource for the
African economies.
104
6 Crop-livestock Production Systems in the Lowlands
Crop-livestock production systems denote land use systems in

which livestock husbandry and cropping are practised in associ
ation. This association may be close and complex or livestock hus
bandry and cropping may be parallel activities without interaction,
possibly not even belonging to the same management unit. In this
case the association is reduced to geographical proximity. Essen
tially then the term crop-livestock production is used for livesiock
production that takes place in arable areas or in areas with an
arable potential. The term crop-livestock production syntem is thus
used in a dual sense: Firstly it refers to farming systems entirely
based on livestock but practised in proximity to and perhaps func
tional association with other farming systems based on cropping.
Secondly it refers to the livestock sub-system of crop-livestock
farming. The term mixed farming will be reserved for such farm
ing systems in which crop production and livestock production
display pronounced and mutually beneficial interactions within a
farm.
The crop-livestock area in the lowlands spans three ecological
zones from the semi-arid to the sub-humid and the humid. Live
stock production systems in the highlands are excluded here be
cause of their special features and dealt with in section 7. One
might still question the usefulness of such a large grouping cover
ing the production systems in the semi-arid, sub-humid and humid
zone. Several smaller deliminations are thinkable but they all have
disadvantages:
a) A grouping by ecological zone cuts aribitrarily through some

livestock production systems or types that are essentially similar
in the semi-arid and the sub-humid zone on one side, and types
that are common to the sub-humid and the humid zone on the
other; also it does not corrspond with boundaries of tsetse infesta
tion.
b) A grouping into tsetse-affected and tsetse-free areas insinuates

a clearcut break of production systems and potentials when reality
shows much more an influence of degree with seasonal fluctua
tions.
105
c) A 'rigid grouping by farming systems and types in the area con

sidered does not take account of the geographical coexistence of
the different systems,of their interaction and of the mobility par
ticularly of livestock systems; a geographical delimitation would
become impossible.
The large grouping is therefore preferred. However, as a corollary
it is important to think in terms of several gradients that distin
guish and characterize the livestock production systems by degree.
These gradients are:
- Agroclimatic conditions, in particular rainfall, and connected to

this the cropping systems;
- the human population pressure as also expressed by the cultiva
tion intensity;
- the tsetse challenge* and, in West Africa connected to it, the
importance of trypanotolerant animals;
- the overall importance of livestock as partly expressed by live
stock densities and livestock species.
These interrelated gradients shall be used for the specification of
the types of livestock production systems and their geographical
distribution in addition to the livestock-specific functions of spe
cies, products and manangement. For a finer differentiation addi
tional considerations would be necessary; in particular soils play a
role for the agronomic potential of the higher rainfall zones.
Pastoral systems in arable areas: Cropping is the predominant form

of land use and production in the zones considered but pure graz
ing systems are also found. Ranches have been dealt with in the
preceeding section. They can be abstracted from here because
they do not interact with crop farming while pastoral systems
* Tsetse challenge refers to the degree to which livestock is ex
posed to trypanosomiasis. It can be measured by the frequency
of infection if the animals are medically examined at short in
tervals and given therapeutic trypanocidal drugs upon positive re
sults (Whiteside 1962). In the folloing the term is used more
informally and not based on measurements.
106
generally do. They may extend into the semi-arid and even the
sub-humid zone as an important form of land use because the re
liability of rainfall and the rainfall pattern renders cropping mar
ginal. In general a growing period of 90 days allows reasonably
safe millet yields in the order of 400 to 500 kg/ha (FAO, Higgins
et al 1978). For aggregate considerations a growing period of 90
days has been assumed to correspond with about 500 mm of rain
andj under a monomodal rainfall pattern as prevails in West Africa,
this is generally sufficient for a reasonable millet crop. It may be
insufficient under a bimodal pattern as is common in parts of
Eastern Africa. The longer growing period may then have less than
75 days, the shorter one less than 50 days (Kassam 1980) and
cropping becomes decidedly marginal. Consequently the long term
human supporting capacity is determined more by livestock pro
duction than by cropping (Pratt and Gwynne 1977). Pastoral pro
duction systems in the semi-arid zone of Past Africa have to be
largely seen in connection with the marginality of cropping at low
input levels. Parts of the Maasai area in Kenya and Tanzania and
the Karimoja area of Uganda are examples.
A different phenomenon are the aristocratic herding societies

(Helland 1980) in East Africa which by tradition do not engage in
cropping although the land would stand cultivation. Examples are
the Bahima in south western Uganda and the Tutsi in Rwanda and
Burundi.
West Africa displays on the largest scale the coexistence of arable

farming systems and grazing systems in areas definitely suitable
for cropping. There is a long tradition of at least seasonal pen
etration of pastoral herds into the more humid areas (Ford 1971,
Fricke 1979). During the dry season when fodder and water be
come scarce in the north and when at the same time the tsetse
challenge is reduced in the more humid areas, pastoralists move
south with their herds. There is also a tendency of pastoralists to
remain in these more southerly areas where the tsetse challenge
allows this and/or where an acceptable degree of tolerance of the
livestock has developed. In some regions pastoral Fulani keep try
panotolerant breeds and are therefore able to practise a pastoral
land use system unaffected by the presence of tsetse flies.
Whether the penetration is seasonal or permanent, important com
plementary and competitive relationships develop between cropping
agriculture and livestock production.
107
Crop-livestock systems: Most of the livestock in the region con

sidered is held in crop-livestock systems. They are best character
ized by the agroclimatic conditions and by population pressure. On
the lower end of the rainfall scale millet predominates as the
crop and provides some yield however low. As rainfall increases
crop yields increase and become more secure but under traditilUral
production techniques the upper yield limits are reached quickly.
With rainfall increasing further the different crops change their
comparative advantage. Figure 6.1 illustrates the relationships for
the three major food crops in the lowlands of Tropical Africa. The
yield figures imply traditional production techniques and the ab
sence of particular constraints like poor soils, slopes, overuse and
the like (FAO, Higgins et al 1978).
In the more arid parts millet yields 300-400 kg under very dry
conditions but has an optimum towards the sub-humid zone of up
to 1 000 kg. Maize is the optimum crop in the transitional zone
between the semi-arid and the sub-humid with up to 1 700 kg but
extending far into the humid zone still yielding 500 to 900 kg.
Cassava gains in comparative advantage as conditions become more
humid. The yield is up to 2 600 kg but of course its nutritional
value per unit of weight is less. All of these crops may be grown
in mixed stands with each other and with pulses, but as lead crops
they allow an agro-climatic typification that goes beyond a mere
rainfall figure. Locally these crops also have important competi
tors. In West Africa yam and coco-yam are important root crops
accompanying or replacing cassava. In East Africa the bimodal
rainfall pattern allows the cultivation of bananas which are su
perior in their starch yields to most other crops (Ruthenberg
1980). Grain legumes are grown throughout the semi-arid and
sub-humid zone. Typical cash crops also differ with the ecological
zone. Groundnuts and cotton predominate in the semi-arid and
sub-humid zone. The wetter the zone the more important become
tree crops as cash crops (cocoa, oil palm, coconut). The im
portance of rice mainly as a cash crop but also as a subsistence
crop increases with humidity as well. The different cropping
systems in the different ecological zones differ in general
characteristics but also in terms of the fertility economy, the
labour economy, and in terms of their problems and development
potentials as elaborated by Ruthenberg (1980). Partly as a result
they also differ in terms of the actual and potential role of live
stock.
A second gradient besides humidity that differentiates the cropping
systems and strongly influences the livestock systems indirectly
jut$
and directly is population density. In all zones examples of ex

tremely high and extremely low population densities are found.
Population density finds its expression in the intensity of land use
expressed as the R-value* (Joosten 1962, Ruthenberg 1980). The
Figure 6. 1.
Suitability Classification and Yields of Major Food Crops in the

African Tropical Lowlands by Ecological Zone at Low
Input Level
pearl millet /M s l vs IIH NS
t/ha V3-Q40.- 0.7 o7-10 0. III
maize NS FMRs1111t
llll VS - S
I Mlllll1lll 1
IIII111111111111
tlha 05 0.7-0.9 0.9-1.7 0.-0.9 0.5
cassava NS Is
t/ha 0.7-1.7 1.5
II
-U
growing days 75 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 365
Zone arid i semi-arid I sub-humid I humid
NS - not suitable S -suitable

MS- marginally suitable VS-very suitable
Source: FAO (Higgins et al 1978)
* The R-value is calculated as the number of years of cultivation

multipli.-d by 100 and divided by the length of the cycle of land
utilization; the length of the cycle is the sum of the number of
years of arable farming plus the number of fallow years.
109
R-value by itself is not an indicator of land pressure. A cultiva

tion factor of 40 may indicate overuse in one area but underuse in
another depending on the fallow requirements. The function of the
fallow in a more arid environment is primarily to store and aug
ment soil moisture and is therefore also practised on high levels
of technology. At low input levels the fallow has additional func
tions which stand in the foreground with increasing humidity
(Young and Wright 1980):
- Restoration of plant nutrients from the atmosphere and the base

material of the soil,
- improvement of the organic matter status and of the soil struc
ture,
- control of weeds, pests and diseases, and
- erosion control.
Fallow requirements have been quantified on an empirical base in

relation to climate and soil types by Young and Wright (1980).
The results for the mixed farming lowlands of Tropical Africa are
given in Table 6.1. It should be noted that the definition of eco
logical zones difters slightly from the one commonly used in this
study.
From the relative importance of the different soil types one can
derive average figures of fallow requirements or maximum values
for the cultivation factor which are 40-50 for the semi-arid zone,
35-40 for the sub-humid zone and 25 for the humid zone. With
these figures and with the yield figures of Figure 6.1 critical
population densities can be calculated i. e. the population densities
that can be supported on a low level of technology and yield while
observing the fallow requirements.
The ecological conditions and the cropping systems on one side

and the. population pressure on the other can be used as a grid of
gradients to characterize the farming systems in the mixed farm
ing areas (Figure 6.2). The points marked with letters represent
examples of farming systems.
Examples of farming systems:
A Aristocratic herding societies on cultivable land, no crop
110
Table 6.1: Suggested Maximum Sustainable R-Values by Soil Type

and Ecological 'Zone I
Soil type Ecological zone/growing days (GD)

Rain forest Savanna zone Semi-arid zone
270-365 GD 120-269 GD 75-119 GD

Regosols and 10 15 20
Arenosols
Ferralsols 5-50 15 20
Acrisols 15-50 15 20
Luvisols 25 30 35
Cambisols 35 50 40
Nitosols 25-40 30-55 40-75
Vertisols 40 55 45
Fluvisols and 60 70 90
Gleysols
Source: Young and Wright (1980).
ping practised (e.g. Tutsi in Rwanda and Burundi, Bahima

in Uganda).
B Pastoral systems with cropping in semi-arid areas (e. g.
Karimoja people in Uganda).
C Pastoral systems penetrated into cropping areas, livestock
products are bartered for grain (e. g. Fulani in West
Africa).
D Extensive shifting cultivation systems (e. g. in parts of
Tanzania, Sudan, Chad).
E,F Permanent grain cropping , high population density (e. g.
northern Nigeria, Sukumaland in Tanzania, under more hu
mid conditions in northern Ghana and northern Ivory
Coast).
G,H Maize and root crop farming in the sub-humid zone; G
Figure 6.2.
Diagrammatic Representation of Forming Systems by
Ecological Conditions and Population Pressure in the
Lowlands of Tropical Africa
growing days
line of critical
population density
360" if based on cropping
*1j
270- root/tree crop systeml
0H1
tnaive dividing
-- - -- -- -- -- ----- line of crop systemns
0F
8grain
crop
line of critical *D systems sE
population density
if based on
livestock
115-
0
B /tentative ln------n
dividing
e for crop and
/livestock systems
75- I
i fPastoral systems
aipopulation prssure
10 20 30 .0 40 persons/k
Source: Compiled by the author with information from Kassam

(1980), FAO (Higgins et al 1978) and Ruthenberg
(1980); for further explanation, in particular of the
letter symbols, see text.
112
low population pressure (e. g. in the middle belt of West

Africa); H high population pressure [e. g. in the West
Lake Region of Tanzania (bananas)].
I Extensive shifting cultivation in the rainforest (e. g. in
Zaire).
Intensive root/tree crop systems under very high population
pressure e. g. in SE Nigeria).
The scheme in Figure 6.2 is highly simplified. Soil types, valley
bottom cultivation and other factors lead to significant local de
viations from what is termed the line of critical population den
sity. Extremely high population densities are found across the
zones and without apparent correlation with ecological conditions
as well as extremely low population densities; the intensity of the
farming systems varies accordingly. Taking the averages for the
zones there are population concentrations in the semi-arid zone
which is largely unaffected by tsetse flies and in the humid zone
where cultivation of root crops and tree crops is possible; the sub
humid zone shows relatively speaking the lowest population pres
sure.
As the tsetse challenge grows it becomes increasingly difficult and
eventually impossible to keep domestic stock because they succumb
to trypanosomiasis. In Eastern and Southern Africa the distribution
pattern of the tsetse flies is more or less the negative of the
livestock distribution pattern (Figure 6.3).
In Western Africa two factors render this relationship less clear
cut:
- There is the described tradition of seasonal southward migration
of livestock whose regularity is favoured by the arrangement of
the ecological zones in broad bands across the region. This gener
alized movement is assumed to have led to a degree of adaptation
facilitating even permanent exposure of the livestock to light
tsetse challenge (Ford 1971).
- There are trypanotolerant breeds of cattle, sheep and goats that
replace the trypano-sensitive ones under higher tsetse challenge
and make the keeping of ruminant livestock possible.
The trypanotolerant livestock population is not a homogeneous

113
group*. Three major cattle breeds are distinguished, the N'dama,

the West African Shorthorn, and the crosses of these and similar
breeds with zebus.
Figure 6.3: Tsetse and Cattle Distribution in East Africa
A .1
,., •.0 . '.
' I. A..
*K .: ..;: .,. ". ....

•.
. ".:.1, "
V CA~
.. ........ , '
,,... ,,P .,.' , ,..

'T' N"'/~
'k N' "1. ;A'
* . " ' .." . . ; ;"
1 170J r
(Tr~l
- ,o;> ,,,, .
Source: UNDP/FAO (Mac Gillivray et al 1967)

• The first account of \Vest African livestock and of their ability
to survive in tsetse-infested areas is by Pierre (1906). Other
basic works are Curson and Thornton (1936); Stewart (1937,
1938); Doutresoulle (1947); Faulkner and Epstein (1957); Epstein
(1971); Pagot et al (1972), Pagot (1974) and most recently ILCA
Further sub-divisions can be drawn. With sheep and goats there is
less certainty about their systematics; the type-breed of trypanoto
lerant small stock is known under the name Fouta Djallon or
Djallonk6. The trypanotolerant breeds of both cattle and small
stock are generally characterized by their small size. There is no
rigid division between tolerant and non-tolerant breeds and no
rigid geographical delimitation of their distribution. As the tsetse
challenge grows more trypanotolerant blood is crossed into the
animals and the relative numbers of tolerant and non-tolerant
animals change. Figure 6.4 illustrates the gradual nature of the
transition from non-tolerant to tolerant livestock as one penetrates
into the tsetse-affected zones in West Africa.
Figure6.4.
Delimitation of the Semi-Arid Zone in West Africa in Relation toTsetse Fly
Distribution and Zebu Cattle Predominance
90 r -----
ISETSE INFESTATION 4
ISOOINE
OF
CJOWINGOAYS
SOUtNERN OF
BOUNDARY
, EB. PREDOMINANCE
n, KM
Source: Adapted from FAO (Higgins et al 1978) and ILCA

(Trail et al 1979) and ILCA (1979a).
115
The total trypanotolerant livestock population is estimated at 7.6

million cattle and 26.7 million sheep and goats. These figures in
clude the different pure-breeds but in the case of cattle also the
cross-breeds (trypanotolerant x zebu). The major cattle group are
the N'dama (45%). A systematization of the different breed groups
and an estimate of their quantitative importance is given by ILCA
(Trail et al 1979).
In spite of the existence of trypanotolerant breeds the density of

ruminant livestock (in relation to the land and to the human popu
lation) decreases with increasing humidity and increasing tsetse
challenge. There is also a change in the species mix with cattle
decreasing more strongly than smallstock and with goats gaining
predominance over sheep in the humid zone.
The distribution of the non-ruminant livestock population follows

different patterns. The equine population is concentrated in the
semi-arid zone. The distribution of the chicken population appears
to be determined by that of the human population rather than
that of the ecology or tsetse flies although the lack of precise
information must be stressed. Pigs become more important in the
humid zone where islamic taboos are less predominant. Both pig
and poultry production systems are dealt with in a later section as
landless production systems.
6.1.3 Characteristics of Livestock Population
Livestock functions: By definition a major characteristic of live

stock systems or sub-systtms in crop-livestock systems is the in
teraction between livestock production and cropping. Within one
management unit livestock may provide agricultural inputs like
work and manure and render the enterprise more productive and
more secure by using residual capacities of production factors with
low opportunity costs like non-arable land, excess labour and child
labour, by converting crops and crop residues into high-value ani
mal products, by balancing the production and market risk etc.
Crop-livestock linkages also exist if cropping and livestock hus
bandry are practised in different management units. Mc Cown et
al (1979) proposed to distinguish (1) resource competition linkages,
(2) ecological linkages and (3) exchange linkages. The competition
linkage refers to the situation in which the same resource, nor
mally land, is claimed for both livestock and crop production.
Where this is the case, relative political power is likely to deter
mine the land-use pattern. During the centuri:s prior to coloniza
116
tion much control was. exercised by belligerent pastoral groups.

With pacification and increased central authority, the balance of
power shifted to the cultivators. In the case of an ecological
linkage the practise of one activity influences the other through
its effects on the ecosystem. For example, during the dry season
natural forage is in short supply, and the quality is normally very
low. The residues of most crops, which are of little or no value to
the cultivator, provide a superior diet for the pastoralists' herds
while at the same time, manure is deposited on the fields as the
cattle graze. This type of symbiotic relationship, as well as others
such as the transport of residues, the breaking up of ridges and
the stripping of stalks to be used later as building materials, are
considered benefical (van Raay 1975, Mc Cown et al 1979, Fricke
1979). The exchange linkage consists of the transaction between
cultivators and livestock producers, involving goods and services.
Thus nomadic pastoralists such as Moors, Tuaregs, Fulani and
Baggara camp for at least part of the year in close proximity to
agricultural areas, during which time they exchange products, e. g.
milk, ghee, meat and hides, for millet and sorghum etc. Again,
cultivators buy cattle from pastoralists and have them herded by
the pastoralists in exchange for milk, calves or money.
The provision of farm inputs (work and manure)-and the general

interaction of livestock with cropping are important functions of
livestock but they continue to fulfill other functions as well. Gen
erally speaking the output function of livestock (subsistence, in
come and nutrition) is much reduced in relative importance in
comparison to either ranching or pastoralism. In terms of the pro
ducts this reduction is particularly pronounced for milk. In many
parts milking of cattle is not practised at all. Two gradients
appear to operate. The relative importance of livestock outputs in
total farm income dec:reases with increasing humidity and appears
to increase with increasing population densities. Von Rothenhan
(1966) gives the contribution of livestock to farm income in sem.
arid Sukumaland, Tanzayia, as slightly over 20%, Norman (1972) in
semi-arid Nigeria as 18% while data for the humid zone suggest
figures closer to 10% (Lagemann 1977; ILCA, de Haan et al 1979).
However, Lagemann found a significant increase of that contribu
tion in the humid zone with increasing population densities. Appar
ently livestock still provide an income potential under extremely
high population pressure.
The asset and security functions of livestock and their social and
cultural role continue to be important in the mixed farming areas.
117
While not being as all-pervading as in pastoral systems they cer

tainly play a larger role than in ranching. For Sukumaland von
Rothenhan (1966) lists the functions of livestock in the following
order: Social status, balancing of risk, bride price, nutrition, work.
For south-eastern Nigeria Lagemann (1977) gives the ranking:
Financial reserve, social and cultural value, source of manure, con
version of non-marketable food residues into market products.
Livestock management: Also in the mixed farming areas there is
the tradition of communal tenure of the grazing resource. Since it
is cropping, not livestock, that provides the mainstay of subsis
tence and income and since there is not such pressure on the land
relative to its potential as in the arid zone the feature is less
exacting in its consequences for land use. The limitation on im
provement possibilities without institutional change remains. A
special aspect are stubbles as a grazing resource the importance
of which is outlined in the following section. Here the cultivator
maintains a degree of individual control which enables him to use
it for his own animals or to enter arrangements with livestock
owners for its use in return for manure, food products from live
stock or money. Major determinants of the feed economy and of
livestock management are the dry season constraint on one side
and the danger of crop damage by livestock on the other. The
management system attempts to balance the feed requirements of
livestock with the use of distant grazing resources and stubble
grazing while trying to avoid proximity of livestock to crops during
the growing season.
Figure 6.5 illustrates the principle for the case of a village in
northern Cameroon. At the beginning of the rainy period in June
or July, the animals graze on the arable land that is not yet culti
vated or is lying fallow. As cropping progresses, the animals are
concentrated on the fallows, which are 2-3 km from the village.
In October, millet straw from the permanent gardens provides ad
ditional fodder. At the beginning of the dry season, the animals
are driven to bush grazing further afield. This is interrupted in
January and February, when harvest residues are eaten. The ani
mals spend the rest of the dry season, from February to May, in
the more distant grazing areas. In addition, the leaves and fruits
of acacias (Acacia albida) scattered in the arable land are used.
The need to meet the animals' feed requirements and the need to
protect the crops translate into demand for the farmers' labour,
118
Figure 6.5.
Distribution of Cattle on the Village Land During the Different
Seasons in Golonpoui, Northern Cameroon
December January
November February
October MAarch
September
GMay
August
July June
EEM High livestock density 0 Vil"

" M o( Nornhiyroi
t ll
Lowlivestock density o h200
Source: Guillard (1965), adapted from Ruthenberg (1980 p. 40).
and this may be in conflict with the labour requirements of crop

ping. According to Delgado (1979) this provides the fundamental
explanation for the practice and the extent of contract herding in
West Africa. The owner entrusts his animals to herdsmen (usually
a pastoralist) to take them on more or less extended migrations.
These herdsmen are believed to be superior in livestock manage
ment. In addition the feed constraint is taken care of, crop
damage is guarded against and agricultural labour which is scarce
during the cropping season is unburdened.
119
A further livestock management system that requires mention

pertains to smallstock, usually of trypanotolerant type, in the
humid zone of West Africa. It is common to allow these animals
to roam freely in the village and to live on household refuse. It is
in fact difficult to speak of a management system at all since
efforts are limited to preventing crop damage, often children
paying attention to the fields, and to periodical slaughter of an
animal. Many millions of smallstock are kept under these
conditions in the forest belt of West Africa.
6.2.1 Fodder Productivity

In the low rainfall areas fodder productivity is a function of an
nual rainfall. This functional relationship via primary productivity
is complicated by a number of factors as one proceeds into the
more humid zone:
- The woody vegetation becomes denser and influences herbaceous

growth,
- the quantity constraint on feed in the dry season is more and
more replaced by a quality constraint,
- more and more land is used for cropping; livestock are excluded
from year-round grazing, while on the other hand stubbles and
crop residues are provided as feed.
Carryig capacity of natural pastures: To account for increasing

'ompetitiron for woody plants Blair Rains and Kassam (1980) pro
pose to decrease calculated feed availability from natural pastures
by the factor 0.4 from a rainfall level of 700 mm onward. This
produces an abrupt bTeak in the functional relationship between
rainfall and primary productivity. The figures in Table 6.2 are
based on a straight line connection between feed availability in
the arid zone and feed availability for the high rainfall zones as
proposed by Blair Rains and Kassam. This implies that feed availa
bility continues to grow with rainfall but at a lower rate than in
the arid zone because competition from woody plants becomes
stronger and because thc proportion of losses is higher. A survey
of more detailed estimates of fodder productivity and carrying
capacity (Fricke 1979) shows them to be generally within the or
der of magnitude of those in Table 6.2. They also correspond with
120
Table 6.2: Feed Availability and Carrying Capacity in the More

Humid Lowland Areas of Tropical Africa
Annual rainfall Feed availability (DM) Carrying capacity

mm kg/ha ha/TLUa
600 450 5.1

800 530 4.3
1 000 620 3.7
1 200 700 3.3
1 400 780 2.9
1 600 870 2.6
1 800 960 2.4
a) 6.25 kg per TLU and day i. e. requirements of 2 280 kg p. a.
Source: Adapted from Blair Rains and Kassam (1980).
the figures given by Pratt and Gwynne (1977) for East Africa for
the lower rainfall scale. The assumption is that their eco-climatic
zone IV (semi-arid) is comparable to the rainfall interval 500 to
1000 or the semi-arid zone as defined in this study. For the
higher rainfall zones Pratt and Gwynne give higher carrying
capacities. This appears to be due to the fact that they are deal
ing mainly with edaphic or fire-induced grassland anad exclude
forest from the areas under consideration, while the figures in
Table 6.2 allow for the competition by woody plants.
Feed quality: The constraints of the dry season for feed quantity
diminishes with increasing humidity but feed quality may consti
tute the more serious constraint. Quality in this respect refers to
the crude protein (CP) and digestible crude protein (DCP) content
of the feed which varies sharply through the year (Blair Rains
1963, Fricke 1979, Table 6.3). A DCP content of less than 2% in
121
total dry matter is generally assumed to be insufficient even for

maintenance; modest levels of growth and production increases this
requirement significantly (Riviere 1978). A large proportion of the
total production during the year is therefore insufficient in quality
for maintenance and production (Table 6.3). It should be noted
that the figures in Table 6.3 refer to production as measured by
cutting and weighing not to production available to grazing ani
mals.
The traditional responses to the fluctuations in quantity and qual
ity of feed are passive and include both migration and the
spreading of the herd over larger areas and adaptation of the
stocking and production cycle.
Table 6.3: Yields and Nutritive Value of Upland Savanna in the

Katsina and Zaria Survey Areas 1967-69 a
By months By season
Katsina survey area May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. May-Nov. Dec. -April
upland savanna
DM kg/ha 50 150 200 200 200 400 300 1 500 1 000

b
DCP content (ToDM) 10.0 10.0 7.7 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 3.3 0.0
Zarla survey area

upland savanna and
fallows
DM kg/ha 300 400 300 500 1 000 500 500 3 500 1 500
b
DCP content (%DM) 7.7 7.7 3.0 2.0 1.2 1.2 1.0 2.7 0.0
a) From cutting experiments

b) Average weighted for monthly DM quantities
Source: Fricke (1979) adjusted, based on Van Raay and de Leeuw (1974).
122
Stubble grazing: Fodder production for livestock in the crop-live

stock areas is also influenced by cropping. At first sight cropping
appears to be directly competitive with livestock keeping since it
takes areas out of the land available for grazing. However, there
is growing evidence that this has no negative influence on total
feed availability to livestock (van Raay and de Leeuw 1970 and
1974, Charreau 1975). Also the grass fallow between cropping
years is not necessarily of lower value than natural grassland. In
order to make the figures in Table 6.4 comparable to those of
Table 6.2 they have to be reduced to the proportion actually
available for livestock. If that proportion is the same as for
natural pastures it is in the order of 30%.
In northern Nigeria the herds spend up to 71% of their grazing
time in December eating the remnants of the sorghum, millet,
cotton, groundnut and cowpea crops. The amount of time increases
up to 92% in January, then falls to 58% in February. Total stubble
grazing amounts to almost one fifth of the annual grazing time
(van Raay and de Leeuw 1974, Fricke 1979).
Table 6.4: Straw Yield and Nitrogen Content of Crop Residues in

the Semi-arid Zone (Means)
Crops Straw (DM) Amount of nitrogen

t/ha kg/ha
Grass fallow 3.0 24

Pearl millet 5.0 90
Sorghum 7 .0a 21
Maize 3.0 24
Groundnut 2.5 70
Cowp, 1.5 21
a) Appears very high
Source: Cbarreau (1975).

123
Stubbles as a feed resource have the disadvantage that they are

more variable in quantity and quality than natural pastures over
the years (Ruthenberg 1980) and that their availability within a
year is more strictly limited in time.
Table 6.5 gives meat and milk productivity data for countries that
lie within he zone considered, i. e. countries whose national aver
ages are not significantly influenced by figures from the arid zone
or the highlands or from ranching enterprises (e. g. Zaire). Some
smaller countries had to be left out because of the influence of
rounding errors in the statistics. The weighted averages show no
significant deviation from the averages for total Tropical Africa.
This is to a certain degree due to the statistical base into which
already enter 'average assumptions' resulting in an apparent homo
geneity of the figures. Nevertheless there is no firm base from
which to challenge the 'average assumptiirs'. Among the selected
countries the low meat productivity in Tanzania is significant
which may be due to pastoral systems accounting for a high pro
portion of livestock production. Furthermore the low milk yields in
Upper Volta, Guinea, Ivory Coast and Ghana are notable. In these
countries the practice of milking is less common.
The FAO figures were also examined for productivity of smallstock

in these countries. No significant deviation from the average for
Tropical Africa (3.5 kg per head) was found in the case of meat.
Intercountry differences do not lend themselves to any obvious ex
planation. Milking appears to be less common leading to lower
than average (6.5 kg) milk yields but the distinction between "no
yield" and "no information" cannot be drawn.
In the zone considered livestock contributes to overall agricultural

productivity by providing draught for work and transport and ma
nure. To quantify the productive effects of these farm inputs and
of the overall farm integrative role of livestock the following
considerations can be made (compare section 3):
a) Livestock provide about 3 000 kg of manure (DM). Fully applied
to crop fields this could lead to a yield increase of 100 or more
kg of grain her hectare.
b) A pair of animals used for agricultural work increases the work
capacity of a farm two-to-threefold and can be attributed some
or all of the accompanying increase in net income.
124
c) An animal systematically used for transport performs up to five

tonne-kilometers per day the value of which can be derived from
local markets or via the valuation of alternative means of trans
port.
Table 6.5: Meat and Milk Productivity of Cattle in Selected Coun

tries of the Lowland Crop-livestock Zone of Tropical
Africa 1979
Country Beef pro- Milk production

duction
kg/head kg/head kg/
of cattle of cattle cow
Senegal 15.0 35.6 350

Sierra Leone 14.8 51.9 350
Guinea 11.2 22.9 185
Upper Volta 12.2 28.5 180
Ivory Coaqt 15.4 13.8 85
Ghana 14.0 8.0 55
Nigeria 16.7 28.5 285
Uganda 16.6 71.4 350
Tanzania 8.4 47.8 325
Malawi 12.7 43.0 466
Weighted average 12.9 40.9 298

Average Tropical Africa 13.4 . 38.3 333

125
In all cases it would appear reasonable to reduce the figures for

trypanotolerant livestock on account of their smaller size. Of the
different trypanotolerant breeds only the N'dama are generally
considered suitable for heavy agricultural work. All the additional
functions mentioned can also be provided by the equines, of which
there are sizeable populations in the semi-arid zone. A more
detailed assessment can be made of the role of animal traction in
the zone by estimating its contribution to total labour require
ments in crop agriculture (Table 6.6).
Table 6.6: The Importance of Animal Draught, Tractors and Hand

Labour in Meeting the Labour Requirements of Crop
Agriculturea in Lowland Tropical Africa 1975
Region Draught Draught TractoE Hand labour

animals shareb stare shareb
No % 7o %
Western/Central 3 486 4.1 4.8 91.9

Eastern/Southern 6 419 13.1 10.9 76.0
(excl. Ethiopia)c d
Total (excl. Ethiopia)c 9 905 9.9 7.9 82.2
a) Total labour requirements of crop agriculture as calculated by

FAO (AT 2000, 1979)
b) Share of draught animals and of tractors as determined by power
model of AT 2000;this provides for L minimum of 30 hectares of
cultivation per tractor and for about 2. 5 ha per pair of draught
animals; share of hand labour as a residual
c) Ethiopia has 5. 5 million draught animals and a draught share of
26. 6 %. As an approximation these figures can be taken to re
present draught animal use in the highlands; the balance then re
fers to the lowland zones
d) Also excluding Namibia and Botswana
Source: Jahnke and Sievers (1981) on the basis of FAO (AT 2000,
1979).
126
In Western Africa the draught animals are concentrated in the

semi-arid and sub-humid areas of the Sahel countries of Nigeria.
The highest contribution to labour requirements is in Mali with
over 17 percent. The humid countries of the West African Coast
and of Central Africa have practically no draught animals and also
a low level of tractorization. Eastern and Southern Africa, exclud
ing Ethiopia, show a higher level of mechanization. Draught ani
mals have the highest contribution in Madagascar (23%) and in
Kenya (11.4%). In total the ten million draught animals in the
lowlands of Tropical Africa contribute slightly less than ten per
cent to the total labour requirements of crop agriculture; over 80
percent are still provided by land labour (FAO, AT 2000 1979,
Jahnke and Sievers 1981).
6.2.3 Productivity and Tsetse Challenge
If livestock are present at all tsetse challenge influences livestock

productivity in two ways; directly by reducing animal performance
and indirectly by necessitating the use of trypanotolerant animals
whose productivity may be different. Table 6.7 gives productivity
indicators for tolerant and non-tolerant stock under different
levels of management and of tsetse challenge. The overall produc
tivity index relates total production to a hypothetical unit of 100
1eg of liveweight to be maintained thereby abstracting from live
weight differences between trypanotolerant livestock and other
livestock (ILCA, Trail et al 1979).
Table 6.7 shows no significant differences between zebus and try
panotolerant breeds under zero and light challenge. As the tsetse
challenge increases the productivity of all breeds including the
trypanotolerant ones decreases, but that of zebus more strongly so.
The statistical base of the figures is insufficient for firm con
clusions but they provide quantitative empirical evidence for the
hypothesis that humped and humpless cattle are of similar produc
tivity in the absence of trypanosomiasis; that the humpless cattle
gain a relative productivity advantage as the tsetse challenge
grows; and that eventually tsetse challenge is too high for zebus
while trypanotolerant animals still allow livestock production to be
carried out albeit on a reduced level of performance.
The influence of management is overlain by that of tsetse

challenge and requires a more differential treatment (Table 6.8).
There is no productivity difference between the two trypanoto
lerant breeds in spite of the difference in size. Management in
fluences productivity significantly. The major determinant is the
127
degree of tsetse challenge, which may reduce performance by as

much as one half. The use of trypanotolerant cattle can therefore
be considered as a means of keeping livestock in spite of the
presence of tsetse flies and trypanosomiasis but not as a means of
completely avoiding their impact. It must be stressed that high
levels of management usually also lead to a reduction of the
tsetse challenge (bush clearing, rotational grazing, early slaughter,
no feed stress) so that management level and tsetse challenge, to
a degree, are interdependent.
Table 6.7: Productivity of Trypanotolerant and Zebu Cattle in

Three Locations at Different Levels of Tsetse Challenge
and Management
Country: Nigeria Ivory Coast CARa

Challenge: zero light medium
Management: station village village
Indicator Nb Sc Zd Sc Zd Sc Zd
Cow viability (%) 100 100 100 98 96 96 95

Calving percentage 100 96 91 70 72 68 63
Calf viability to 97 95 100 55 60 80 65
1 year (%)
Calf weight at 131 101 101 200 75 90 120
1 year (kg)
Annual milked out - - - 70 - - 71
yield (kg)
Cow weight (kg) 266 183 343 200 270 190 320
Productivity indexe 48.1 50.2 52.8 18.5 20.5 26.3 18.2
(kg)
a) Central African Republic
b) N dama
c) Shorthorn
d) Zebu
e) Total weight of one year old calf plus liveweight equivalent of milk pro
duced per 100 kg of cow liveweight maintained per year
Source: ILCA (Trail et al 1979).

128
Table 6.8: Productivity of Trypanotolerant Cattle Groups Under

Different Management Systems and Levels of Tsetse
Challenge
Variable Number Calv- Calf Calf Cow Index/

of ing via- weight weight 100 kg
sources bility cow
% 0 kg kg kg
Overall mean 30 69.1 78.4 96.4 205 28.5

Breed
N' dama 21 70.1 79.9 113.7.a 248 a 28.7
Shorthorn 9 63.1 76.9 70 .1b 16 2b 28.3
Management
Ranch/station 16 76. 4 a 85 8a 1 0 7. 1 a 212 33 . 7a
Village 14 61.8 b 7 1 0b
. 85 .7b 198 23.3 b
Tsetse challenge
Zeroe 3 92.4 a 81.5 97.7 216 4 0 .1a
b
Low 13 7 3.1b 84.6 98.1 212 31.9
Medium 10 34. 8 c 79.7 96.7 200 23. 2 cc
High 4 56.1 67.8 93.1 192 18.8
a-d) Any values within a subgroup with different subscripts are significantly
different at the probability level of 1 percent
e) Zero tsetse challenge is confounded with a very high level of feeding
and management
The figures for sheep and goats are less well defined with respect
to specific breed types, management levels and levels of tsetse
challenge. Productivity data for sheep and goats in areas known to
be tsetse-free are compared with available data for trypanotoler
ant sheep and goats generally found in tsetse-affected areas. The
productivity index is adapted to small stock and expresses total
production in meat equivalents in 5 months per 10 kg of female
liveweight to be maintained (Table 6.9). Trypanotolerant smallstock
appear to be more productive than non-tolerant stock in spite of
their smaller size, their exposure to tsetse challenge and the gen
erally low management levels.
129
Table 6.9: Productivity Traits of Trypanotolerant and Non-tolerant

Groups of Sheep and Goats
Indicator Sheep Goats

non-tolerant tolerant non-tolerant tolerant
tsetse-free tsetse- tsetse-free tsetse
affected affected
No of situations 10 9 11 3
Breeding female 94 86 94 88
viability %
Lambing/kidding % 123 179 148 224
Progeny viability % 76 68 71 77
Progeny weight 15.5 11.5 10.5 7.5
(kg at 5 months)
Breeding female 33.1 23.6 28.0 21.3
weight (kg)
Productivity index 4.5 6.4 4.1 6.9
The productivity index used is not directly related to commercial

productivity. Variables like age of first calving, culling rates, age
of maturity and slaughter affect the latter but this of course
holds irrespective of the breeds kept. It should also be noted that
the index relates to liveweight and not to metabolic weight. On
the basis of metabolic weight smaller animals would show lower
indices which may be relevant for fine calculations in situations in
which feed is known to be a scarce factor.
6.3.1 Mixed Farming
The term crop-livestock farming has been used to denote a gen

eral association between crops and livestock. Mixed farming as a
development venue has a more specialized meaning: The intensifi
cation of the output function of livestock within the farming sys
tem parallel to the development of the farm input function (work
and manure) and the increased integration of livestock for the
130
benefit of soil fertility and overall farm productivity; livestock de

velopment is viewed in the context of the farming system as a
whole including the crop sub-system. Crop cultivation benefits
from a number of advantages as rainfall increases i. e. as one
moves from the more arid to the more humid areas:
a) Many grain crops show a higher yield potential in the
sub-humid zone (FAO, Higgins et al 1978).
b) The relative advantage of high-yielding root crops increases.
The sub-humid zone offers interesting prospects for producing low
cost starch from improved root crop species and through the ap
plication of mineral fertilizers. There are also prospects for im
proved grain legumes (Ruthenberg 1980).
c) A considerably longer growing period opens up possibilities for

continuous cropping, higher cropping indices and higher overall
yields (Ruthenberg 1980).
In contrast to these advantages there is a number of problems im
posing serious constraints as humidity increases (Ruthenberg 1980
and others):
a) A relatively higher proportion ot total organic matter and of
nutrients are bound in the standing natural vegetation. Clearing for
cultivation leads to losses. Organic substances from crop residues
alone are quickly broken down and do not benefit soil structure a
great deal.
b) Intense rains lead to much leaching and severe erosion even on
moderate slopes unless the rainfall is broken up by a canopy of
plants or a surface mulch.
c) High night-time temperatures and lower radiation intensity,
especially during the latter part of the rainy season when there is
a high incidence of cloud cover, reduce the photosynthetic ca
pacity (Kassam and Kowal 1973, pp. 39-49).
d) The more favourable conditions for plant growth also lead to

more vigorous weed growth which may become quite unmanageable
particularly under conditions of near-permanent cropping.
e) The general increase of biological activity also favours the de

velopment of pests and diseases.
131
f) Even high rainfall regions may suffer moisture stress because of

the poor water-retention capacity of most upland soils. Droughts
of only five days may depress yields significantly if they occur
during the period of tillering.
g) Fertilizers tend to be less effective here than in drier climates
or in irrigation farmiag because soils are predominantly acid, are
low in organic matter and deficient in silt and clay particles.
Their cation exchange (i. e. nutrient holding) capacity is low.
Nitrogen fixation by legumes is also lower (Kassam and Kowal
1973, p. 49).
The disadvantages express themselves in overall greater difficulty

of maintaining soil fertility. The function of fallow periods in re
storing soil fertility is considered more essential the more humid
the environment (Ruthenberg 1980, Young and \Wright 1980). The
transition to permanent cropping which has taken place on low
levels of technology in many semi-arid areas is more problematic
in the more humid zones. When population densities grow and
fallow periods are reduced land degradation develops much more
quickly. In spite of relatively low overall population densities land
degradation is already wide-spread in the sub-humid zone*.
For development with known and proven technologies the semi-arid

zone has considerable potential. Faster maturing and higher-yield
ing varieties of grain crops, particularly efficient in connection
with fertilizer, are available and increase production and improve
security. Mechanization increases the productivity of the land
(deep ploughing, moisture conservation, timely field preparation,
reduction of harvest losses). In the very humid areas on the other
hand proven development paths lead to garden agriculture, valley
bottom development for cultivation and tree crop development in
the upland areas, all stable farming systems on a high level of
productivity. The development of irrigated water-controlled rice
growing in the depressions and flood plains provides the basis for
further intensification and high human supporting capacity.
It is in the sub-humid zone that the transition to permanent crop

ping and high yields is still a matter of great uncertainty. The
question is whether to substitute for the fallow by high inputs of
* Satellite images of the sub-humid zone in \W'est Africa analysed
by the Land Resource Division, Ministry of Overseas Develop
ment, London, shown at the ILCA symposium in Kaduna (ILCA
1979 a).
132
mineral fertilizer and/or by green manure crops, whether to con

centrate cultivation on the hydromorphic locations or whether to
promote mixed farming (Ruthenberg 1980)*. There is little dispute
about the agronomic advantages of mixed farming in the sub
humid zone as expressed for the case of Nigeria (FAO 1966, p.
10):
"Unlike the forest zone to the south, the middle belt needs
livestock as an essential adjunct to farming. It lies to the
north of the economic limit for tree crops; it is ecologi
cally suited to field crops. For this purpose the animal is
needed as a provider of fertility and as a beast of burden.
No system of permanent farming, that is a system which
will avoid erosion and maintain soil fertility without re
source to "bush fallow" can exist in this zone without ani
mal manure.
Given the possibility of keeping cattle, along with other
livestock, the middle zone has the capacity to become the
mixed-farming area par excellence of Nigeria. The higher
rainfall and shorter dry season will make possible a wider
range of crops than farther north; in particular it will af
ford better natural conditions for growing of annual and
perennial fodder crops as a food basis for a livestock in
dustry. Livestock in turn will enrich the soil, and along
with better moisture conditions than in the classical areas
for field crops, should lead to substantially higher yields".
Also in Tropical Africa there is at least one case where a form

of mixed farming has developed autonomously out of traditional
farming and demonstrates its feasibility and advantage under prac
tical farming conditions (Ludwig 1967, Ruthenberg 1980): The
farming system on Ukara Island (Lake Victoria), where climatic
conditions are sub-humid. The Wakara have lived for a long time
under conditions of high population density, recently estimated at
over 200 persons per km. The average Wakara family has only a
hectare of arable land at its disposal, and this is cultivated by
hoe. The need to guarantee food for a large population on these
soils has led the Wakara to develop and apply highly refined prac
tices to preserve fertility. In this respect livestock play a key
* Zero tillage techniques as an alternative or complementary ap
proach appear to be at too early a stage to be judged for their
eventual contribution to permanent cropping in the sub-humid
and humid tropics.
133
role. The high population densities have not resulted in declining

but increasing herds, simply because livestock provide an essential
means of maintaiping soil fertility. Livestock densities increased
from 131 per km in 1925 to 154 in 1957 and from 0.6 TLU per
person to 0.7 (Ludwig 1967). Also in comparison with surrounding
mainland areas of much lower human population density, the
stocking density of Ukara is higher, indicating the need for more
livestock as population pressure increases.
The high livestock densities necessitate intensive feeding practices.

Grazing is only occasionally practised; stall feeding is the principal
feed supply system. The livestock, 3.4 TLU on average per farm
consisting of two to three head of cattle, three to four goats and
occasionally a sheen, spend most of the time in the stables. These
are pits up to 1 metre deep which are lined with rocks along the
edges towards the exit for stability. The lined part of the pit also
serves as a kind of feeding trough. Bulls only rarely leave the pits,
but cows, young stock and small stock are allowed out for grazing
at certain seasons of the year. Grass, sometimes even grown under
irrigation, leaves, weeds and crop by-products are brought to the
pit and either fed or used as litter. Thus the pit fills up two or
three times a year. The contents are then placed on a heap on
the compound and as required taken to the fields distributed and
worked into the soil. The quantities of feed transported to the
stables and of the dung carried to the fields are estimated at 202
and 158 kg respectively per day on every farm. Some 10 to 13
tonnes of manure become available every year. In addition to ma
nuring, leaves are worked directly into the soil, household refuse
and night soil are utilized and rich alluvial soil dung from pits is
carried to less fertile parts of the island. The predominant func
tion of livestock is the supply of a farm input, manure. Meat and
milk are produced but more as by-products in comparison with
manure. The livestock and manure economy together demand on
average two hours of labour per day on a typical farm throughout
the year. For conditions of Tropical Africa this is close to one
full man equivalent, essentially engaged in preservation of soil fer
tility. A family of five with typically 2.5 man-equivalents devotes
almost 2/5 of its work capacity to measures aimed at maintaining
the yield levels.
The case of Ukara Island demonstrates the feasibility of mixed

farming under conditions of Tropical Africa. Yields are low but
the success of mixed farming lies in the fact that very high
population densities can be supported while sustaining the soil fer
134
tility level. But this does not mean that the system could be
easily transferred. Firstly Ukara Island is free of tsetse flies. This
might be a result of the high population densities itself. Over
most of the sub-humid zone the initial obstacle to livestock devel
opment is trypanosorniasis. Either tsetse control operations have to
be carried out or trypanotolerant animals must be used, whose
number is small in comparison with the zone under consideration.
Secondly it is a very complex way of farming to which the ex
perience of generations has contributed. Thirdly the mixed farming
system yields very low return on labour; as a consequence those
Wakara who transfer to the mainland abandon mixed farming for
the benefit of shifting cultivation and extensive livestock keeping
(Ludwig 1967, Ruthenberg 1980). The farming system of Ukara Is
land developed over generations of high population density and of
preoccupation with soil fertility. Such conditions cannot be quickly
created elsewhere. Mixed farming remains the long'-term objective,
but it can hardly be created in all its complexity in one step. The
development of the output function of livestock (meat and milk),
of the input function in the form of traction and the elaboration
of appropriate measures to overcome the tsetse problem are there
fore not to be seen as alternatives to mixed farming. Rather they
serve to strengthen the role of livestock, render the farming sys
tem more productive and thus constitute steps in direction of pro
ductive mixed farming.
6.3.2 Strengthening the Role of Livestock
The use of livestock manure for soil fertility is widespread in the

ecological zones considered here. The higher the population pres
sure and the higher the cultivation intensity the more value is
placed on manure. But the other functions of livestock like meat
and milk production and the use of animals for draught also re
quire strengthening in the process of livestock integration, though
there is little evidence of this within traditional African farming
systems. Development efforts have concentrated on animal draught
more than on other functions (1) to increase crop production and
productivity directly, (2) to provide the starting point for improved
livestock husbandry and therefore increased meat and milk outputs
and (3) to lead eventually to productive mixed farming systems.
Animal draught: In Tropical Africa the use of livestock for draught

purposes is not traditional; the important exception is Ethiopia
with its own agricultural history, but this country largely falls into
the highland zone excluded from the present considerations. Arab
135
influence i, likely to have played a role in Sudan and in some of

the Sahel countries but, by and large, animal traction constitutes
an introduction by Europeans. In Eastern and Southern Africa this
introduction dates back a long time (in the former Portuguese ter
ritories well before the turn of the century, in many Eastern
African countries during the early decades of this century). In
Nigeria the beginning of animal traction is put in the 1930s. In
francophone West Africa the earlier mechanization efforts (in
cluding tractorization) largelv failed; from the 1950s on a series
of new programmes were launched two of which are considered
particular successes: The introduction of the animal drawn plough
in Mali for rice and cotton cultivation, and the introduction of the
animal drawn drilling machine for groundnut cultivation in Senegal
(Cass~et al 1965).
Tractorization is strongly dependent on the development of agricul

tural incomes and wages; increased tractorization is predicted for
Tropical Africa but also increased use of draught animals simply
because income levels will not allow large-scale tractorization
(FAO, AT 2000 1979; jahnke and Sievers 1981). Furthermore past
experience with tractorization programmes and prospects of rising
energy costs are not encouraging. There is therefore room for the
expansion of animal draught particularly in the semi-arid and sub
humid zones where ecological conditions favour this form of mech
anization. In the more humid areas tsetse infestation reduces per
formance of livestock, also of trypanotolerant stock, which is
compounded by the stress of work. Also the natural woody vege
tation becomes too dense for animal traction to be feasible.
In comparison with hand cultivation the following effects are
ascribed to animal traction (Cass4 et al 1965):
- Reduction of the drudgery of labour,

- increase of labour productivity,
- possibility to have a greater proportion of lucrative cash crops
in the cropping pattern, and
- increase of land productivity.
There is conflicting evidence as to the realization of the different

effects and to their relative importance (CEEMAT 1975; Dupont de
136
Dinechin 1969, Cassd et a] 1965, Munzinger 1981). But generally

the increase in the labour capacity of a farm is an important ad
vantage in semi-arid environments. The soil is usually too hard for
working at the end of the dry season and the loss of soil moisture
would be disadvantageous; the first rain showers have to be
awaited. But then time is very short to put the seed in the ground
to make maximum use of the short growing period. Thus the ani
mal drawn plough and the animal drawn drill are essential in
struments to overcome this labour constraint. All evidence shows
that the introduction of animal traction is accompanied by a sig
nificant increase in the area under cultivation. The increase in
cultivated area is in excess of the subsistence requirements and
can be put to cash crops. The overall productivity of the farm is
thereby increased although labour requirements, even on a per
hectare basis may indeed not be reduced. The productivity of the
land may be increased if the cash crops have a higher return than
the subsistence crops. Whether animal traction has a direct yield
etfect is again a matter of controversy.
Integrated Crop Development: If no other development measures

accompany the introduction of animal draught, and if animal
draught were to be practised for food crops or cash crops at low
yield levels only, its attraction would be limited, because there
are considerable efforts and costs involved in animal traction. The
oxen have to be trained, their sale for slaughter is postponed by
years during which they have to be fed for relatively small weight
gains, the equipment is expensive - FAO (AT 2000 1979) puts it
at $ 325 for a pair of oxen in 1975 prices and Mlunzinger (1981)
uses a value close to $ 400 in 1979 prices - and there is hassle
both in handling the animals and in replacing broken parts of the
equipment. In addition there is the considerable though not im
mediately visible danger of soil degradation. Manual cultivation
puts a check on the extent of cultivation which implies observation
of fallow requirements by necessity. When this check is eliminated
additional agronomic measures become necessary to maintain soil
fertility. Both economic and ecological considerations demand that
the introduction of animal traction be viewed as part of an overall
approach to agricultural development.
Detailed calculations of the farm economics of animal traction

show that yield increases are necessary to make traction competi
tive with hand labor.. operations (Munzinger 1981, p. 303). This
appears to be a necessary prerequisite fur the initial adoption of
traction which eventually also leads to increased total farm in
137
come as a result of expanding the cultivated area. The perfor

mance of the particularly successful programme by CFDT (Com
pagnie frangaise pour le developpement des fibres textiles) in Mali
can to a large extent be explained by the integration of animal
draught into overall agricultural development (Cass6 et al 1965; de
Wilde 1967). The introduction of animal draught was linked to the
introduction of a remunerative cash crop, cotton. From the start a
number of measures like manure application, use of mineral fertil
izers, pesticide spraying were promoted to enhance general agri
cultural productivity (Table 6.10).
Table 6.10: Adoption of Agronomic Improvements (Other Than

Animal Draught) and Yield Development in Cotton
Growing in Mali 1961/62 to 1964/65
Indicator 1961/62 1962/63 1963/64 1964/65
Number of manure 1 532 2 430 2 322 3 705

pits and stables
Cotton area treated 228 843 1 824 3 884
with fertilizer (ha)
Cotton area sprayed n. av. 1 187 2 708 6 429
three times (ha)
Area under 42 503 50 706 57 049 64 489
cotton (ha)
Yield (kg marketed 138 235 268 314
per ha sown)
Source: de Wilde (1967).
dy 1976/77 total cotton production in Mali had reached 133 000

tonnes; the number of draught oxen in that year was estimated at
245 000 and the total number of ploughs at between 100 000 and
130 OOC (ILCA 1978). There were also 95 000 cultivators, 10 800
harrows, 9 800'seeders and 52 300 carts in the country. This de
138
velopment can largely be viewed as the result of the original

CQDT programme.
The following reasons have been identified to account for the suc
cess of the CFDT programme (de Wilde 1967):
(a) Agronomic research which has made it possible to select a
highly productive ,variety and to perfect effective means of realiz
ing its yield potential with appropriate fertilizer applications and
plant protection: measures;
(b) the introduction of an extension service which is capable of
working closely and constantly with the farmer, providing him with
both the advice and means of production he needs;
(c) the provision by the same company of the equipment and sup
plies that enable the peasant to change his traditional methods of
cultivation, prepare a field for growing cotton in pure stands, for
tilize and weed it, and spray it;
(d) the fact that the farmer has been able to sell his cotton re
gularly thanks to the marketing assured by the CFDT; and
(e) the fact that cotton, with its comparatively high price, has
been the most profitable crop for the Malian peasant to grow.
In this light the livestock component, i. e. the use of animal

draught, has only been one element of an agricultural package. It
has been a particularly appropriate one since it allowed both the
expansion of cropping and at the same time a degree of intensifi
cation.
The experience in Mali bears out in a classical manner the con
clusion Cass6 et al (1965) drew from a review of the experience
with animal traction in francophone West Africa:
"The principal attraction of draught power probably lies in

the possibility that it offers to multiply by a coefficient
the results, and thus the revenue, obtained due to other
methods of intensificition".
Meat and milk development: The possibilities of meat and milk de
velopment in pastoral systems of the arid zone are limited for
ecological reasons alone; the highland zone has seen substantial
139
advance particularly in dairying; the crop-livestock systems in the

lowland zones are conspicuous for the absence of significant
achievements in meat and milk production in spite of a consider
able natural potential. Isolated examples of intensification exist
and point to the scope:
- Traditional ox-fattening activities in Madagascar;

- fattening operations in Malawi based on the feeding of ground
nut residues;
- smallholder fattening operations in the vicinity of large-scale
operations based on the feeding of molasses and other crop by
products (Ivory Coast, Upper Volta);
- fattening operations based on artificial pastures the beginnings

of which have been studied in considerable detail in Togo (Doppler
1980, Riidenauer 1981);
- commercial milk production developed in a pastoral setting as e.

g. in the Vom area of Nigeria and in smallholder areas of Malawi.
The most comprehensive programme for livestock development in

the zone is probably the one implemented in northern Ivory Coast
(Bai!hache et al 1974). The core objective is to turn the livestock
enterprise into a productive line of agricultural production that is
valued by the livestock owners for its profitability and with the
success of which the livestock owners increasingly identify them
selves. The development efforts are cast in an extension project
that promotes the construction of holding grounds for villages that
serve for protection and as central places for inspection and care,
the application of veterinary measures, particularly against internal
parasites*, improved sanitary conditions and improved nutrition of
the animals (mineral supplements, fodder reserves, agricultural by
products). As a result the total herd grows at 10% p. a. and the
meat offtake per head increases from 23 kg initially (for the
N'dama) to 29 kg. This performance is achieved at considerable
cost, but ex-ante evaluations established their economic justifica
* The protection of the animals from the great epizootics (rinder
pest, pleuropneumonia, blackleg, anthrax and pasteurellosis) is
seen as a 'conditio sine qua non' of all livestock development
measures.
140
tion and the indications after several years of operation in the

field confirm the feasibility of this approach to livestock develop
ment.
With dairying there is even less development activity. There exist
dairy ranches as a colonial heritage in semi-arid/sub-humid ares of
Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe and Zambia. The development of par
astatal dairy ranching has been promoted in Tanzania with limited
success so far. As a form of ranching they constitute a different
production system from those considered here and their applicabil
ity to other regions appears limited. If one classes town dairies,
which exist and for which there is further development potential,
as 'landless' production systems one is left with the quasi-absence
of commercial dairy production from the lowland mixed farming
areas. Of course localized efforts do exist (Malawi, Vom in Nige
ria) but for the aggregate view the statement holds. A reason for
this may be the wide-spread but possibly biased opinion that dairy
development has to be based on high milk yields.
The genetic potential for dairy production of indigenous African
livestock has been shown to be limited (ILCA/IER 1977). Dairy de
velopment is therefore normally based on exotic (usually European)
breeds. These breeds are considered as too sensitive for environ
mental stress, particularly tsetse challenge in the lowland areas.
Low management levels as pertain in lowland smallholder situations
preclude the keeping of exotic breeds and therefore dairy develop
ment. This view is based on the assumption that a significant in
crease in milk production per animal is a pre-requisite for dairy
development. But this need not be the case. The example of India
shows that successful smallholder dairy development can set in at
lowest yield levels (Brumby 1979). The development approach in
India was based on (1) transmitting the high urban demand for
milk at attractive prices to the rural producer, (2) organizing
marketing and processing efficiently, and (3) supplying concentrate
feed at cost price to the producer. With these measures it was
possible to continue to expand the urban market, while allowing
the farmer with an average of 1.3 cows/buffaloes, each producing
not more than one or two litres of milk per day, to increase his
income by 50% and more. The essential aspects at the farm level
were the effective harnessing of low opportunity cost inputs,
namely labour, non-arable land (roadside grazing) and crop by
products. With the additional use of concentrates a significant
value-added effect through livestock integration could be achieved.
141
The relevance of the Indian example for the mixed farming areas
of the African lowlands is obvious. Development along these lines
would allow use to be made of animals with comparatively low
milk productivity but a relatively high degree of adaptation to the
environment, particularly pronounced in the case of trypanotolerant
animals.
Integrated Livestock Development: The most often cited advantages
of keeping livestock, in particular cattle on smallholder farms are:
The use of manure as fertilizer on crops, a source of milk for
sale and better nutrition, better surveillance of household animals
than when they are entrusted to outside herdsmen, the extra
weight gains from the use of crop by-products as forage and a
source of power for animal traction (Delgado 1980). All these
advantages are lost if livestock are entrusted to semi-sedentary
herdsmen who live outside the villages or to certain members of
the family to take the animals on transhumance. However up to
this day contract herding has remained the preferred system of
the vast majority of the cultivators, and not even successful at
tempts to introduce traction have changed this separation of live
stock from the rest of the farming system (Delgado 1980, Fricke
1979). The reason for this must be seen in the dry season feed
constraint together with the labour constraint in these farming
systems.
On low levels of agricultural technology the only response to the
feed constraint is migration. Furthermore if animals are kept on
or near the farm there is th- constant need to guard the animals
to prevent crop damage. The main labour constraint in cropping
lies at weeding time (Delgado 1980, Eddy 1980) and in the initial
stages of animal traction the animals cannot be used for that
practice. There is then a clear conflict (Delgado 1980):
"The prospects for smallholder mixed farming programs

are somewhat limited in much of the Savannah. In most
cases, farmers do distinctly better to entrust their cattle
to the Fulani than to herd them themselves. Even under the
most favourable circumstances the maximum increase in
farm revenue from keeping two steers is less than 3 per
cent of the overall income potentially attainable by en
trusting household cattle to specialized herdsmen. Against
this marginal benefit from retaining large stock on the
farm, the peasant has assumed a new risk of crop damage,
a greater risk of loss of capital through lack of expertise
142
in animal husbandry, and a significant degree of extra

work in slack periods."
At a higher level of agricultural development the feed constraint

could be lifted by measures of pasture improvement like planting
drought-resistant species of Cynodon, Cenchrus and Stylosanthes,
adopting cutting, fertilizing and burning regimes, making silage and
hay and using fodder trees and shrubs and agricultural by-products.
To lift the labour constraint during weeding row culture would be
practised to allow weeding by animal draught. Damage to cruz
would be prevented by stabling and fencing. The additional inputs
to livestock would be profitable because of the high sales value of
milk and fat animals.
There is thus a long way to go to achieve full livestock integra

tion. Successful introduction of animal traction requires comple
mentary agricultural development measures but even then most
programmes stop short of a full integration of livestock and mixed
farming. Even after a period of seemingly successful practice of
animal traction farmers may give up cattle husbandry. This was
noted in Nigeria (Fricke 1979) where farmers found it more prac
tical and more profitable to hire tractor-drawn ploughs and to
purchase mineral fertilizer. Consequently, the ifitroduction of
plough cultivation is by no means a step automatically followed by
further integration of the livestock sub-system, however desirable
this might be.
6.3.3 Tsetse Control*
Ge'ieral: Tsetse flies and trypanosomiasis they carry are distri

buzed over 10 million square kilometers of Tropical Africa, essen
tially in the three ecological zones considered here - the semi
arid, the sub-humid and the humid lowlands. They affect livestock
productivity adversely and in many areas make the keeping of do
mestic, particularly ruminant livestock, impossible. Various methods
have been devised for the reduction or eradication of tsetse popu
lations (Ford 1970). Until about 1950, virtually only two methods
of tsetse control had been used with any degree of success. These
were the destruction of the larger wild mammals some of which
tsetse species are largely dependent on for their food, and modifi
cation of the bush cover of the land, usually by felling trees, so
as to deprive the tsetse flies of habitats necessary for their sur
vival. Since 1955, the use of bush clearing and insecticides have
* The discussion follows closely Jahnke (1976b).

143
gained ground at the expense of wildlife shooting as a method of

control. The total area in Tropical Africa which has been cleared
of tsetse flies may be estimated at about 300 000 square kilo
metres and is to a large extent situated in four countries (Table
6.11).
Table 6.11: Areas Freed from Tsetse Flies in Nigeria, Zimbabwe

Tanzania and Uganda
Country Area freed Period Remarks

sqkm
Nigeria 205 000 1956-1978 by insecticide application; only

9 000 sqkm actually treated
Zimbabwe 25 000 1930-1970 by game hunting, then insecti
cide application
Tanzania 16 000 1947-1955 by bush clearing, then by insec
ticide application
Uganda 28 000 1947-1970 by game hunting and bush clear
ing, then insecticide application
Source: FAO (1980), Matteucci (1974). Jahnke (1976b), Na'Isa (1979),

Ford (1971).
Other operations have been carried out in Botswana, Zambia, Chad

and Cameroon; more localized ones in Senegal, Niger, SudE ,
Rwanda and Burundi and other countries.
Technically it is possible to free land of tsetse flies, although the

problems of adaptation of control methods to local conditions, of
logistics and organization, of verification of the results and of
preventing immediate reinfestation must not be underestimated.
The real question relates to the justification of tsetse control
operations. A number of authors argue for tsetse control to relieve
protein deficiency in Africa (e. g. Kershaw 1970). This appears
far-fetched. If a protein deficiency exists it exists among the
poorer sections of the population. It is therefore necessary to find
cheap sources of protein. Beef and milk produced in outlying areas
144
after costly tsetse control are likely to be the most expensive

sources of protein in any country. It is unrealistic to assume that
the poor population groups could benefit from this expensive pro
tein. More tangible and realistic benefits from tsetse control could
arise in two ways. First tsetse infestation has ill-effects irrespec
tive of the potential of the infested land. Tsetse control is then
justified by the elemination of these ill-effects. Second tsetse in
festation prevents or reduces the use of infested land. Tsetse con
trol is then justified by the realization of the potential of the in
fested areas.
The conceptual separation of these two arguments despite their

interdependence allows a clearer assessment of costs and benefits
of control operations and a better determination of the role of
tsetse control in a development strategy.
The ill-effects of tsetse infestation: The following ill-effects of

tsetse infestation per se can exist:
(a) Tsetse flies can also act as carriers of human trypanosomiasis

(sleeping sickness). Sporadic contact with the human population
may result in a level of endemicity; moreover foci of potential
epidemics persist.
(b) Tsetse-infested areas provide the possibility of sporadic con

tacts between tsetse and cattle so that cattle trypanosomiasis may
be a problem in tsetse-free areas.
(c) Tsetse-infested areas may constitute a focus of expansion and

tsetse-free areas may therefore be threatened by a tsetse inva
sion.
(d) The presence of tsetse may result in over-crowding in and

over-utilization of the tsetse-free areas with negative effects on
their productivity.
It is difficult to argue from the existence of these ill-effect for

large-scale control operations covering thousands of square kilo
metres and involving considerable costs per hectare of land
treated.
ad (a): Sleeping sickness is now reduced to a very low lcvel of

endemicity involving not more than a few hundred cases a year in
all of Tropical Africa. The danger of a fla up persists but an
145
outbreak is generally associated with a well-defined focus on

which control measures concentrate.
ad (b): Drug protection appears to be the most appropriate strat

egy against trypanosomiasis from seasonal exposure and from mar
ginal tsetse challenge since it is flexible, direct and cheap. The
problem is that imprudent use of these drugs leads to resistence
and consequent lowered effectiveness of these drugs*. But if drugs
cannot be administered properly this points to low levels of organ
ization and productivity of the production systems attached. It is
doubtful whether for such production systems large new areas
should be opened up at considerable cost.
ad (c): The tsetse flies spread to areas that provide a suitable

habitat and a host to feed on; in general this means bush and
wildlife which in turn only exist under very low intensities of land
use. The first and best measure against the threat of a tsetse in
vasion is to consolidate the threatened area through intensification
of land use. If intensification of land use is, for whatever reason,
not possible tsetse control will not permanently eliminate the
threat of a tsetse spread unless carried to the borders of the con
tinent.
ad (d): Opening up tsetse areas can serve to reduce population
pressure in tsetse-free areas but this is a static view of the prob
lem. The root of the problem of high population pressure lies in
low agricultural productivity often compounded by an institutional
environment unsuited for productivity development. A reduction of
the human population may bring temporary relief and a postpone
ment of crises. But tsetse control in itself does nothing to im
prove the productivity level either in the tsetse-free areas or in
the tsetse-infested areas.
The existence of adverse effects of tsetse infestation is not con

tested in principle. What is contested is the inference from such
effects to large-scale tsetse control operations. Elimination of any
one of these effects would hardly ever justify the costs of tsetse
control over large areas. Alternative measures that are more di
rect, better focussed and less costly are to be preferred.
* The emphasis in on seasonal exposure and marginal tsetse

challenge. It is not proposed to establish livestock enterprises in
the middle of tsetse country relying on drugs alone.
146
The potential of tsetse-infested areas: The degree of under-utiliza

tion of tsetse-infested areas is one factor which determines the
potential that can be realized by tsetse control and thus the bene
fits. If the areas are indeed empty and unused it is reasonable to
attribute all subsequent net benefits from productive forms of land
use to the control efforts. Another factor is the proportion of the
freed land which can be put into production. In this respect there
appears to be a significant difference between East Africa and
West Africa. In East Africa the area treated against tsetse flies is
generally taken to be identical with the area freed from tsetse
flies. Since a certain proportion of the land is normally unproduc
tive the ratio of "land put to productive use" to "land cleared" is
smaller than unity. Most of the tsetse control schemes in Nigeria
are characterized by ratios several times larger than unity. Sea
sonal expansion of the tsetse fly renders large areas "unusable";
conversely seasonal concentration of the fly allows control efforts
to be limited to a small proportion of the total area. The effect
on the benefit-cost ratio of tsetse control programmes is obvious.
If tsetse-infested areas are already populated and used to a de

gree the net return from tsetse control in terms of the additional
production it makes possible is lower. This reduces the economic
justification for tsetse control. It also leads to the question of
whether increasing population pressure will not eventually take
care of the tsetse problem itself. A first problem is that both the
human and the livestock population may for an extended period
live under the risk of trypanosomiasis even if the fly density and
thus the tsetse challenge has been reduced. A more important ar
gument possibly against autonomous reclamation by the local popu
lation is that haphazard patterns of settlement and land use are
carried into areas which would otherwise remain available for
more productive forms of development. Once an area is taken up
by settlers customary rights to the land are established. The im
portant development instrument of land tenure reform becomes
difficult to apply and large-scale development projects become
very expensive for the government because of compensation pay
able for houses and cultivated plots which may have to be re
moved.
The essence of this argument is that the availability of empty

areas is an asset for the development of a country. It would be
undesirable to have a Tsetse Control Division eradicate the fly
from a whole country at great costs while it is not clear what
use the land is to be put to and what the benefits are from using
147
the potential of the freed areas. However it would also be un

desirable to sit back and wait until population pressure has built
up and results in autonomous reclamation. In both cases an im
portant development opportunity is missed, the opportunity of
planning land use and of using the instrument of land allocation in
accordance with the general development strategy.
Tsetse control and land use planning: To determine when and for
what purpose a tsetse-infested area is needed for development is
the task of general land use planning as part of the total strategy
for economic development. This implies an assessment of the na
ture and rate of development expected in eacl ecological area,
regardless of the presence of tsetse and trypanosomiasis (Ford
1971).
In addition and irrespective of production planning a country has
to define its conservation policy which might involve identification
of areas which are to be set aside permanently (e. g. for wildlife)
and to be excluded from a livestock development programme. This
is essential because tsetse flies by precluding many forms of land
use and by being associated with low population densities are ef
fective guardians of ecologically valuable forests and of conserva
tion areas such as the important wildlife areas of East Africa. No
police force could be as effective in land conservation as the
tsetse flies.
In the next planning phase priority should be given to the develop
ment of tsetse-free areas for the following reasons:
- The .-jsts and risks of combatting tsetse and trypanosomiasis are

avoided;
- intensification of land use must generally be regarded as an
attractive alternative to expansion of land use and is a necessity
in the long run;
- intensification of land use in tsetse-free areas eliminates the
threat of tsetse invasion;
- possible negative side-effects of massive disease tsetse control
148
operations are avoided*.

Once a tsetse-infested area is to be developed the approach
should be determined in accordance with the natural potential of
the area. High potential arable areas constitute a special case.
The reason for such areas still being under tsetse flies usually lies
in the threat of human sleeping sickness and/or in the existence
of legal regulations preventing settlement and land use. Such areas
constitute a particularly valuable asset for a country and should
not be left to haphazard settlement accompanied by the threat of
sleeping s;ckness epidemics. The benefits from organized land adju
dication and intensive forms of agricultural development are likely
to justify the costs of the neccessary measures to control tsetse
flies and trypanosomiasis.
Medium potential areas, marginal for cultivation, with a cattle
carrying capacity of 2 to 4 hectares per TLU may be considered
for tsetse control with subsequent cattle production if
- the tsetse control costs can be kept low,
- a high proportion of the cleared land becomes available for
cattle, and
- the carrying capacity for cattle is high (closer to 2 hectares
per TLU than 4 hectares).
If these conditions do not hold systematic protection of the cattle
by drugs would generally be preferable to tsetse control. Irrespec
tive of whether drug protection or tsetse control is preferred land
adjudication should precede the introduction of cattle. Institutional
constraints that may hamper traditional production systems are
most easily changed in connection with the opening up of new
areas. It provides the opportunity for far-reaching directed changes
that is lost once one area has been claimed and production estab
lished.
* The use of insecticides per se may be not so problematic be

cause application is far from the human nutritional chain, the
application is only once and not regular as common in cropping
and the direct effects on the wild fauna and flora appear to be
negligible. The important ecological effects arise from the land
use made possible.
149
For low potential areas, particularly areas without an arable po

tential the benefit-cost calculations of tsetse control require great
care. Efficient ranching or pastoralism at low population pressure
has been shown to justify the cost of tsetse control. But more
often than not ranching is inefficient and pastoral land use suffers
from ever-increasing population pressure. If this is the case con
sideration should be given to leaving such areas to the fly for the
foreseeable future without any attempt at productive utilization.
The advantage is that overgrazing by pastoralists and subsequent
degradation is prevented and that its natural potential possible in
cluding wildlife is maintained.
Irrespective of the specific conditions of an area the ultimate ob

jective of a tsetse and trypanosomiasis strategy should no longer
be viewed as the control of the disease and its vector. The ulti
mate objective should rather be to use control as a conscious in
strument to direct land use and to create the conditions for
higher agricultural productivity. In this sense tsetse infestation
represents less of a constraint and more of an opportunity. But
considerable strength and foresight on the part of the policy
makers are required to make use of this opportunity.
6.3.4 Other Development Paths
Expansion and redistribution of the trypanotolerant herd: Trypano-

Torelant "ive' oEk number some 7 to 8 million cattle and some 25
million sheep and goats. They have shown to be an important re
source hardly inferior in productivity to other ruminants and ca
pable of production in tsetse-infested areas. The principal con
straint to their wore extended use lies in their rcritively small
numbers and in their limited distribution. The most productive
cattle breed, the N'darna, that is also large enough to perform
draught functions is concentrated in Guinea, southern Mali and
north-western Ivory Coast. The other cattle breeds and small ru
minants are more widely distributed but the constraint still holds
in principle.
The available empirical evidence confirms the possibility of suc
cessful translocation. The most important examples are the
N'dama ranches in Zaire and the smallholder programmes (so
called 'metayag& t operations) in Zaire and Central Africa Repub
lic. Such translocations in themselves only constitute the beginning
of livestock development i. e. of the task of creating viable
ranches and of developing mixed farmers out of 'metayage' peas
150
ants. For such a beginning, however, it would be important to in

crease the numbers of trypanotolerant stock where they presently
exist. This can be in line with the production objectives of these
countries as shown by the livestock development programme in
northern :vory Coast.
Ley farming: The regular establishment of fodder areas on part of
the arable land is considered a more stable form of land use than
permanent cropping. Attempts at establishing 1ev farming systems
have not met with much success in Tropical Africa, at least not
in smallholder situations. A particular type of ley farming has
been successfully established in Ivory Coast. On the Sipilou Ranch
in northern Ivory Coast forest clearing is followed by rice cultiva
tion. This crop more than pays for the clearing costs. As yields
decrease after two or three years fields are sown to stylosanthes
and used for grazing by N'damas. In principle these pastures revert
to rice production after a number of years. This land use system
is still only an isolated example but successful operation for over
a decade appears to justify the consideration of its feasibility for
other areas (Ruthenberg 1980).
Livestock in plantations: The humid zone is char!,cterized by the
importance of tree crops. In areas of low population density these
tree crops are grown on large estates or plantations. Attempts
have been made over the last decade or so to combine the plan
tation crops with livestock keeping. This development has been fa
voured by the growing use of smother plants, usually legumes, in
the initial stages of the establishment of plantations. These leg
umes are to prevent soil erosion, suppress weeds and fix nitrogen.
The idea of livestock development in plantations lies in the use of
their fodder value. Expe;.ence is so far limited. Beside the general
problems of cattle raising in this zone (trypanosomiasis; skin dis
eases of trypanotolerant cattle) practical application is likely to
provoke a number of management problems but the idea of using a
fodder resource at low opportunity costs remains attractive.
Intensification of smallstock production: Small ruminants, particu
larly goats are ubiquitous in the humid zone. It is contended that
their contribution to farm income could be substantially increased
by the adoption of more intensive forms of management and a
more rigorous use of their meat production potential (ILCA, de
Haan et al 1979, Kross 1981). A major problem is believed to lie
in disease which results in high rnortality rates and in sub-optimal
reproductive performance.
151
Improved nutgition and disease control, leading to an overall in

crease in productivity, are to be achieved within four different de
velopment approaches:
- Improved fallow grazing,

- pasture grazing,
- intensive rearing and zero grazing,
- intensive finishing.
Preliminary estimates by ILCA indicate that if fertility can be

raised by 15 percentage points, mortality reduced by about a
quarter and weights increased by one fifth, it might well pay a
farmer to make investments (shelter, pasture establishment and
other installations) and incur costs for labour, watering, dipping,
drenching, pasture maintenance and other items needed for estab
lishing a commercial type of smallstock produ tion. These calcula
tions are based on very high meat prices in Nigeria (Naira 4.40
per kg, equivalent to about $ 6 per kg). It is probably under such
conditions only that heavy investmeat and a transformation ap
proach to smallstock production are justified.
Ranching: The establishment of ranching systems remains a basi
cally suitable development approach for lowly populated areas
which prevail in much of the sub-humid and humid zone. Under
experimental conditions attractive productivity levels are reached;
the principal constraint to a rapid proliferation of this approach
lies in the necessity to build up adequate management capacities.
The topic is dealt with in more detail in section 8.
152
7 Crop-livestock Production Systems in the Highlands

Tropical highlands are defined as areas with a mean daily tem

perature of less than 200 C during the growing period. A second
definition sometimes used refers to areas of 1 500 metres or more
above sea level; this definition is less accurate since it does not
take into account the effect of latittde on the agroclimatic condi
tions. The farming systems are based on cropping and on livestock
husbandry practised in association.
There are a number of features that make the farming systems in
the highlands different from those in the lowlands and justify their
separate consideration:
- Generally speaking the highlands are favoured by good soils and
suitable climatic conditions for farming allowing higher productiv
ity and/or higher population densities than elsewhere. Fodder pro
ductivity also permits higher livestock densities than in other
zones.
- As a consequence of high and generalized population pressure

cropping intensities are high and more or less permanent cropping
is common, although fallow farming, ley farming and grazing sys
tems occur.
- Unlike the lowland areas, crop husbandry and livestock husbandry
in the highlands are normally practised within the same manage
ment unit. The crop-livestock association is therefore approaching
more the concept of mixed farming although the degree of live
stock integration may be less than the ideal.
- The cropping pattern of highland farms includes crops unsuitable

for lowland areas like wheat, barley, teff (in Ethiopia), arabica
coffe, pyrethrum, tea and others.
- The area is by and large free of tsetse flies and the farming
systems unaffected by trypanosomiasis.
153
- The area provides ecologically suitable conditions also for farm

ing of the type common in temperate zones and for the introduc
tion of high-yielding plant varieties and animal breeds from the
temperate zone.
Originally the highlands probably attracted people for reasons of

military security, relative freedom of disease and high potential
productivity. The natural conditions as characterized by ample sun,
good soils and the absence of temperate extremes are indeed fa
vourable to both crop and livestock production. Actual levels on
subsistence farms are, however, not higher than in other ecological
zones. This is likely to be the result of the long history of dense
human settlement and intensive exploitation.
Table 7.1 shows the highlands in Tropical Africa to be concen

trated in eastern Africa. Southern Africa including Madagascar
still has a significant proportion of highlands; they are relatively
unimportant in western and central Africa, particularly if one
excludes the arid highlands which are closer in their land use
characteristics to the arid lowlands than to the remaining high
lands. Three forths of the total highland areas are found in east
ern Africa. The highland areas of Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania
combined account for over 70 % of the total.
Table 7.1: Extent of Highland Areasa in Tropical Africa by

Regions
Region Extent Proportion of total highlands

sqkm %
b
Easternb 789 820b
75.3
Central 62 900 6.0
Western 45 400 4.3
Southern 150 625 14.4
Total 1 048 745 100.0
a) Here defined as areas over 1 500 m above sea level

b) Of which Ethiopia 489 520 sqkm (46.7 %), Kenya 128 300 sqkm (12. 2 %)
and Tanzania 119 640 sqkm (11.4 %)
Source: Amare Getahun (1978).

154
Generally thr, highlands are assumed to have a good agricultural

potential. There are neve'theless important areas in which cropping
is restrained by the agroclimatic conditions (Table 7.2). Almost
two thirds of the highlands have a sufficiently long growing period
for most crops. This does not necessarily mean a high agricultural
potential since soils, steep slopes etc. may preclude or adversely
affect agriculture. A significant proportion of the highlands is af
fected by aridity and coldness.
Diversity is also found at local level (Brown and Cochdme 1969, p.
61):
"The situation frequently arises that one acre may be suitable
for cropping while another 10 km away may not, for ecologi
cal reasons not readily understood by the majority of the
peasant inhabitants or even by well-educated large-scale
farmers."
Table 7.2: A'groclimatic Variation within the Highland Zone
Agricultural potential Extent Proportion

1 000 sqkm %
Gooda 628 63.4

Affected by long dry seasonb 194 19.6
Poor because of aridityc 139 14. 1
Poor because of coldnessd 29 2.9
Total 990 100.0
a) Over 180 days of growing period

b) Dry season 180 to 270 days
c) Dry season over 270 days, growing period less than 90 days
d) 24 hr - mean temperature regime over the growing period is less than 100 C
Source: Adapted from FAO (Higgins ot al 1978).

155
The highland zone is much more complex than e. g. the savannas

of West Africa or the great Brachystegia woodland belt in south
ern and central Africa, where relatively uniform tracts of similar
type occur over vast areas. One of the consequences is that set
tlement and land use concentrate on the most suitable parts,
creating much higher pressure locally than average figures indi
cate. With a total agricultural population of 22.8 millio,, the aver
age population density in the highland zone is almost 2.5 times
higher than that of the remainder of Tropical Africa (23 per
sons/sqkm against 19). The highest population densities are found
in Rwanda and Burundi where the national averages reach 130 to
150 persons per sqkm.
Land use in the highlands also shows the impact of differential

historical and cultural background. Ethiopia, which accounts for 50
percent of the highlands area of Tropical Africa, is different in
its agriculture from the remainder of the highlands. Ethiopia is a
country of ancient, indigenous agricultural systems although there
are influences of long standing contact with indigenous Africa on
the one hand and the Arab, European and Asian world on the
other. Some of the unique features of Ethiopian agriculture are
the indigenous and almost ubiquitous system of ox traction, the
use of teff as a cereal and ensete as a root crop and the exten
sive use of equines for transport. In Kenya European settlement in
the highlands has profoundly marked agricultural development in
this century. Kenyan agriculture still shows a marked dualistic
structure, i. e. a modern sector strongly influenced by Europeans
on one side and a traditional sector on the other although the
differences are gradually being reduced. In Rwanda and Burundi
the "aristocratic" herding societies, the Tutsi, who traditionally
had the exclusive right to own cattle while cultivation was prac
tised by the Hutu only, are a distinct feature, as is the predomi
nance of plantain in the farming system.
7.1.3 Livestock Characteristics
The highest livestock density (livestock-land ratio) of all ecological

zones is found in the highlands. All the ruminant livestock species
are represented. Ethiopia has a particularly high livestock popula
tion with a high proportion of sheep and equines. Here the work
function of livestock (oxen for draught, equines for transport) is
predominant. Otherwise the output function of livestock predomi
rates in the highlands. Meat and milk production from cattle has
often reached a significant degree of commercialization. Sheep are
156
used for meat (subsistence and market) and wool for local indus
tries. The population of exotic (European) breeds of cattle and
also sheep and goats is relatively speaking the largest of any zone.
Particularly in the more modern mixed farming enterprises in parts
of Kenya livestock account for a high portion of farm income
(Table 7.3).
Table 7.3: Livestock Contribution to Farm Income in Selected
Farming Systems in the Kenyar, H;,,hlands
Indicator Molo Mau Narok Kericho Kericho Kinangop

wheat- wheat- maize- milk- milk
sheep milk cattle maize sheep
Gross return
crops $ 16 709 40 240 343 428 695
livestock $ 13 129 28 291 220 760 2 354
total $ 29 838 68 531 563 1 188 3 049
Livestock % 44.0 41.3 39.0 64.0 77.2
Source: Ruthenberg (1976).
The figures in Table 7.3 relate to highly commercialized under

takings and are not generalizable. However, it is a general charac
teristic of the highland area that highly developed farms using
modern production techniques are found as well as semi-improved
farms and traditional systems without improvements. This holds for
livestock production as well as for cropping and is partly due to
the colonial heritage particularly in Kenya and partly to successful
development efforts in more recent times. Development indicators
like degree of commercialization, extent of individual tenure of
grazing lands, veterinary infrastructure, extension and credit facili
ties, importance of high-yielding exotic livestock breeds and
degree of mechanization vary considerably and cut across the
population gradient. Dairy development on a highly commercialized
coffee farm in Kenya with full land adjudication means something
different from dairy development on traditional subsistence farms
157
in Ethiopia even f ecological conditions and population densities

are similar.
Taking the three factors that have been used to characterize live
stock management, the feeding regime, the land tenure system and
the herding arrangements, the highland areas show some special
trends:
- Various levels of intensity of the feeding regime are found in

smallholder situations from extensive grazing to stall feeding. High
productivity of the fodder economy is not merely a target to
which researchers point but a reality on many farms.
- High population pressure has led to much more individualized

forms of tenure. In addition formal adjudication of land to small
holders has been carried out over large areas (Kenya) to which
must be partly attributed the advances in the fodder economy. The
land reform in Ethiopia, although not geared at creating private
property has de facto made the farmer master over his land.
Communal grazing still exists in large areas of the highlands but it
does not have an all pervasive effect on livestock production as is
the case in the arid zone and there are possibilities for intensi
fication of fodder production on land over which individual man
agement has control.
- Livestock are hardly ever entrusted to herdsmen and taken away

for extended periods of time. Family labour is used for herding
and the association of livestock with cropping is much closer.
Essential for the characterization of livestock production and of its

development potential is the degreu of population pressure. It in
fluences the feed base, the species composition of livestock and
the livestock products. it also determines whether a point has been
reached where efforts must concentrate on reducing Lhe effects of
disaster or whether actual advances in production and productivity
are an immediate possibility.
The reaction of the traditional farming system to increasing popu

lation pressure is "outward" expansion, taking new land into culti
vation as long as it is available. This process is facilitated by
animal traction, i. e. in this stage the provision of traction work
can be the most important function of livestock. The second stage
may be called an "inward" expansion in the sense that no new
land is taken into cultivation, but the same iand is cultivated more
158
often, fallow periods thereby being reduced. In this stage feed

availability for livestock may not really be affected, since all the
evidence is that crop residues, by-products and stubble grazing
produce at least as much feed as unimproved natural pastures.
However, a labour problem may develop since herding and keeping
the animals away from the fields during the growing season be
comes more time-consuming. In the next step towards intensifica
tion higher-yielding crops with a longer vegetation period like
bananas and cassava may be adopted. This adaptation may reduce
feed availability, but may also be compensated by increasing
amounts of crop by-products (e. g. cassava leaves and banana
stems). As the cropping index increases further, fertility preserving
practices become necessary to maintain yields. This reduces the
return on labour. One of the practices is the use of manure, and
as long as there are absolute quantities of grazing and feedstuffs
available, livestock help to absorb increasing population pressure
rather than being in competition with people. The use of manure
for fuel is also important because the high popilation pressure
leads to a reduction of forest areas to a poipn where animal
manure is the only source of fuel. The provision of manure may
develop into the essential function of livestock within the farming
system. It is only in the last stages of increasing pressure on land,
when unsuitable land is taken into cultivation, that direct competi
tion arises between livestock and cropping. This stage, however, is
a desperate one in terms of its consequences, whether there are
livestock or not.
Thus, within a given area increasing pressure of human population

does not automatically lead to a reduction of overall feed availa
bility. Problems of labour and seasonality of feed supply may arise
but do not become acute if there is plenty of absolute grazing
land, i. e. land without alternative use. Absolute grazing is particu
larly important in the highlands due to the ruggedness of the ter
rain. The feed base, however, will change in form and composition
in systems under population pressure. If it is bush land and poten
tial arable land initially this changes to fallow land, stubbles and
other crop residues, and household wastes assume increasing im
portance.
There is, however, a second indirect effect of increasing popula

tion pressure on livestock. This effect stems from increasing par
cellization and decreasing farm size. Unless again there is a par
ticularly high proportion of absolute grazing, larger animals be
come more difficult for a family to maintain, and it becomes in
59
creasingly difficult for a small farm to keep a self-sustaining herd

of large animals. Thus, in spite of the continued existence of a
feed base for the area as a whole, large stock may be squeezed
out. At tile same time the relative importance of meat from
smaller animals increases. Milk also gains in relative attractiveness
because labour becomes cheaper and more abundant and because
an impoverished population can no longer afford meat. Animal
traction, which in the initial stages of taking new land into cul
tivation is essential, tends to move out of the system as fields
become smaller and minimum subsistence levels are reached. This
trend has been observed even in Ethiopia, with its long-standing
tradition of traction. Manure, on the other hand, remains an im
portant aspect in the context of maintaining fertility, but also as
a source of fuel in a situation in which population pressure leads
to the disappearance of firewood trees.
For considerations of livestock development it is important to

realize the stage of population pressure that has been reached
since it determines the role of livestock in the farming system
and the development potential. In principle this holds for any
farming system and ecological zone. Given the high densities of
the human and the livestock populations the considerations are of
particular relevance for the highlands.
Production and productivity of livestock in the highlands differ

greatly according to farming system, population pressure and
development level, but also with respect to the different livestock
commodities and functions (farm output, farm input or both).
Generalization is therefore hardly possible.
Beef production is not a special featv. e of the highlands. There

are some modern beef production enterprises in Kenya. Some of
them are situated in arid areas and therefore compare in their
coefficients to those of dryland ranching. Others are feedlots,
which are better regarded as landless enterprises. For the rest it
may be assumed that beef productivity in the highlands despite the
relatively high natural potential is not higher than in the other
ecological zones for the following reasons:
(a) The priority that is generally given to milk production, a pri

ority that is justified in the light of the ecological conditions and
the population pressure;
160
(b) the existence of neighbouring arid areas with a comparative

advantage for specialization in beef production;
(c) the price ratios of beef to milk, which, notably in Kenya, lead
farmers to slaughter the majority of the male offspring after
birth;
(d) the importance of draught, notably in Ethiopia, which results
in a lower offtake of males for slaughter.
Milk production from cattle must be assumed to be higher in the
highlands than in other ecological zones. In Kenya alone the grade
dairy cow population may be estimated at about one million head,
most of them located in the highlands. The variations in milk yield
are considerable depending on the breed management system and
the degree of commercialization (Table 7.4).
The correspondence of the farm groupings in Table 7.4 with eco

logical zones is not accurate. Certainly most of the animals in
settlement schemes and most of the grade cows are found in the
highlands and their average yield of between 650 and 700 litres is
significantly above that of zebu cows many of which are located
in lower lying areas. In section 3 milk yields in the highlands were
assumed to be 40% higher than in the other zones. For Kenya this
is too conservative. On the other hand advances in dairy production
have been limited in countries like Ethiopia, Rwanda, Burundi and
Tanzania. Average figures across the total highland zone would
conceal more than they would reveal.
Similar considerations pertain to sheep and goats. There is no in

dication that average productivity in traditional farming systems is
much different from that in lowland zones. Very productive sheep
enterprises are, however, also found in the highlands with exotic
breeds and high levels of management. The little wool that is pro
duced in Tropical Africa comes mainly from highland farms.
The functions of livestock as farm inputs (draught, manure and

transport) are more important in highland mixed farming than in
other zones. There is the traditional wide-spread use of draught
oxen in Ethiopia. They are estimated to contribute more than 26%
of the total labour requirements of crop agriculture in that coun
try (FAO, AT 2000 1979). Their productivity in draught can be
assumed to be lower than in other parts of Africa because of the
traditional equipment used. The collection of animal manure is
161
Table 7.4: Milk Production and Productivity by Management System

and Cattle Breed in Kenya 1974
Indicator Large- Smallholdings Overall

scale Settlement Grade Zebu
farms schemes a cows cows
Number of farms 1 800 49 221 250 000 712 500 1 013 521
keeping cows
Number of cows 175 100 120 000 547 000 1 933 000 2 775 100
Percentage of 63 67 68 69 66
cows in milk
Annual milk pro- 183 580 83 220 353 400 403 380 1 023 580
duction ('000 kg)
Average annual milk 954 693 646 209 626
yield per cow (kg)
Percentage of milk 2 32 52 91 59
production retained
on farm
a) On the settlement schemes 80 % of the cows are grade breeds and crosses
b) Includes pure exotic breeds and crosses
Source: Stotz (1979).
widespread but its effect on agricultural productivity is low, be

cause its main use is for fuel. The transport function of livestock
is extremely important in Ethiopia because of inaccessibility of
the terrain for alternative means of transport. There is no infor
mation on their particular productivity in this function. A donkey
is likely to perform up to half a tonne-kilometre several times a
week.
162
Table 7.5: Dry Matter Production (t/ha/year) in the Process of

Land Use Intensification (an Estimate of the Orders of
Magnitude under the Conditions of Kakamega, Kenya,
Rainfall 1926 mm, Altitude 1553 m)
Farming system Total above- DM in fallow Above-ground Edible

ground DM and weeds DM of crops DM
Natural forest 40 40.0 0 0

Shifting system a) 30 27.9 2.1 0.30
Fallow systems°) 20 15.7 4.3 0.64
Permanent arable farming
One maize crop Inter
planted with beans, tradi
tional techniquec) 12 5.1 6.9 1.04
One maize crop not inter
planted, modern techniqued) 15 4.3 10.7 3.20
Two maize crops, not inter
planted, modern techniques) 25 3.7 21.3 6.40
f)
Permanent crop
Sugar cane 40 40.0 7.70
Assumptions:
a) A total of 8 fallow and 2 crop years In a 10-year rotation cycle with 1.5 t maize and
0. 5 t beans per ha per crop year. Fifteen % of the above-ground DM in crops is
edible (80 % of the harvested grains). The estimates for DM in faUows and weeds
and In crop DM are averages over the 10-year rotation cycle
b) A total of 5 fallow and 5 crop years in a 10-year rotation cycle with 1. 3 t maize and
0. 3 t beans per ha per crop year. Fifteen % of the above-ground DM in crops is
edible (80 % of the harvested grains). The estimates for DM in fallows and weeds
and in crop DM are averages over the 10-year rotation cycle
C) A total of 1 t of maize and 0. 3 t of beans per ha and year. Fifteen % of the above
ground DM in crops is edible (80 % of the harvested grains).
d) A total of 4 t of maize per ha and year. Thirty % of the total above-ground DM is
edible (80 Toof the harvested grains).
e) Two crops of 4 t of maize per ha and year. Thirty I*of the total above-ground DM
is edible (80 % of the harvested grains).
f) 70 t cane per ha and year. Eleven % sugar. The above-ground DM in the
crop
includes trash and stems.
Source: Ruthenberg (1980).

163
Potential production and productivity in the highlands could be

much higher than at present because a large number of yield in
creasing technologies are applicable here. Crop yields can be
raised manifold from the depressed level of a traditional farming
system under population pressure and, particularly important for
long-term ecological stability and for the livestock subsystem,
total dry matter production increases accordingly (Table 7.5).
Table 7.5 suggests the possibility for a seven-fold increase of

edible dry matter production from a low-level equilibrium state of
permanent cropping with traditional technology, and a substantial
increase in total dry matter production. Considering that the por
tion not suited for human consumption is -ntirely available for
livestock (in contradistinction to natural vegetation) the increase
in the carrying capacity for livestock is even greater. In addition
the highlands are suited to a direct transfer of agricultural
practices and innovations from the temperate zones (Brown and
Coch~me 1969, p. 251):
"Because of its geographical position and height the area

enjoys mild temperatures throughout the year, thus lending
itself to the raising of crops and stock normally found in
the temperate conditions of higher latitude, whenever
specific length of day or cold period requirements unob
tainable in the area are not required. No low winter
temperatures intervene to prevent and arrest crop growth
and the upper high limit of the area is where night frosts
begin to limit crop production."
To determine potential agricultural production and productivity in

the highlands it is not unreasonable to draw on indicators from
advanced agriculture in the temperate zones. Such a transformation
on a large scale could only take place over a long period because
a large part of the agricultural population would have to be ab
sorbed by other sectors of the economy. But as opposed to other
zones without intensification possibilities (arid) or with great un
certainties about the appropriate development path and the pro
ductivity levels actually achievable in practical farming (the more
humid lowland zones) the tropical highlands have a realistic con
siderable potential.
164

7.3.1 Dairying - the Example of Kenya*
There are not many striking examples of successful livestock de

velopment in Tropical Africa. Dairy development in Kenya is one
and it therefore appears justified to focus on this example when
discussing dairying as a livestock development possibility. The aim
is to make the experience transparent and usable for other situ
ations but also to identify factors that are unique to this develop
ment and cannot be transferred.
Dairy development 1920-1975: European farmers introduced grade
dairy cows and bulls from Europe in the 1920s. While their higher
yielding ability could be demonstrated, the problem of tick-borne
disease, particularly East Coast Fever, proved formidable. A major
breakthrough came cGl'y in the 1940s with the introduction of
acaricides. Regular dipping with acaricides was effective against
ticks and made it possible to keep imported grade cows from
Europe healthy in Kenyan surroundings. It also became profitable
to upgrade the local zebus by crossbreeding them with e.otic
stock, especially given the low cost of '-'our and grazing in the
Kenyan highlands.
Largescale dairy production, mainly aimed at the urban market
and at exportc, reached its peak shortly before independence, when
about 600 000 grade dairy cattle were kept on large farms, prac
tically all owned by Europeans.
The availability of grade cows on the one hand and relatively high
prices in the densely populated rural areas on the other led
* This section draws heavily on Stotz (1979), and Stotz and

Ruthenberg (1978) reviewing original sources the major ones of
which are Burke (1973), Chudleigh (1974a,b), Cowen (1974),
Goldson (1977), Heyer (1966), Heyer et al (1976), Hopcraft
(1976), Kenya Integrated Rural Sirvey (1977), Kenya Statistical
Abstracts (various years), Kenya Stud (Annual Reports), Klemm
(1967), Lindstrom and Lindstrom (1973), M'ac Arthur (1964 and
1974), Mahadevan (1965), Meyn and Wilkins (r73), Muritni
(1976), Owiro (1973), Peberdy (1975), Ruthenberg (1966),
Swynnerton (1954), and various government publications and
unpublished papers.
165
African farmers to try dairy farming with grade cattle in the

1930s and 1940s. The capital requirements as well as the disease
problems effectively kept this development in check. The Veteri
nary Department regarded grade cattle enterprises on smallholdings
as too risky. It favoured the introduction of Sahiwals, which were
however also susceptible to disease, lower-yielding and therefore
not liked by the srallholder.
The starting point of smallholder dairy development in Kenya may
be considered the implementation of the Swynnerton Plan in 1954,
a comprehensive plan dr wn up to accelerate agricultural develop
ment in the African smallholder sector. It ldid the basis for
smallholder dairy development through a number of policy reforms:
(a) Consolidation and adjudication of land holdings under individual
ownership (which allowed fencing, effective tick control, fodder
production and the utilization of crop residues).
(b) Encouragement of cash crop production, which played a con
siderable role in the financing of dairy cows.
(c) Making credit available.

(d) Establishment of a serice structure for smallholder dairying
(communal dips, veterinary supervision, feeder roads, milk collec
tion centres, artificial insemination centres).
In spite of initial problems of disease, inadequate feeding and long
calving intervals, the interest of the smallholders never subsided.
The number of grade cattle kept by smallholders increased from
about 80 000 in 1960 to an estimated 550 000 in 1975.
A second major development began with the settlement schemes.
In 1965 500 000 ha formerly large European-owned farms were
distributed to 35 000 settlers under the "million acre" settlement
scheme, and by 1975 the land allocated to smallholders under
various settlement schemes had doubled. In that year it was esti
mated that some 160 000 grade cows were being kept by small
166
holders* on settlements farms. Complementary services (credit,

extension, artificial insemination) were available to facilitate dairy
production. After an initial decline smallholder dairy production
recovered. Figure 7.1 shows the development of the dairy herd and
the growing share of smallholders.
Kenya is the only net-exporter of dairy products in Tropical

Africa and has maintained this position in spite of a rapidly grow
ing human population, of greatly increased home consumption on
smallholdings and of trade problems subsequent to the break-up of
the East African community.
Colonial relict or development policy? During the colonial period
the development of the dairy industry was undertaken largely at
the initiative of the European farmers who created a structure of
services through the government and through their own independent
efforts. They established the Kenya Cooperative Creameries (KCC)
as the sole official buyer and processor of dairy products, and
they successfully lobbied the government to undertake substantial
investments in veterinary services and livestock and fodder re
search. Thus the initial "esearch, the infrastructure, the demon
strat.on effect and the ivailability of large numbers of improved
dairy animals, are all aspects specific to the Kenyan situation.
One is led to conclude that the dualistic structure of agriculture
in this case served a general development purpose in that the
modern sector laid the basis for the development of the traditional
smallholder sector. The original initiative in African smallholder
dairy development lay with individual farmers who bought grade
dairy cows on their own, often in opposition to government policy.
However, given all the problems mentioned earlier, smallholder
dairy production could not have expanded as rapidly as it did
without substantial government support. Apart from the structural
specificity of the Kenyan environment, concrete government poli
cies were essential to promote smallholder dairyir,.. These policies
included the control of tick-borne diseases, the e:;tablishment of
extension and credit programmes, the marketing infrastructure and
a price policy favouring dairy development.
* In the low-density schemes medium-sized farms (5-20) were
established, most of which went into commercial dairy pro
duction. The high-density schemes had as their primary objective
the provision of subsistence to landless families. Holdings of 2-8
ha were allocated primarily for crop production but also for
small-scale dairying operations.
167
Figure 71.
Grade Dairy Cattle Development on' Large and Small
Farms in Kenya 1935-1975
Cattle
in 'ooo
900
SOD total number of
grade dairy cattle
00 large-scale farms
500
400
200 small-scale farms
/
100
35 40 /5 50 55 60 65 M 75
year
rhe role of tick control: Experience in Kenya indicates that cont

rol of tick-borne diseases cannot be achieved by individual small
farmers, that without control dairy Jevelopment based on grade
cows is not feasible, and that successful control can only be a
chieved through compulsory dipping of all cattle in an area super
vised at regular intervals by government officers.
168
Dipping has to be compulsory because the owners of disease-resis

tant zebus have no incentive to dip their animals; in fact their
risk may increase by building up a tick-free susceptible stock
which can no longer be exchanged into other zebu areas where
there is no tic', control. Control of ticks requires government
controlled compulsory dipping with an effective organization, the
control of cattle movements and the designation of disease-free
ares.
The role of extension: Extension started to become an important
element in dairy development in 1967 when the Department of
Agriculture took over responsibility for animal production from the
Veterinary Department. Extension worke;s were involved in the
administration of credit for the purchase of grade cows and re
lated investments; they organized field days and demonstrations
thus contributing to the general interest in dairying. But at the
same time it seems that organized extension had little to do with
dairy development on the smaller farms, and that some of the
significant development in terms of, for example, fodder produc
tion took place without the support of extension. Similarly artifi
cial insemination as an element related to extension does not
appear to have played an important role initially although it
gained momentum from 1968 on.
The role of credit: About 110 000 grade cattle were purchased on
credit in Kenya over 20 years, which constitutes a considerable
proportion of the total smallholder herd of 550 000 in 1975 taking
into account their offspring. One heifer on average cost slightly
over .$ 400 in 1977 (equivalent to about 2 000 kg of milk at a
price of 13 US cents per litre). If in addition it is assumed that
some $ 125 are required for facilities such as fencing, water
supplies, crush and milking shed, it is clear that capital require
ments for dairy development are considerable and that the various
smallholder credit schemes instituted in Kenya were essential. For
the 1970s it is estimated that some 70% of all smallholder credit
was used for dairy development. The major problem with these
credit programmes was the high risk element a grade cow con
stitutes for a small farmer. Beside the institutional credit mobili
zation of household surpluses tool' place for the self-financing of
dairy development. In this connection cash crop development as a
major component of the Swynnerton plan and of later efforts
provided an indirect but essential boost to dairy development as
well.
169
The role of marketing infrastructure: Establishing a marketing in

frastructure is an essential element of a dairy development policy.
The milk processing and marketing system available through KCC,
the establishment of more and more rural collection centres, the
building of feeder roads (also in connection with tea development)
and the existence of attractive local markets in the rural areas all
constituted important contributions to dairy development. Small
farmers market their milk mainly through cooperative societies, of
which about 300 existed in 1975. A typical cooperative has 250
members, collects 1 000 kg of milk per day from five collection
points and transports the milk over a distance of 100 km.
The role of prices: Price policy is to be seen in close connection

with the marketing infrastructure. The abolition of the quota sys
tem related to dry season/wet season deliveries and the establish
ment of a uniform price system, while initially creating technical
and financial problems for KCC, has contributed considerably to
the promotion of smallholder dairying. Table 7.6 shows how the
terms of trade for milk have improved over the period 1940 to
1977.
In addition to the official price policy the dairy producer was able
to benefit from high effective demand for milk in the rural areas,
again a result of the successful efforts at cash crop development.
Table 7.6: Prices and Price Indices for Grade Dairy Heifers,
Maize, and Milk 1940-1977
Index/price 1940 1950 1960 1970 1977 1977

Indices (1940=100) Price
Grade dairy heifer 100 111 139 167 347 312.50 per
price animal
Producer price 100 90 86 67 212 11. 13 per

for maize 100 kg
Producer price 100 125 235 265 535 0.13 per

for milk kg
a) Converted at a rate of 8 Kenya shillings = 1$
Source: Stotz (1979) after Kenya (Ministry of Finance and Planning), Statistical
Abstracts, various years, and other sources.
170
The role of research: Research apparently did not play an import

ant role in smallholder dairy development. The reason is that the
smallholders were able to benefit from decades of innovation and
trial and error carried out by large European farmers during the
colonial period. This is not to say that research could not have
contributed, but the essential stages were reached without a no
ticeable, direct research impact.
Dairy and agricultural intensification: The more recent years show

that smallholder dairy development is not limited to the initial
establishment of grade cows on small farms. Dairying also plays a
key role in progressive intensification of smallholder agriculture.
Intensification means that more capital and more work is applied
per unit of land, and that consequently the output per unit of land
rises. With respect to dairying this tendency implies the following
stages: introduction of improved breeds; improvement of fallow
grazing; introduction of fodder crops with continued pasture graz
ing, and, finally, fodder cropping with permanent stable feeding.
Table 7.7 shows the changes in farm management parameters in
the course of such intensification.
Table 7.7: Changes in Farm Management Parameters in the Course

of Intensification
Parameter Stage of intensification

grazing grazing/ stabling
stabling
Land per cow (ha) 0.53 0.25 0.15
Milk production per cow (kg p. a. ) 1 918 2 722 2 518
Investment per cow ($) 65 162 185
Concentrate use per cow (kg p. a. ) 174 338 935
Labour input (hours/cow p. a.) 304 416 487
Milk production per unit land 3 700 12 082 20 728
(kg p. a. /ha)
Return to labour (P/iour) 0.49 0.50 0.46

171
During intensification milk production increases. This is principally

a result of increased production per unit of land, rather than bet
ter performance from the animal. At the same time return on
labour hardly changes, or at least does not increase. Table 7.8
shows that farm income from dairying does not increase but de
creases in the course of overall intensification. The total farm in
come per unit of land, however, increases steadily. The explanation
is that the cows can be kept on a smaller area, and land becomes
free for other lucrative uses such as valuable cash crops. The land
productivity of cropping and of dairying increases. In addition the
figures give an indication of how intensive forms of dairying gain
in relative attractiveness as land becomes scarcer.
Table 7.8: Income from Dairying and Total Income in the Course
of Intensification
Indicator Stage of intensification

grazing grazing/ stabling
stabling
Return to land from dairying O/ha 201 675 811

Return to land from all farm 265 403 417
activities A/ha
Farm income from dairying $/ha 1 078 988 853
In relation to the farming system as a whole, dairying is a much

appreciated source of manure, particularly for valuable perennial
crops such as coffee, and constitutes a farm-integrative factor in
several respects. Thus fodder growing plays an important role in
172
land use and crop rotation, and residual capacities of land and
labour are productively used to increase the overall value added.
The effect of balancing the risk of plant production and the re
gularity of the cash income from dairying are also important.
Relevance of the Kenyan experience: The Kenyan experience has
specificities from its colonial past that are not transferable to
other situations. At the same time a development policy was es
tablished for smallholder dairying whose components can be use
fully examined for applicability elsewhere. Furthermore some of
the colonial specificities can be reduced to concrete elements like
applied research, innovation testing, establishment of an infrastruc
ture and a favourable price policy whose essentials can be imple
mented without recourse to a colonial past. The Kenyan experi
ence also brings out the interdependence between dairy develop
ment and general agricultural development. Cash cropping provides
financial resources for investment in dairying, results in high
effective demand for dairy products also in rural areas and in
creases the value of the dairying sub-system in the course of
overall intensification. Again the relevance for dairy development
elsewhere is obvious.
One aspect of dairy development has not been dealt with because
it has never been an issue in Kenya: The organizational form of
production. The private enterprise and particularly the small Afri
can farm have never been doubted as the appropriate vehicles for
dairy development. Dairy production in the form of large c -oper
ative and parastatal enterprises is being attempted notably in the
Ethiopian and Tanzanian highlands. The general management prob
lems described in section 8 for ranching hold in an unmitigated
form also for large-scale dairying. But dairying is in addition a
very intensive form of production as concerns supervision for dis
ease control and Lreeding and regularity of wvork outside the nor
mal hours. And for dairying to be economically attractive integra
tion with the farming system as a whole is essential. These as
pects make it doubtful whether dairy development based on co
operatives or parastatals can achieve similar results.
7.3.2 Livestock in the Development of Subsistence Farms

Dairy development in Kenya has taken place in the context of
overall agricultural development. The introduction of cash crops
into smallholder areas was one of the factors that rendered dairy
ing possible and attractive. Subsistence is still the core of most of
173
the farms, but the farms are large and productive enough to
secure this subsistence. The subsistence constraint influences de
velopment considerations only to a limited degree. In many other
parts of the highlands subsistence is the overriding concern. With
high population densities, small farm sizes, low productivity levels
and with production almost exclusively oriented toward subsistence
any development effort must give first consideration to continued
and improved security of subsistence. Even in these circumstances
development can take place via livestock in particular via dairying.
A smallholder situation in Ada District just south of Addis Abeba
in Ethiopia is taken as an example*.
The subsistence constraint: With existing production techniques and

without any particular traditional or modern practices aimed at in
tensification, cereal grain yields can be expected to be in the or
der of 800 kg per ha. A rotation with pulses is normally con
sidered necessary; their yields are some 20% to 300l lower, but the
nutritional value is higher, so that for the purposes of subsistence
calculations the consideration of all crops can be reduced to that
of a cereal, say wheat, as a typical highland grain. The gross sub
sistence requirement** of the average person can be provisionally
put at a relatively high 300 kg of cereal per year. The minimum
amount of cropped land per family of five would thus be 1.9 ha.
This would, if 100% of the land is cropped, be equivalent to a
population density oC 263 persons per sqkm. Even the most favour
able areas contain some land unsuitable for agricultural use, par
ticularly for permanent cropping. For Ada District it has been
estimated that 30% of the total area is unsuitable for cultivation
(Haywood 1979) and that 10% of the arable area is under fallow.
If 60% of the area is under cultivation year after year, the human
supporting capacity for people is 160 persons per sqkm. The fig
ures may be set lower because of the variation in yields and the
need of a subsistence economy to provide for the minimum rather
* The following account is largely based on various informal doc
umentation of the ILCA project at Debre Zcet, Ethiopia. The
land tenure reform initiated in 1975 did away with the tradi
tional tenancy arrangements. It aims to establish cooperative
forms of production but at present the farmers can for all
practical intents and purposes be considered individual small
holders.
** Gross because the figure is to account for losses. Seed

requirements are not included.
174
than the average, but then carry-over storage does take place. The
trend in soil fertility and population growth become more limiting
factors with time. Average population growth rates of 2.5% are
usually assumed. This provides for a doubling .' the population
every 28 years. If the planning horizon is 15 yea s an increase of
the population by almost 50% has to be taken into account. Thus
present population densities of 65 to 80 persons/km 2 indicate a
stringent subsistence constraint for the near future.*
A tight subsistence constraint, either now or in the near future,

implies that the production of subsistence crops cannot be reduced
and that any reduction in the area for subsistence crops must be
accompanied by a proportionate increase in yields. In addition it
must be realized that all natural grazing is heavily used by the
existing livestock herd to the extent that they are effectively on a
starvation diet (ILCA 1977).
From s arveys as well as from the farmers included in the ILCA

researchi station at Debre Zeit it is possible to depict a "typical
subsistence farm" for the district. The farm household consists of
five persons that translates into 2.25 man-equivalents**. The hold
ing consists of 2.6 ha in five parcels, of which 2.4 ha are culti
vated. The household owns two oxen, a cow, a calf and me im
mature animal, a small flock of sheep and goats (three head), a
donkey and some poultry. The livestock is worth about $235 at
current prices. Other farm capital, including the farmhouse, may
be valued at $ 35. Forty percent of the land, or about 1 ha, is
put to teff. The remaining cultivated land (1.4 ha) is used for
other cereals (0.75 ha) and beans and peas (0.65 ha). Purchased
inputs are negl;gible so that the gross value of crop production is
a good first approximation of the farm income valued at market
prices. Its composition is shown in Table 7.9.
* The Stanford Research Institute estimated the total 1966 popu
lation at 100 000 from records of the Ada Community Develop
ment Centre. The population of Debre Zeit was then about
22 000 giving a rural population of 78 000. A compound growth
rate of 2.5% has been used to arrive at the 1978 rural popula
tion of 105 000. The area of Ada District is 1 750 sqkm.
1 adult male is 1 man equivalent (ME), one adult female
0.75 ME, one child between 10 and 15 0.5 ME; two children
below ten are not counted.
175
Table 7.9: Gross Value of Production and its Composition for a

Typical Subsistence Farm in Ada District
Product Area Yield Production Pricea Gross Gross

cents/ return a returna
ha kg/ha kg kg $ $/ha
Teff 1.00 700 700 45 312 312

Local wheat 0.35 650 228 25 56 160
Barley 0.20 700 142 21 29 145
Maize 0.20 620 124 20 24 120
Horse bean 0.15 790 119 16 19 124
Lentils 0.15 480 72 23 17 110
Chick peas 0.35 620 217 21 46 130
Livestock - - - 18
b
2.4 - 1 602 - 521 209
Total
a) On the basis of Ethiopian Birr converted to $ at the rate of 2:1

b) Crops only
Source: Compiled by the author from ILCA (1978, p. 12) and other sources.
Teff, wheat and chick peas are the major crops grown. Horse
beans, field peas and lentils may replace chick peas on the poorer
quality soils of sloping areas, but wherever possible chick peas are
used in rotation with teff and wheat. Livestock are used for trac
tion, as a form of capital investment and saving, and to provide
meat and milk for home consumption as well as cash income.
Equines are used for transport. Animal dung is used for fuel. In
terms of gross return per unit area the cereals, particularly teff,
are superior. An exp'nsion of the proportion of land under teff is,
however, hardly possible because of rotational as well as subsist
ence requirements.
176
The gross return estimates include subsistence valued at market

price. The subsistence requirements of the farm family of five are
estimated at 1 500 kg cereal equivalent, and if the seed require
ments* are deducted it can be seen that the gross production of
some 1 600 kg of grains and pulses only barely meets these re
quirements.
Livestock and farm development: Table 7.10 shows for the "typical
subsistence farm" of Ada District an intensification path for crop
ping concomitant with a reduction of the area under subsistence
crops and the establishment of forage cropping, with their conse
quences for human subsistence and animal feed production. The
key to change and intensification is the application of fertilizer to
cereals, increasing their yields by 50%. The area under cereals can
then be reduced by some 40%, from 1.75 ha to 1.05 ha, while the
production level is maintained. Through additional forage pro
duction the total feed production increases form 9.4 tonnes of dry
matter by 40% to 13.1 tonnes. This change in the farming system
has the following implications:
- The proportion of land under cereals decreases, which is

assumed to have a positive rotational effect;
- the regulated ley system which is thereby established also serves

to maintain and increase soil fertility;
- the increased forage production allows improved feeding of the

livestock; in fact it allows the feeding (for maintenance and low
production) ot an improved dairy cow;
- dairying provides the cash to pay back the loans that are ini
tially required to intensify an(' to purchase a dairy cow.
The proposed changes in the farming system thus allow a break

out of the subsistence cycle into semi-commercial agriculture,
while at the same time improving soil fertility and initiating the
improvement of the whole livestock subs-system. Over time all in
digenous cattle can be replaced by the offspring from the im
proved dairy cow.
Seeding rates vary widely from less than 100 kg to more than
200 kg per ha for most cereals and pulses.
177
The changes indicated above lead to a host of indirect further

changes and a considerable impact on the whole farming system.
Not only is fodder made available for intensive livestock production
and soil fertility improved by better rotation, but there are also
mnure and traction effects. The dairy cow is kept in a stabling
system. This allows more efficient rranure collection, bringing the
manure output beyond the farm's immediate needs in terms of
fuel. A family needs about 15 cakes of dung per day for heating
and cooking (I.CA 1980 a). One cake weighs about 500 g, so that
the annual requirement is 2,740 kg cf dry dung, which can be pro
duced by one dairy cow. Manure from the remaining livestock
could therefore be used as fertilizei for the crop fields.
Another effect comes into the system through animai draught.

Through the use of either the dairy cow itself or its offspring,
more traction force can be applied, iesulting in reduced time re
quirements for land preparation and probably also higher standards,
leading to reduced weed problems and higher yields. It should also
become possible to use the animals more efiiciently, increasing
the effective traction obtained from the total herd which has to
be mainteined for reproduction and replacement.
The net total effect of the innovations on the farming systems is

hard to predict. Indications are, however, that in the early stages,
without all the secondary and tertiary effects having become evi
dent, the farm income increases by 30 to 50% (ILCA 1980a). This
increase does not take into account the attractiveness of regular
cash income to the farmer, the advantage of balancing the risk of
plant production with animal production and the positive effects on
soil fertility in the longer term.
7.3.3 Sheep Development
As population pressure increases further and farm size decreases

the role of caitle is reduced. In the area with the highest popula
tion density it becomes impossible to maintain sufficient oxen for
draught cultiwvtion. Livestock are still kept but small ruminants,
particularly sheep that constitute less of a competition for arable
land predominate. The feed base consists of stubble, straw, fallow
and wasteland grazing. It is more a starvation diet than anything
else that is provided but then it would be surprising if livestock
fared better than people. Such a situation is found over many
parts of Ethiopia (Cossins and Bekele Yemerou 1974, LMB 1973).
In the long run agricultural development in these areas will need
Table 7.10: Analysis of Subsistence and Feed Production Capacity of Typical
Ada District Farm Following Traditional and New Cropping Pattern
a
Area Food grain Straw' 'tubbles/fallow Fcrage cro1. Natural grazing Total feed'
ha % kg/ha kg kg/ha kg kg/ha kg kg/ha kg kg/ha kg kg
Traditional pattern
Teff 1.00 38 700 700 1 1500
100 500 500 - - - 2000
Other cereals 0.75 29 650 488 1 500 1 125 500 37 - - - 1 500
Pulses 0.65 25 600 390 - - 500 325 - - - - 325
Fallowb 0.20 8 - - - 2000 400 - - - - 400
Subtotal 2.60 100 - 1 578 2 625 - 1600 - - - - 4 225
Communal grazingc 2.60 n. ap. - - - - - 2 000 5 200 5 200
Total 5.20 n. ap. - 1 578 - 2625 1 600 -- - 5200 9425
New pattern
f
1 05 0d
Teff 0.70 27 735 2250- 1 575 50 350 - - - 1 925
d
Other cereals 0.45 17 975 439 2 250 1 013 500 225 - - 1 238
Pulses 0.65 " 25 6 00 d 390 - - 500 325 - - 325
Forage crop 0.80 31 - - - - 100 g 400 5 000 4000 4400
4-
Fallow e 0 - - - -_
Subtotal 2.60 100 - 1564 2588 - 1 300 400 - 7 888

c
Communal gre?,-ng 2.60 n. ap. - - - - - 2 000- 5 200 5 200
Total 5.20 n.ap. 1 56t 2588 - 1 300 4 000 - 5 200 13088
Feed yields and production I. dry matter

b) In accordance with burvey results Indicating that 90 % of the farm land is cropped; the percentage figure relates to arable land
c) In accordance with survey results indicating that only 1/3 of the total land area is owned and/or cropped (farm land) and assuming that 1/2 of the balance is available for grazng
d) 50 % increase in cereal yields due to fertilizer application, and unchanged pulse yields
e) Simultaneous transition from unregulated to regulated ley farming and the use of the use of the fallow area for forage crops
f) Increase of straw yields of cereals proportional to the increase in grain yield
g) Annual forage crop varieties
Source: Own compilations on the basis of ILCA reports and other sources.
179
to be accompanied by an outmigration of the population. In the

shorter term the cropping or subsistence base of the farming
systems would need to be reinforced. Purchase of improved seeds
and of fertilizers requires cash and it is attractive to think that
also in these cases cash could be provided by developing the live
stock enterprise i. e. the sheep.
Development of wool production: Any attempt to improve and in

crease wool production will have to be guided by the following
considerations:
(a) The wool, even of the wooliest of the hairy sheep, is unsuit
able for mechanical spinning and therefore unsuitable as the raw
material for large-scale industrial processing. Thus not only is
clothes production excluded, but also the industrial production of
blankets, carpets and the like.
(b) I'iprovement of the wool quality through crossbreeding is pos
sible in principle, but seems to be a very difficult process in
practice. Attempts in the past to distribute improved rams have
not met with much success. It can be doubted whether the cross
bred animals will stand up well to the harsh prevailing conditions.
(c) Improvement of the wool quality through crossbreeding would
make the wool less suitable for the cottage carpet industry (the
carpets wear less well), and would be accompanied by a decrease
in the value of the skin. The thick skins of the highland hair
sheep sell at good prices on the international market. In fact the
finer skins from crossbred animals are currently not accepted by
exporters in Ethiopia*.
(d) Substitute fibres for carpet wool can be imported at a price

of $ 0.70 c.i.f. Assab. Local wool, once cleaned and made com
parable to these imported fibres, has a cost price of $ 1.00.
(e) Blankets made from such low quality local wool do not find a
ready market and have to be sold at a discount from the going
price.
* This line of argument is challenged by some. Thus it is claimed
that the problem is merely one of homogeneity, and once
enough skins of the finest quality are produced they would be
processed and marketed just as well.
180
The above considerations do not exclude the possibility of sheep

development via wool, but they do suggest that the imports of re
ject and refuse wool to the tune of 150 t per month into Ethio
pia* cannot be readily replaced by local production, and that a
cross-breeding programme may be counterproductive. The low
quality wool presently produced is used in the cottage wool indus
try. Expansion and improvements are possible but overall the
development potential for sheep via wool production appears
limited.
Development of meat production: Both the internal and the exter

nal (Arab Peninsula) markets seem to be able to absorb more
meat at present prices. In 1974 the up-country prices were about
$ 0.25/kg LW, while Addis Abeba prices were almost twice as
high. The average liveweight was around 20 kg, reflecting a high
proportion of young animals. The Arab market pays a premium
price. However, the acutest demand is for heavier sheep of over
35 kg liveweight.
It would seem advisable to direct development efforts for highland
sheep at the local meat market. The highland areas, with their
high population densities and large urban centres, would seem
more suited for supplying the local market. In the dry lowlands,
on the other hand, marketing poses bigger organizational problems
and benefits the bulk buyer relatively more, since the Arab
peninsula is closer. This should not prevent private traders from
buying up animals in the highlands for an export market if and
when a profit margin were to become possible.
A possible way of increasing revenues from sheep would be to

fatten the young sheep before sale. Since land scarcity does not
allow this in the highlands, the establishment of fattening enter
prises in the lowlands might be considered. But Cossins and Bekele
Yemerou, and the Livestock and Meat Board state that the best
and only approach to sheep development for meat is to try and
reduce mortality through veterinary measures, and at the same
time to improve the marketing infrastructure to maintain and in
crease offtake.
* 150 t per month or 1 800 t per year correspond with the
theoretical annual production of 8.6 million adult sheep at pre
sent production levels and cleaning-out ratios.
181
7.3.4 Other Development Paths
There is a place for livestock development even under conditions

of high and increasing population pressure. Labour-intensive pro
duction lines such as dairying, the integration of animals to pro
vide traction and manure and to increase income and economic
security all have their attractions for the larger animals. Given
the importance of smaller animals in densely populated areas and
the predominance of sheep in the highlands development paths
based on sheep would be attractive but evidence has been shown
to be ambiguous as to the possibilities. There might be a place
for even smaller animals like rabbits in the farming systems,
though currently this is hindered by a widespread antipathy against
rabbit meat, particularly in Ethiopia.
If one abstracts from the high population pressure the highlands
would be suited for extensive ley farming systems. Sheep ley
farms still exist as remnants of the colonial era in Kenya. They
are characterized by a high proportion of ley and often by the
keeping of sheep for wool. The size of the enterprises and the
fact that wheat constitutes the main source of cash income allow
the fluctuations in wool price to be borne; high quality mutton
and lamb constitute an important second line of production. The
Molo farms, the Settlement Trust farms and the sheep farms in
the Kinangop area still reflect this traditional production patte.n
(Ruthenberg 1980). With redistribution of land and increasing
population pressure ley farming is decreasing in importance.
Neither in terms of activity budgets nor in terms of gross margins
is sheep production competitive with cropping or dairying and is
therefore pushed back on to the marginal, non-arable lands. The
smaller enterprises are also not in a position to absorb large
fluctuations in the wool price, and although the breeds kept are
still the wool types, mutton and lamb production gains in relative
importance.
By and large there is no place for extensive production systems in

the highlands. Livestock can play an important role in the devel
opment of small intensive holdings and the concept of mixed
farming is closer to reality in the highlands than in any other
ecological zone. The large production increases that are necessary
to sustain the high human population which in many parts of the
highlands grows at above average rates (e. g. Kenya) will have to
come from advances in cropping. Livestock development in the
highlands means the optimization of the contribution of livestock
to the process of agricultural intensification which is based pri
marily on cropping.
182
8 Ranching
Ranching systems are range-livestock production systems like pas

toral systems, but production parameters, livestock functions and
livestock management are radically different. Ranching is a la
bour-extensive undertaking specializing in the production from one
or two livestock species of a marketable commodity, mainly live
animals for slaughter, i. e. for meat, skins and hides, but also
wool and milk. The function of livestock is therefore to provide
cash income. Livestock management is characterized by !razing
within fixed boundaries by individual tenure and by intevsification
possibilities fo; feeding and watering. This does not mean that
ranches alwayL constitute private property. The form of o'.nership
may be parastatal, cooperative or private (companies or individ
uals) and instead of straight-forward ownership there may be lease
arrangements and the like. The tenurial characteristic is that re
sponsibility for the livestock and for the land is in the same
hands. Individual tenure means tenure by the individual ranch man
agement as opposed to communal tenure in a pastoral system
where many management units share tenure of the land*.
A first differentiation of ranching systems can be effected with

respect to:
- Livestock species and product; cattle ranching for meat is the

most common type but sheep ranching for skins (Karakul), wool
and meat also exist as well as cattle ranching for milk i. e. dairy
ranching; the use of other species and the supply of other pro
ducts from ranching is rare in Tropical Africa;
- intensity and development level; extensive ranches work with a

minimum of fixed investments and with extensive management
practices; intensive ranches have considerable investments and im
provements and an intensive and intricate system of managing the
* By this definition the group ranches of Kenya - correctly in

the author's opinion - are classified as a pastoral rather than
a ranching system.
183
grazing resource and the livestock;

- stratification stage; ranches may specialize further in breeding
and weaner production or in store cattle production or in fatten
ing, thereby entering a division of labour among ranches and with
other production systems.
Ranching systems in Tropical Africa are found throughout the con

tinent in all ecological zones. A further distinction can therefore
be made according to the natural environment. Ranching in the
arid and semi-arid zone is of importance in eastern and southern
Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia
and Angola). Only sporadic examples are found in the drier parts
of West and Central Africa (IEMVT/SEDES, 1968). Humid zone
ranching on the other hand is of greater significance in West and
Central Africa but the systems have to be considered as individual
undertakings rather than predominant forms of land use. An ex
ception is Zaire and, to a lesser extent, Angola where ranching in
some parts can be considered as the major land use system.
Ranches are also found in highland areas. Where they are in arid
parts of the highlands they are better considered as arid zone
ranching because then elevation does not result in any essential
difference of the ranching systems. In Kenya there are also ranch
es in the humid highlands that date from colonial times but num
bers are small. The more humid the natural environment the
greater the degree to which it is affected by tsetse flies. In addi
tion to rainfall tsetse infestation and the measures taken to cope
with it characterize the different ranching systems.
Ranching is a relatively modern land use system and has been
called a child of the industrial revolution (Grigg 1974). It has been
introduced into Tropical Africa by Europeans during the colonial
period. This by itself does not make ranches less important for
Tropical Africa as a source of food and income but care has to
be taken to extrapolate in space and time from the particular
context ot ranching development. European ranches have been
taken over by Africans (particularly in Kenya) and there have been
more recent efforts at ranching development under African man
agement. These ranches have diffarent problems from those of the
established European ranches. They determine by and large the
prospects of ranching development in Tropical Africa and are
therefore given emphasis here.
184
8.1.3 Production Characteristics
The individual tenure system that by definition characterizes

ranching systems allows management to control both livestock and
grazing. There is no other livestock production system that illus
trates in a clearer way the task of adapting the livestock re
quirements to the feed supply through management practices and
the role of on-farm investments and improvements to facilitate
this task in the course of development. The specialisation of the
production system (in terms of species, products and functions of
livestock) and the very fact that one or few forms of livestock
production are practised to the exclusion of other lines of pro
duction also serves to demonstrate the specificities of livestock
production: Two "crops", livestock and fodder have to be managed;
fodder management, livestock management and the productivity of
the basic resource land all interact, and decisions in one produc
tion period influence the production cycle in the many years to
come.
One of the basic management tasks is to adapt stocking rates to

carrying capacity. The unimproved situation is characterized by
sharp fluctuations of the fodder supply through the year and varia
tions over the years. The simple herd management system with
yearly sales does not correspond with the carrying capacity pat
tern. Periods of scarcity alternate with periods of surplus. Im
proved systems attempt to influence both the development of the
stocking level through time through the sales strategy, the calving
regime, possibly also through the choice of the most appropriate
product and stratification stage. Fodder availability on the other
hand c-tn be improved and adapted to the livestock requirements
through rotational grazing, reserving parts of the grazing for the
dry period (standing hay), fodder conservation, irrigation but also
through the purchase of feed.
An additional mangement factor is water. Water development is

closely related to herd and pasture management. This is illustrated
by the principal stages in the development from open grazing sys
tems to paddock systems (Figure 8.1).
Stage 1: Where a ranch has only one watering place, concentric

grazing rings are formed. Zone (1) is bare ground and secondary
bush round the water, with scarcely any fodder in the dry season.
Zone (2) is an over-grazed area with predominantly weed growth
and little fodder in the dry season. Zone (3) is over-grazed land
with weeds and annual grasses. Zone (4) is a reasonably used area
185
Figure 8.1.
Stages in Ranch Development and Water Development
Stage I Stage 11
Stage III
0£
Boundaries
----Fence
0 VWtering place
0 Buildings
.' Reserve paddocks
For explanation see text
Source: Ruthenberg (1980), adapted from Webster and Wilson

(1967) and Andreae (1966, p. 23).
with good pasture and fodder reserves available according to the

grazing technique. Zone (5) is scarcel'y used natural vegetation,
since it is a long way from the water and either provides fodder
reserves in the dry season (if not too far from water) or is grazed
only when it carries surface water after rain.
Stage II: During the season when fodder is scarce, the fifth zone
is a reserve. In so far as the dry season coincides with the cool
of the year, the animals can travel further and make use of the
fodder growing in the outer zone. As several watering places are
dug, the marginal zones of the ranch can be more easily devel
oped. The distances covered by the animals become shorter. The
result is the formation of vegetation zones round each watering
place, with a better distributioji of grazing and less over-grazing.
186
Stage III: Dividing the pasture into paddocks combined with fencing
reduces the damage from over-grazing, facilitates separation of
the animals into age groups, and allows reserve paddocks to be
formed with hay on the stalk. The reserve paddocks are grazed in
the dry season.
Most improvements in ranching aim not only at increased produc
tion and productivity but also at a reduction of environmental
risks. As in pastoral systems the two major sources of production
risk are drought and disease.
Improvements in herd management, pasture management and water

management require efforts. Supervisicn of on-ranch production
becomes closer and more regular; records are kept; herding pat
terns are more closely adapted to the needs of different animal
groups; more current inputs are used (labour, purchased feed, in
puts for animal health, transport); and, most importantly, invest
ments are made in breeding animals, water points, fencing, roads,
fire breaks, dipping tanks, vehicles, irrigation equipment etc., in
creasing the capital stock of the ranch. Improvements in produc
tion and productivity and in economic security are closely related
to the capital intensity. If one includes the livestock capital im
proved ranching is one of the most capital-intensive forms of
agricultural production. Intensification in ranching implies increased
inputs of labour and capital per head of livestock.
Livestock themselves normally constitute the largest component of

the capital stock of a ranch. While livestock have the inherent
capacity for reproduction and growth this growth is slow and con
tinues to be checked by unfavourable years and periodic disasters
due not only to drought and disease but also to poor prices and
liquidity problems that force ranchers to oversell. The period it
takes to stock up a ranch is more often measured in decades than
in years. So is the period it requires to develop fixed ranch capi
tal to the stage where high levels of productivity and security are
reached.
Intensification is also related to stratification. In the initial stages

of intensification the product variation may increase (instead of
only store cattle also calves and more cull animals). With further
intensification production tends to become more specialized and
more adapted to the specific conditions of the ranch as deter
mined by the natural environment, market distance and the physi
cal infrastructure surrounding it. Both intensification and stratifi
187
cation require the development of more specialized skills on the

part of the ranch management. A specialized breeder will hardly
move into weaner production and ranchers are distinguished not
only according to the livestock species and product but according
to the breed and the production stage in which they specialize.
8.2.1 Fodder Productivity

Production and productivity figures on long-established well-man
aged ranches approach those of experimental stations and demon
strate what is technically and economically feasible. With due dis
counts they normally serve as the planning base for the establish
ment of new ranches. The differences in the natural environment
are reflected mainly in the carrying capacity of the land or the
fodder productivity. The increase in fodder productivity is generally
assumed to be less than proportional to the increase in rainfall
due to mire ini --nsive competition from woody species (Blair Rains
and Kassam 1980). But ranching systems provide a suitable frame
work for intensification of fodder production through the applica
tion of capital and management. The technical and economic pos
sibilities of raising fodder productivity over that of natural pas
tures under rainfed conditions multiply as precipitation increases.
In the arid zone of the Sahel a trebling from 700 to 2 100 kg/ha
of dry matter yields has been shown to be possible by deferred
grazing, and fertilizer application (ILCA 1980a). In the more humid
areas with e. g. a rainfall of 1 200 mm i. e. in the sub-humid
zone a completely unimproved pasture would be expected to yield
no more than 3 000 kg (Blair Rains and Kassam 1980). This is in
line with the observed stocking rates on unimproved pastures on
Zairian ranches (2-5 ha/TLU; ILCA, Trail et al 1979). Already the
systematic clearance of the woody vegetation and the introduction
of Cynodon dactylon leads to yields of about 6 000 kg DM/ha and
judicious grazing allows a stocking rate of 2.3 TLU/ha (Doppler
1980 for Avetonou, Togo). Various experiments in West Africa
show the annual dry matter yields of Panicum maximum without
fertilizer to be between 10 and 18 t/ha (leteneur 1973; Talineau
et al 1977; Messager 1977). Through the use of mineral fertilizer,
the application of cutting regimes and the choice of a suitable
species mix artificial pastures yield up to 30 tonnes of dry matter
per hectare and year (Doppler 1980). These yields may be inappli
cable in practical agriculture but stocking rates of 2.8
TLU/ha/year without supplementary feeding are considered feasi
188
ble, i. e. a ten-fold increase over stocking rates observed on natu

greatpastures
ral in Zaire.
although The potential for intensification is therefore
economic considerations constrain the full realiza
tion of the technical potential.
Beef ranches are the most common ranch type in Tropical Africa.
Both reproductive performance and weight gains are essential in
dicators of animal productivity. But there are complex interact;ons
with other traits and data from different locations are difficult to
compare because of differences in management systems, environ
ments etc. The principle holds that performance levels on experi
mental stations in Africa are within the realm of possibilities of a
well managed commercial ranch. Table 8.1 presents in a greatly
simplified form the results of a detailed and comprehensive pro
ductivitiy comparison using figures from Niono, Mali, as a baseline.
The data can be converted to two commonly used indicators: Cal

ving rates of 80% and daily weight gains of 300 g are productivity
levels that should be achieved by ranches even at medium levels of
management and intensity. Most of the data used for comparison
in Table 8.1 stem from more arid situations. Cattle husbandry in
more humid areas is affected by trypanosomiasis. Depending on
the degree of tsetse challenge only trypanotolerant breeds of small
size can be kept. In order to allow a direct comparison with the
productivity of cattle with larger body size the productivity index
constructed by ILCA (Trail et al 1979) can again be used, which
relates total production (meat and milk) per annum to 100 kg of
cow liveweight to be maintained. No indication has been found
that the Zebu are significantly more productive tnan the
trypanotolerant animals. However, Zebu and Zebu cross-breds are
not often found alongside humpless cattle essentially because Zebu
do not tolerate the tsetse challenge, and thus field-level compara
tive data are scarce. The general impression is that trypanoto
lerant animals are no less productive than Zebu breeds and per
form well under a tsetse challenge that precludes Zebu stock alto
gether (ILCA, Trail et al 1979).
Exotic breeds and cross-breds may show higher productivity under

a good feeding regime, good management and in the absence of a
tsetse challenge; but trypanotolerant cattle of the N'dama breed
show a comparative advantage if there is any ttypanosomiasis risk
and also because they better tolerate occasional feed shortages
(Doppler 1980). Management aspects like the seasonal timing of
Table 8.1: Productivity Indicators of -Indigenous Cattle in Tropical
Africa Based on' Figures from Niono. Mali
Indicator Niono Niono in comparison

figures ab with other locationsb
Age at first calving (months) 43 similar
Calving interval (days) 468 rather long
Milk production c (kg/year) 457 similar
Weight gain (6-30 months (g/day) 267 rather low
Cow body weight (kg) 317 slightly low
Mortality (total herd) (%) 7 similar
a) Maure and Peul cattle and their cross-breds

b) 16 locations but comparisons incomplete due to lack of data
c) Including quantity uckled by calf
Source: ILCA/IER (Trail et al 1977).
calving and the feeding regime are probably of more practical im
portance than breeds as such*. Daily liveweight gains can be sig
nificantly improved with pasture improvement as is possible in the
more humid areas. The essential determinants of liveweight gains
are the type of pasture and the feeding regime during the dry
season (Table 8.2).
In practice liveweight gains in Table 8.2 would have to be related

to the area of grazing available to the stock. Moreover since pure
fattening ranches are rare the performance of the breeding herd
* Ruthenberg (1974) in his survey of available data found daily
liveweight gains of N'dama to vary from 250 to 699 g, of
Baoul4 from 191 to 496, of Zebus from 320 to 651, of Jersey
N'dama crosses from 433 to 444.
190
under
Table 8.2: Liveweight Gains of Adult Zebu Steers Nigeria)a
Commercial Conditions (Mokwa Ranch,
Rainy season
- natural grazing of mainly Andropogon gayanus 300 g/day
- intensive pasture of Panicum maximum 500 g/day
Dry season
- natural grazing 0 g/day
- pasture improved with Stylosanthes 100 g/day
- maize silage and cotton seed 300 g/day
- Panicum silage, molassis, cotton seed and dried
brewer's draft 600-700 g/day
a) Data based on the fattening of 10 896 Zebus, mainly Gudalis and White
Fulanis between 1965 and 1973; the fattening period is 7 months; during
the first weeks compensatory gain brings figures up to 1 000 g/day
Source: I,utterloh (1974, p. 51), taken from Doppler (1080, p. 88).
would have to be considered as well. In addition supplementary

feeding renders stocking rates difficult to interpret.
8.2.3 Physical Performance and Financial Viability
The existence for decades now of a private ranching sector in

Africa is sufficient indication that ranching can be a profitable
enterprise. Most of these ranches operate below the level of
maximum technical intensity, particularly as far as fodder produc
tion is concerned. A comprehensive comparative assessment of
physical and financial performance of newly established African
ranches is impossible for lack of data, but indicators of perform
ance can be given. The key performance indicator in cattle ranch
ing is the calving rate. This coefficient reflects the management
191
standards more clearly than any other single coefficient. The

calving rate affects production and productivity not only in the
current year but also has an important 'arry-over effect to the
subsequent years. In the setting up of a new ranch it is commonly
accepted that initially the calving rate is close to that in the
traditional sector often taken to be around 50%. A central element
of the whole ranch development exercise is to bring up the calving
rates. The target figure is often 70% to be achieved within in
five-year period. Calving rates are correlated with other perform
ance indicators like mortality rates of young and adult stock,
weaning rates, weight gains, age at maturity and off take rates.
The schedules in Tables 8.3 and 8.4 show the combined effect of
calving rate, mortality rate and age at maturity on overall pro
ductivity indicators like growth rate of the herd and of ftake rate.
Table 8.3: Possible Growth Rate (% p.a.) of Cattle Breeding Herd

as a Function of Weaning Rate and Heifer Mortalitya
Annual mortality of heifers after

weaning
5% 3% 1%
Weaning rate
4076 -2% - 1% 0
60% 7% 8% 9%
80 % 16-% 18% 20 %
100% 25 % 27% 29%
a) Underlying assumptions: Cow culling rate 18 %, cow mor

tality rate 2 %, maturity of heifers 2 years after weaning;
the growth rate figures relate to the cow herd
Source: Schaefer-Kehnert (1978b).

i92
Table 8.4:, Possible Offtake Ratea of Self-contained Cattle Herd

as a Function of Maturity Age and Weaning Rateb
Maturity age of steers and heifers (years)

4-5 3-4 2-3 1-2
Weaning rate
40% 14 17 20 23,
60% 17 21 26 32
80% 19 24 31 38
1001% 20 26 35 44
a) Expressed as annual units of output per 100 animal units of

opening stock
b) Underlying assumptions: Mortality rate of adult stock 2 jo,
maturity age of heifers not less than 2-3 years
Source: Schaefer-Kehnert (1978b).
With a 50% calving rate, the weaning rate will be between 40 and
45%. Tables 8.3 and 8.4 show that with such low weaning rates it
is very difficult to achieve growth rates of the cow herd and ac
ceptable levels of offtake Aiich determine economic success. On
the other hand the tables also point to the high performance
levels that can be achieved. Growth cf the cow herd is important
in the initial stocking-up period and a growth rate of say 18% is
well within the realm of possibilities, so is an offtake rate of
between 25 and 30%.
The hypothetical figures in Tables 8.3 and 8.4 can be contrasted

with achieved figures in Table 8.5. The latter relate to ranches
built up over the past decade with assistance by the World Bank.
None of the newly-established ranches achieved the planned levels

of performance. Development trends are erratic without any clear
upward trend. To transform the calvin, rates into weaning rates
193
Table 8.5: Planned and Achieved Calving Rates (%) on Newly

established Ranches in Tropical Africa,
Ranch development year

3 4 5 6
Planning figuresa 60 65 70 75
Achieved figures
Congo b 49 61 55 n.av
Kenyac 67 43 47' 44
Tanzaniad n. av. 64 63 58
Zairce 63 ;51 29 65
Zambia f n. av. 65 49 66
a) Informal average of common planning figures

b) One ranch
c) Weighted average of several so-called company ranches
d) Weighted average of five parastatal ranches
e) One ranch
f)Weighted average of ten ranches
Source: Sandford (1980).
some five to ten percentage points have to be subtracted. With

weaning rates significantly below sixty per cent a satisfactory
growth rate of cattle herds is difficult to achieve (Table 8.3) and
offtake rates will hardly exceed 15 per cent (Table 8.4).
Given that ranching is capital intensive and constitutes a fully

commercialized undertaking physical performance levels are quickly
194
reflected in financial viability. The financial viability demonstrated

by the private ranching sectors in Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Zim
babwe, Zaire and other countries contrasts with the financial
problems met on the newly established ranches. Physical perform
ance and financial performance of ranching in Tropical Africa have
to be viewed in this dichotomy between the possible levels on one
side and the achieved on the other. This dichotomy weighs heavily
on the development prospects of ranching.
8.3.1 Basic Opportunities and Constraints
Ranching development as a form of livestock development for

Tropical Africa has a number of attractions in theory (Baker 1968;
Jahnke 1976b; IBRD 1977; Sandford 1980): A previously unproduc
tive and unused piece of land can be rapidly brought to high levels
of production and productivity through the unhindered application
of scientific techniques, strong management and large amounts of
capital. The burden of working through traditional techniques and
ideals is absent. The problem of overpopulation by man and stock
does not exist. The starting point is empty land or manageable
numbers of man and stock.
At a time when expectations from ranching development were still

high in Kenya, von Kaufmann (1976, p. 267) wrote:
"With the aid of plenty of loan capital and the existence
of known technology and quality cattle, development is ex
tremely rapid. A ranch may go from virgin bush to having
three dips, 30 miles of piping, 200 miles of road and the
facilities to handle seven thousand head of cattle in four to
five years. Such a piocess would have taken the early Euro
peans thirty years."
The experience does not bear out that such a speeding up of the
ranch development process is feasible. Poor performance of practi
cally all of the recently established ranches became obvious in the
second half of the 1970 (Jahnke 1976a; IBRD 1977; Sandford
1980). At the basis was poor livestock performance as indicated by
the calving rates (Table 8.5) supported by other indicators like
calf mortality, adult mortality, maturity age, growth rate, offtake
and slaughter weight. Poor physical performance quickly endan
gered the financial viability of the ranches. In some cases finan
195
cial rescue operations were undertaken despite profound doubts

about their economic justification (Kenya, Tanzania). In other
cases ranching development stopped altogether (e. g. Zambia). In
this same period the old-established ranching sector, while also
suffering from inflation and drought, continued to perform well.
It is a contention of this study that the problems of newly estab
lished rarches reflect a problem of management compounded by
unrealist;c time expectations and the over-availability of capital.
Management requirements in ranch development are related to

capital and time requirements in a double sense. Firstly higher
capital intensity as implied by ranch development requires higher
management skills for 1!eneral supervision, delegation of responsibi
lities, technical supervision and maintenance, herding tactics, book
keeping, strategic marketing etc. Secondly it takes time to build
up these management skills since they are much more the result
of specific ranch experience than formal training; it may be pos
tulated that it takes as much time to build up the management
capacity as it takes to build up a ranch from its own resources. It
is common for European ranches in Tropical Africa to be in the
hands of the second or third generation and still being in need of
development despite of relatively high initial levels of know-how
and despite of various forms of indirect support by colonial gov
ernments to the politically powerful group of ranchers. This im
plies a long and intensive learning process. It is this feature that
characterizes the European ranches in Africa and that makes them
different in respect to ranches under African management where
external sources provide finance and lift the capital constraint to
ranching development. The factor that invariably becomes the
tightest constraint is management. The problem of African ranches
lies in *he latter's youth and the lack of management experience.
Financing a quick ranch build-up is more likely to throw the en
terprises into financial trouble than to achieve the desired devel
opment result. Calving rates as the most sensitive indicator of
management in ranching are clear evidence. A low calving rate
combined with heavy capital expenditures characterizes the man
agement problems of African ranches and points to the trouble
ranching is heading for.
The management problem is common to all ranching development

irrespective of the ecological zone and the specific technical prob
lems and irrespective oi the institutional form of ranching devel
opment (private ownerhip of individuals or partners, company
ranches, cooperative ranches, parastatal ranches etc.). But certain
institutional forms are beset with problems that compound the
management constraint. This holds for cooperative and for parasta
tal ranches which are preferred in Africa for equity reasons and
ideology. Here management is neither given incentives nor held re
sponsible for poor performance. Continuity in management is gen
erally lacking. Supervision and control are hindered by work rela
tionship determined outside the ranching enterprise. Management is
often separated from accounting and cost consciousness is not
called for. Finally there is continual pressure toward overstaffing
and overemployment.
Inadequate management compounded by unsuitable institutional

forms constitutes a formidable check on ranching as the quick and
unhindered path for livestock development in Tropical Africa. It
has to be realized that here as in other world regions ranching
development has a long time dimension.
8.3.2 Ranching Development in Arid Areas
In this context the arid areas refer to areas of the arid and
semi-arid zones where livestock production has an ecological pref
erential over cropping and where the tsetse problem plays a mar
ginal role if any at all. The established European ranching sector
is basically found in these areas (Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Bots
wana, Zimbabwe) with the exception of ranching in Zaire. At the
time of its establishment population densities were lower and ap
propriation of land for ranching purposes was possible. The estab
lishment of new ranching enterprises in these areas today can
mean two things:
- The transformation of pastoral production systems into ranching
systems. This is basically a problem of institutional (in particular
land tenure) reform on one side and of human population pressure
on the other. The solutions to both problems can only be found in
the long run, but this type of ranching development is viewed by
Pratt and Gwynne (1977) as the basic development path for oc
cupied rangelands, though usually with a lengthy intermediate
phase under grazing associations or group ranches.
- The establishment of ranching enterprises in empty areas, i. e.

areas that are not used or claimed. The exclusion of pastoralists
from land on which they hold a claim is for African governments
of today no feasible solution. The basic constraint is then availa
197
bility of such empty land. On the aggregate the more arid areas
of Tropical Africa are already overpopulated but pockets of unused
land exist. in Kenya it has been estimated that 220 000 square
kilometres or 5% of the dry rangelands can be considered unoc
cupied and available for ranching (UNDP/FAO 1969). The disadvan
tage is that these areas are often unused for good reasons (lack
of access, prevalence of disease, lack of water resources) so that
ranching development is confronted with additional problems.
Whichever view of ranching development is taken the large-scale
establishment of ranching enterprises in the arid areas in the
foreseeable future is unlikely. Ranches will not account for any
significant portion of the livestock industries' total output. But
ranches, even if few in numbers could play a significant role in
specialized functions. Stratification is one example. The scope for
stratification is limited by the availability of animals from pasto
ral systems (see section 5.3.1), but there are nevertheless special
ized markets that pay for high quality meat and would justify
some effort at ranch establishment in this area*. The maintenance
of pure-bred studs and the supply of high quality breeding animals
is another example. The existence of at least some ranches as a
source of technical know-how to be used in the gradual trans
formation of pastoral systems may be relevant. Finally there are
specialized enterprises like game ranching or Karakul sheep ranch
ing that may be of local importance.
* Expectations have to be modest. A degree of stratification has

been successfully implemented in Kenya. Elsewhere the under
lying assumptions of excessive trade margins and availability of
surplus animals from pastoral systems proved wrong (Sandford
1980). Ferguson's (1979) review of so-called calf-saving centers
and growing out ranches in the Sahelian region, of medium to
long-term fattening ranches in areas to the south of the arid
zone (in Senegal, Cameroon, Upper Volta and Niger) and of
short-term fattening ranches and feedlots in the sub-humid zone
point to the same management problems as found in other
ranches. They are only compounded by the fact that the ex
pected stratification efiects do not take place which is among
other things expressed in the chronic lack of animals for
purchase and further fattening and by the presence of tsetse
flies and trypanosomiasis.
198
8.3.3 Ranching Development in Humid Areas
The more humid areas show different opportunities andconstraints

for ranching development:
- The carrying capacity of the land increases with rainfall, in

particular the possibilities of raising fodder productivity through
the application of capital and management multiply.
- There are huge stretches of land that classify as empty or un
used. They generally have a potential for crop agriculture but the
low population densities prevailing make relatively extensive forms
of land use like ranching feasible.
- One of the very reasons for the emptiness of the areas is the
presence of tsetse flies and trypanosomiasis. That problem is
almost ubiquitous in the more humid areas of Tropical Africa and
constitutes a very specific constraint to any form of livestock de
velopment including ranching.
The principle of ranching development in tsetse-affected areas can

also be seen from a different angle. In areas of high population
density land use is so intensive that tsetse habitat is largely elim
inated. Such high land use intensities as a protection against
tsetse flies are near impossible to achieve in a short time span.
Land use expands on the fringes of the densely populated tsetse
free areas but continues to be under high trypanosomiasis risk for
a long period. Ranching development would use livestock in their
'classical' role of pioneers of land use. Through livestock large
areas can be taken into a form of extcnsive land use if the tsetse
problem can be overcome. Eventually extensive ranching may yield
to more intensive forms of production. The advantage of initial
ranch delimitation is that land use development can be controlled
to avoid haphazard encroachment by undesirable land use systems
and to preserve large tracts of land for suitable intensive forms of
agricultural production in future (Sacker and Trail 1968;
UNDP/FAO 1967). With respect to the tsetse problem two basic
approaches must be distinguished*: (1) ranching in tsetse-infested
* A third approach is to keep animals under drug protection. Ap
plicability of this approach is controversial because of the prob
lem of resistance. The fact remains that many a ranch has
used drugs against trypanosomiasis for long periods allowing
successful beef production.
i99
areas with trypanotolerant animals and (2) ranching development

after tsetse clearance.
Ranching with trypanotolerant livestock: Zaire is the country with

the largest tradition of ranching with trypanotolerant cattle. De
velopment there is essentially one of European ranching. It de
serves attention in the present context because there is continued
interest in the use of trypanotolerant animals*. Practically all
cattle hrve been introduced into Zaire from the outside. The most
important trypanotolerant breed in Zaire is the N'dama. They
were first imported from Guinea in 1920, initially kept on com
mercial farms and ranches in Bas-Zaire and then distributed in
Bandundu and Equateur Regions. The total number of N'dama
cattle in Zaire is now estimated at about 245 000 head. About
one half are kept on ranches covering an area of 350 000 ha.
The ranching system in Zaire is based on natural savanna grazing,

except at Mpaka in Ubangi Sub-region. Herds of N'dama, Meteba,
Ituri and Angola crossbreds are generally kept on fenced pastures
in Equateur and Bas-Zaire Regions and with permanent herdsmen
in Bandundu. Herds vary from 1 000 to 25 000, and the carrying
capacity is 2 to 5 ha per head. Where pastures are fenced, the
cattle graze day and night; where herdsmen are-used, the animals
are kept in night paddocks or pens. Seasonal burning of the nat
ural pasture is common and has a number of advantages: The costs
are low and, in addition to stimulating regrowth, burning reduces
the population of tsetse flies, ticks and other insects and larvae,
controls the growth of shrubs and disperses wild animals.
Production based on ..rtificial pastures has never been economically
feasible due to low meat prices, which were only 24 Mukuta
($ 0.22) per kg liveweight in 1975 for first quality.
Given that the animal productivity of trypanotolerant livestock is

not inferior to that of other breeds the high calving rates achieved
point to the high level of management. Under extensive conditions
the calving rate is 75 to 80% including only calves alive two weeks
after birth; under more intensive conditions the calving rate is as
high as 100% while mortality rates are generally very low.
A particular problem of expanding ranching based on trypanotoler
ant livestock is the availability of such animals. Technically the
* The account of ranching in Zaire follows ILCA (Trail et al
1979) and Wissocq, personal communication.
200 .
problem of ranching with trypanotolerant animals is largely solved

as a result of the experience with European ranching in Zaire. The
financial and economic viability is shown by the fact of the exist
ence of this private sector for decades and its reestablishment in
recent years after expropriation and nationalization. However, the
establishment of new ranches on that basis (in Gabun, Congo and
Zaire) organized as parastatals has run into pioblems which can be
traced back to the basic constraints of management and institu
tional forms of production that have been dealt with earlier.
Ranching development after tsetse clearance: Tsetse control oper

ations are not normally carried out with the specific purpose of
allowing the establishment of ranching. Exceptions 2are Zimbabwe
and Uganda (Jahnke 1976b). In Zimbabwe 25 000 km in the Zam
besi basin were freed from tsetse flies between 1930 and 1970
primarily by shooting large wild animals, the hosts of the flies, to
28 000
pro ect the ranching industry in that country. In Uganda destruc
km were freed betv.een 1947 and 1970, initially by game
tion, then by insecticide application; a prime aim of the opera
tions was to allow ranching development in the freed areas. The
basic issues like the costs and benefits of tsetste control and its
place in overal~jand use planning as elaborated in section 6 apply
here as well. Two specific questions need to be raised about the
tsetse-control-cum-ranching approach:
- Is ranching a suitable from of land use to prevent reinfestation?
- Can the economics of ranching carry the additional burden of

the tsetse control costs?
Ranching itself does not prevent reinfestation. It is a relatively

extensive form of land use allowing the continued presence of bush
and tree. and thus of tsetse habitat. In addition the livestock
themselves serve as hosts to the flies and attract them back.
Additional measures are therefore needed. In Zimbabwe extensive
fencing End regular spraying is intended to maintain the separation
between the tsetse-infested wilderness and the ranching areas. In
Uganda the policy of preventive reclamation was practised, i. e. an
area once freed is protected from reinfestation by reclaiming the
neighbouring areas from the tsetse flies as well. Cheaper methods
based on judicious use of trypanocidal drugs, of localized on-ranch
spraying and of bush clearing along the ranch boundaries have also
been found to be possible (Matteucci 1974). This leads to the
question of economics. The conclusion from detailed economic
201
analyses of tsetse control and ranching is simple. Ranching sys

tems that are economically marginal anyway never justify the
additional cost of tsetse control; well-managed ranches on high
levels of productivity justify tsetse control easily if the control
operations are carried out efficiently (Jahnke 1976b, pp. 85). An
example of successful ranching developm-nt after tsetse clearance
still is the Ankole-Niasaka scheme in Uganda (Sacker and Trail
1968, Marples 1980, personal communication). If ranching can be
made successful in Africa the tsetse problem can be overcome
both technically and economically. But this statement hardly refers
to the hole of the 10 million square kilometers of tsetse-infested
land but rather to specific ranch perimeters.
202
9 Landless Livestock Production Systems
9.1 Definition and Delimitation
Landless liv,stock production systems refer to systems in which

the importance of land for livestock production is significantly
reduced in comparison with the systems so far dealt with. This is
particularly the case with species that do not obtain their feed
requirements through grazing, notably pigs and chickens. On low
levels of intensity pigs and chickens are fed on household refuse
and crop by-products; at higher levels concentrate is fed. Such
concentrate feed may be produced on the farm but it may also be
purchased in. The possibility of purchasing the feed thus substitu
ting for farm land on the enterprise itself again emphasizes the
"landless" aspect of the production system.
Ruminants can also be kept in landless proa,,ction systems, but

normally this implies high levels of capital intensity and manage
ment as found e. g. in beef lots.
As a corollary landless production systems are also less dependent
on the specific ecological conditions. Availability and quality of
feed need not be determined by the environment and the more ad
vanced production systems provide protection from the direct cli
matic influences (housing, controlled lighting, even air-condition
ing). Their distribution and maybe more so their development pros
pects are less rigidly tied to ecological zones. The term ecology
independent systems is therefore also sometimes used although the
notion of complete ifidependence of ecology appears to be too
strong.
9.2 Pig Production Systems*
The total pig population in Tropical Africa is estimated at 7.3

million head. The largest concentration of pigs is in the coastal
belt from Senegal to Cameroon which accounts for almost fifty
per cent of the total population. Of all countries with a pig po-.
pulation of 100 000 head or more there are nine in Western
Africa, two in Central, one in Eastern and four in Southern
Africa. The distribution reflects ecological conditions, religious
particularly islamic - taboos and development efforts of the past.
Three basic production systems are distinguished (Meyn 1978a;
* This section draws heavily on Meyn (1978b).

203
Serres 1973): Traditional systems, commercial and advanced com

mercial systems within an overall stratification of production.
Traditional systems are found in smallholder farming communities.

The animals are indigenous small breeds and live on waste pro
ducts of the household and the fields. There are practically no
fixed investments. Management is characterized by the absence of
supplementary feeding, health care (vaccination and deworming in
particular) and housing. Only about 3-4 piglets are weaned per
sow and year and the carcass weight hardly exceeds 50 kg. Pro
duction is destined for home or village consumption.
Commercial production systems producing for the market use con

centrates for feeding and incur costs for current inputs and in
vestments. They are therefore dependent on breeds with better
conversion rates and generally a higher performance capacity than
indigenous ones (Table 9.1).
Table 9.1: Comparison of the Performance of African Indigenou

Pigs with Swedish Landrace in Southern Africa
Swedish Indigenous Difference

Landrace pigs absolute relative
Weight kg kg kg T
at birth 1.6 1.0 0.6 60
at weaning weight 15.6 9.3 6.1 66
at 120 days 41.8 18.3 23.0 122
at 200 days 95.9 43.3 52.6 121
of mature male 315 83 232 280
of mature female 265 71 194 273
Source: Hammond et al (1961),taken from Meyn (1978b).

The commercial systems are normally self-contained units engaged
in both breeding and fattening. They can be distinguished accord
ing to the end product they specialize in (Table 9.2).
Table 9.2: Types of Commercial Pig Production Systems and Major

Production Characteristics
Characteristic Porker Bacon Heavy hog

system system system
Slaughter age 5 months 7 months variable

Slaughter weight 50-80 kg 90 kg 120 kg
Killing out 65-75% 75% 78 %
Feed conversion 3.0 : 1 3.5 :1 4.0 :1
Source: Meyn (1978b).
The economics of the different systems are largely determined by

the prices and price differentials for the different meat qualities
produced. Fat meat is in relatively higher demand in Africa than
in industrialized countries which in part explains the premium paid
in Africa for pig meat over beef (Serres 1973).
Finally there are advanced systems within an overall stratification

of production. Central units engage in stud breeding, selection and
experimentation on feeding and health care. Other units engage
exclusively in piglet production, which still requires a high level of
management, while fattening is carried out in either specialized
large enterprises or in smallholdings. Such stratification and spe
cialization is seen as the long-term development path for pig pro
duction also in Tropical Africa but has not been implemented on a
large scale yet (Serres 1973).
205
Total pork production in Tropical Africa was 247 000 tonnes in

1979, (see section 3.2.1). Per head of the human population this
comes to 0.7 kg. Pig productivity in Tropical Africa appears to be
the lowest of any world region (Meyn 1978b; FAO Production
Yearbooks). The indicators in Table 9.3 are not the ones common
ly used in pig production but the only ones that can be calculated
from available statistics.
Table 9.3: Estimate of Pig Production and Productivity of Tradi

tional and Commercial Systems in Tropical Africa 1979
Indicator Total/ Commercial Traditional c

averagea
Pork production 247 000 49 000 b 198 000

(MT)
Offtake ri te (%) 75 85 d 74
Carcass weight d
45.3 65.0 42.1
(kg)
Standing stock 7 273 887 6 386

(1 000)
a) Average/total figlres from FAO (Production Yearbook 1979)

b) According to FAO (AT 2000, 1979) about 20 % of the production
comes from commercial systems
c) Calculated as a residual
d) Own estimates based on the figures of the small but largely
commercial pig industry in Kenya
Source: Compiled by the author from FAO (Production Yearbook

1979), FAO (AT 2000, 1979) and own estimates.
Pig numbers and pork production have increased at a relatively

rapid rate in the past (Table 9.4).
Production has increased at a rate above the growth rate of the

human population. It has, however, been mainly due to numeric in
206
crease; significant productivity increase cannot be detected. This

would also mean that the proportion of commercial systems in to
tal production has not significantly increased.
Table 9.4: Increase of the Pig Population and of Pork Production

1969-71 to 1979 (Indices)
Numbers/ Year Annual

production growth
1969-71 1974 1975 19761* 1977 1978 1979 69-71/79
Pig numbers 100 108 116 1.17 124 130 135 3.4%
Pork production 100 105 115 121 127 132 140 3.5%
Source: FAO (Production Yearbooks, 'various years).
9.3 Poultry Production Systems-
In this study only chickens are dealt with as poultry. The only
other two poultry species on which there are any statistics are
ducks and turkeys. According to FAO (Production Yearbook 1979)
there are 5.7 million ducks in Tropical Africa (2.5 million in Tan
zania, 2.4 million in Madagascar and 565 000 in Mozambique) and
1.2 million turkeys (of which practically all are in Madagascar).
Chickens number some 427 million. For reasons of numerical signi
ficance alone it appears to be justified to focus aggregate con
siderations on chickens, but for a country like Madagascar ducks
and turkeys obviously play a role. Data on meat production gener
ally include all poultry species but this error carries no significant
weight given the relative flock sizes (Madagascar would again be
an exception). In the following the terms chickens and poultry are
used interchangeably.
The distribution of the chicken population appears to be influenced

by the distribution of the human population more than by any
other factor. On average there are 1.8 birds per person if related
to the agricultural population, or 1.3 if related to the total human
population. The two countries with by far the largest chicken-
This section draws heavily on Meyn (1978c).
'207
flocks are Nigeria (110 million birds) and Ethiopia (52 million)..
Poultry production systems show a clear distinction between tradi-.

tional, low-input systems on one side and modern batch production
systems using advanced technology in housing, feeding, breeding,
marketing and processing on the other. Once a farmer starts pro
ducing for the market, the use of modern technology appears to
be so much more efficient than the traditional system that the
producer will make a quantum jump very quickly, and adopt pro
duction technology as has been developed in the industrialized
countries. If successful, he will also increase the size of his opera
tions to utilize economies of scale. Poultry production in Africa is
therefore a combination of a large number of small subsistence
producers selling also some of their produce to the market, and a
few large-scale producers supplying urban consumer markets. Meyn
(1978c) refers to the first group as farm-yard poultry production
while he distinguishes the second according to their specialization.
Farm-yard poultry production is probably the most common form

of animal husbandry in Africa, being practised by virtually every
rural family. The main features are minimum inputs - with birds
scavenging on the farm and no investments beyond the birds and
their simple enclosures - and low productivity. Meat and egg pro
ductivity are both low. The system encounters enormous losses
through recurring disease such as Newcastle disease, fowl pox,
fowl typhoid, Marek's disease, and coccidiosis from parasite infes
tations. The disease risk must be regarded as the main obstacle
for smallholders to intensify the management of their flocks, be
cause in some situations only one out of 10 chickens born will
reach marketable age. In addition farm-yard poultry is beset by a
strong seasonality according to the rainfall and temperature
regimes. Otherwise, it would be quite attractive in many African
countries to feed surplus farm-produced grain to chickens, and to
sell eggs and slaughter birds to the market and thus generate cash
in such small portions as is convenient for the cash economy of
smallholders.
Specialized egg production units are one type of commercial

poultry production system. They can be found in the vicinity of
many African cities. Being labour-intensive and guaranteeing re
gular daily incomes, they are normally smaller operations than
commercial broiler units, ranging from about 500 to several thou
sand birds. Simple housing with a thatched roof, wire mesh on two
sides and a deep litter system are the dominant features. Egg
9.nR
production units are normally found close to a source of commer

cial feed supply which in turn is likely to be linked to the milling
industry in that country. The birds belong to one of the improved
egg producing breeds (White Leghorn, Brown Leghorn) or dual pur
pose breeds (Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Sussex) or increasingly
they are hybrids being supplied by international poultry concerns
which have established outlets in Africa. Chickens are typically
bought from one of the hatcheries or they are imported. As an
example, Kenyan poultry producers used roughly 30% purebred and
cio sbred chicks and about 70% hybrids in 1971. Production coef
ficients vary considerably, but under reasonable conditions an an
nual yield of 200 eggs may be expected per laying bird, equivalent
to 11.4 kg, for which about 40 kg of feed would be required. Egg
marketing is mainly direct from the producer to the consumer, or
through retailers; organized egg marketing systems through co
operatives or wholesalers is rare.
Commercial poultry meat or broiler production is concentrated in

large units near to consumption centers. For example, in 1972,
two thirds of Kenya's poultry meat market of 35 ooo birds per
week was siipplied by the 20 medium- to large-sized poultry pro
ducers keeping in aggregate about 250 000 birds. Specialized hybrid
chicks are supplied by the hatcheries linked to international
poultry firms. Spring chickens are typically sold at an age of 8-10
weeks at a liveweight of 1 kg, having consumed in the order of
2.5 kg of compounded feed. Birds are normally slaughtered on the
farm and sold through supermarkets with cooling facilities. Birds
are produced in large batches, which are slaughtered on the same
day.
Hatcheiies: A number of hatcheries licensed by overseas poultry

companies compete for the market of day old chicks in many
African countries. The producer has thus access to genetically su
perior material at reasonable cost. Hatcheries are either importing
eggs or parent stock for day-old chick production. Large poultry
firms combine hatchery with egg production or broiler units.
Total production from poultry in 1979 was estimated at 561 000 t

of meat and 467 000 t of eggs (FAO Production Yearbook 1979)
which gives an average of 1.3 kg of meat per bird and 1.1 kg of
eggs (given their small size this corresponds with 28 eggs or
more). Productivity differences between production systems are
likely to be greater in the case of poultry than pigs. Specialized
commercial production demands high management standards in
209
health care, in the feeding regime and in general husbandry stan

dards and has considerable investment requirements but the re
wards are drastically improved performance levels. Intermediate
systems are few and far between; development efforts at im
proving traditional systems have in the past lagged behind efforts
at establishing modern large enterprises. FAO (AT 2000 1979)
estimates that 30 per cent of the total poultry production comes
from commercial systems. Their meat and egg productivity should
easily be twice as high (2.6 kg of meat and 2.2 kg of eggs) as
the continental average. The productivity estimates for the tradi
tional systems would then of course have to be lowered according
ly.
The availability of poultry products was 1.7 kg of meat and 1.4 kg
of eggs per person (2.4 and 2.0 kg respectively if related to the
agricultural instead of the total population). Poultry production
even more so than pig production has increased rapidly in the
past. It has in fact shown the fastest increase of any form of
livestock production in Tropical Africa (Table 9.5).
Table 9.5: Increase of the Chicken Population and of Poultry Pro

duction 1969-71 to 1979 (Indices)
Numbers/ Annual growth

production 1969/71 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1969-71/79
Flock size 100 105 109 113 120 123 129 2.9 %
Poultry meat 100 114 122 141 163 173 186 7.2 o
Hen eggs 100 111 114 124 131 135 141 3.9%
Source: FAO (Production Yearbooks, various years).
The flock increased at slightly above the rate of human population

growth. Poultry are the only livestock species for which in addition
significant productivity increases can be noted. The relatively high
proportion of commercial undertakings, and the relative absence of
intermediate (improved traditional) systems suggest that this is
due to a transfer of modern production technology and the estab
lishment of modern production enterprises at a significant scale.
21C
- Intensive Beef Production Systems*
In Tropical Africa feedlots are of relatively recent origin and are

still rare. In Kenya feedlots were established in the late sixties;
some six to ten units are still in operation. The major feed base
is maize and maize chop. The motive in their establishment was
very much commercial and the units are privately owned and
operated. In West Africa feed-lotting grew out of the concept of
stratification of the cattle industry. Cattle on their traditional
routing from the breeding zones in the north to the consumer
centres in the south are to be fattened and finished on the way.
This is either done on ranches with artificial pastures and supple
mentary feeding or in feedlots proper. A major element of the
feeding regime are crop by-products like cotton cake, molasses
and others. The units are generally government-owned and -oper
ated or at least government-sponsored.
On a world-wide scale the existence of feed lots is very much
connected to the general level of economic development (Schaefer-
Kehnert 1978a, p. 342):
"In the course of economic development personal incomes
increase and usually strengthen the demand for animal pro
ducts including beef. In this process beef prices often in
crease faster than those of other animal products so that
at higher stages of development beef becomes the most
expensive meat whereas at low stages of development beef
is normally cheaper than pork and poultry meat. The rela
tive increase of beef prices makes it possible to gradually
intensify beef cattle feeding and to include grain and
other feed concentrates in the feed ration of beef fattening
operations. This is usually done in so-called feedlots which
are typical for example for the beef industry of the United
States."
The scope of intensive beef production systems in principle is in

dicated by Figure 9.1.
One is led to assume that the transition to intensive feeding sys

tems would entail a similar dynamism in beef production as is the
case for pig and poultry production. There are, however, two fac
* This section is largely based on Schaefer-Kehnert (1978a).
Figure 9.
Effects of Intensive. Feeding ,on the Growth Pattern
of Cattle
Lwt. / , /
0 in kg
ipoPasetubred
'00 --- Iesv Feingt
C-- o:t
fo 15"as nmrvdbed
1 2 3 Iptevedvbreedinganrernanfedofr15das
5
Age in Years
A Traditional extensive beer production, unimproved breeds

A As above, but 180 days for finishing in feedlot
B Traditional breeding,
lot for 150 days, slightly improved rearing and feed
unimproved breeds
C Improved breeding
unimproved breeds and rearing and feedlot for 150 days a
D to
Veryslaughter
intensive(Italian
production with zero grazing
"vitellone"), frombreeds.
specialized birth
Source: Auriol (1974).
tors the
thatprice
reduce the and
scope the beef
(2) for fattening in Tropical
(1) ratios conversion efficiency. Beef Africa:
prices
in Africa are still relatively low compared to grain prices and
compared to prices for pig meat and poultry products (Klayman
1960, Schaefer-Kehnert 1978). Furthermore ruminants are signifi
cantly less efficient in converting feed to meat than either pigs or
poultry. The combined effects on the economics of beef fattening
in Africa has been demonstrated by Schaefer-Kehnert (Table 9.6).
The higher feed prices in Table 9.6 are the more realistic ones
and a conversion rate of 8 : 1 and a daily liveweight gain of 1 kg
212
Table 9.6: To il Beef Fattening Costs in Dependence of Conversion

Ra io and Daily Liveweight Gain
Feed costsa (cents/kg DM)

0.05 0.09 0.12
0nversion
s LW gain Total cbstsd
Ratio
cg DM/kg LW kg/day cents/kg LW gain
6 :.l 1.25 0.40 0.64 0.82

8 :1 1.00 0.52 0.85 1.09
.10 :1 0.75 0.67 .1.07 1.37
12 :1 0.50 0.85 1.33 1.69
Based on a maize price of between $ 62. 5 and $ 112.5 per t; the feed costs
vary with type and quality of the ration and its energy content; a low feed
price could refer to a low energy ration at a high maize price or vice versa
b) In kg of feed dry matter per k1 of liveweight gain
c) Conversion ratios and daily liveweight gains do not go fully parallel but they
are closely related
d) Including an overhead charge of 12. 5 cents per animal per day
Source: Schaefer-Kehnert (1978a).
represent a very good level of performance. For such an operation

to be profitable the beef price has to be around one US dollar per
kg liveweight or twice that amount per kg CDW.* The implied
price ratio of beef (liveweight) to feed grain would be 10 : 1.
Such price ratios are not common in Africa. An informal survey of
* Dressing-out percentages vary with the quality of the animals.
A beef lot animal can be expected to dress out at some points
above 50 per cent but this complication is neglected here.
213
price ratios in 11 countries of Tropical Africa* suggests price

ratios of 5 : 1 and narrower. This aspect can be generalized. The
price ratio of maize to beef is largely influenced by the supply
situation of these two commodities in a country. If there is a
surplus situation and the commodities are exported, prices are
likely to reflect world market prices minus transport costs, i. e.
export parity prices. If they are in short supply, prices tend to
reflect import parity prices (world market price plus transport
costs). Thus, for the two commodities involved there are four
combinations of price levels possible aF shown in Table 9.7. The
table also shows the price ratios that are typical for these com
binations, and some of the countries to which they apply. These
ratios are influenced, of course, by the maize/beef price ratio on
the world market which has fluctuated over the past but has a
tendency to always swing back to the same or a similar ratio
(Schaefer-Kehnert 1978).
Table 9.7: Typical Grain/Beef Price Ratios in World Regions
Grain price level Beef price level Price ratio Typical countries
beef LW to grain
Export parity Import parity 1:10 - 12 USA, Canada
Import parity Import parity 1: 7 - 8 EEC countries
Export parity Export parity 1: 4 - 5 Australia Argentina
Import parity Export parity 1: 2 - 3 Ethiopia, Tanzania,
Madagascar
Source: Schaefer-Kehnert (1978a).
As can be seen from Table 9.7 favourable maize/beef price ratios

are achieved only where the beef price is at an import parity
level. Most favourable is the situation where the import parity
* In connection with ILCA/EDI Livestock Development Projects
Course, 1978, Nairobi.
214
price of beef is combined with an export parity price for maize.

This situation is unique for North America where a great potential
and efficiency in grain production for export exists and a high in
come population can afford to pay the import parity price for
beef. The feedlot flourishes under these conditions. In the EEC
countries, where both maize and beef are at the import parity
level, the price ratio is still good enough to feed a steer with a
medium to high energy ration in a short finishing operation. In
Australia and Argentina, however, where both maize and beef are
at an export parity level, there is no room for feeding maize to
beef cattle. These countries, therefore, export both feed grain and
beef. African countries which have a surplus of beef, but are short
of grain, have the most unfavourable maize/beef price ratio. Many
African countries have turned from net exporters of beef to net
importers or are expected to do so in the near future (IICA,
Bulletin 3, 1979). By tendency this improves the price ratios for
beef fattening but the situation in North America will not be
reached simply because the African countries have a deficit in
grain production which is likely to grow larger in future (Schmidt
1981; FAO, AT 2000 1979). Economic beef fattening operations
are still possible if there is a large price d.fferential between
feeder steers and fat steers per kg liveweight, if low-cost rations
based on by-products can be used and if the efficiency expressed
in conversion rates and daily liveweight gains is high. Compared to
pig and poultry production which are favoured by relatively higher
prices and by better conversion rates the scope for intensive beef
fattening is much reduced.
9. 5 Development Possibilities
Production techniques for intensive livestock feeding systems in

tropical areas have been well-established (Serres 1973; Bres et al
1973; Creek and Squire 1976). Demand for livestock products is
growing and apparently cannot be met by supplies from traditional
production systems in Africa. The potential role of intensive feed
ing systems is largely determined by feed availability and price
ratios. Price ratios (and digestive physiology) favour pig and
poultry production, but also milk production fro, cattle, over beef
production. Whichever line of production is favoured it is hard to
imagine that the expansion of intensive feeding systems can be
based on grain when the continent as a whole is short of grain for
human consumption. The availability of alternative feeds, in par
ticular by-products, is therefore crucial.
215
In comparison with the industrialized countries the by-products

from grain-milling are less important in Tropical Africa because
much of the grain is directly consumed on the farm. The situation
is favoured on the other hand by the availability of tropical pro
ducts and by-products. Table 9.8 shoes the estimated availability
of all by-products that could be used for livestock feeding.
According to the evaluation, some 18 million t (DM) of agro-in
dustrial by-products could be mobilized for animal feeds in Tropi
cal Africa. Their average energy and DCP values would be 0.68 FU
and 96 g/kg of DM respectively, amounting to nearly 12 000 mil
lion FU. Theoretically this is enough to fatten 13-14 million cattle
or one tenth of the total cattle herd for a three-month period
every year. More detailed estimates which consider also the
regional availability of by-products in certain combinations and
forms show considerable variation among the country groups but
reach similar overall totals. The largest potential is with sugar
cane areas. In actual practice only a small proportion of agro-in
dustrial by-products available in Tropical Africa is at present used
for these purposes. For the most part, the use of by-products in
animal feeds is restricted to commercial poultry enterprises, some
experimental stations and a few commercial ranches, together with
extension schemes for small mixed farming enterprises launched
under agricultural development programmes. The remaining balance
is either used for other purposes or is simply wasted, while pro
jects to promote the animal feed industry are apparently con
fronted with difficulties. Raw material supplies are problematic
and several ingredients are imported.
Conventional by-products, in particular oilcakes and cottonseed as

well as milling by-products, are traditionally exported to meet the
demand from animal feed industries in developed countries. Non
conventional by-products, on the other hand, are being used as
fuel (bagasse, cotton and groundnut hulls), as fertilizer or as a
raw material for industry. Molasses can be used for making al
cohol (rum) and vinegar, or for surfacing roads. Bagasse can be
used for making fibre-boards or even pulp for papermaking.
Many crop discards are wasted. In intensive sugat cane enterprises,

labour and transport bottlenecks generally mean that the tops are
burnt in order to facilitate the harvest. On the other hand, in
situations where a large number of enterprises are spread over a
wide area, recovering discards (tubers, bananas, cocoa pods) is too
expensive and there are no animals available locally to consume
Table 9.8: Potential Availability and Feed Value of Main Agro
industrial By-products Suitable for Animal Nutrition,
By-products Dry matter Feed unitsa DCP

1 000 t millions g/FU
1. Cereals and tubers 2 999 3 009 95

Milling residues 1 796 1 819 142
Wheatb (946) .(1088)
RiceC (691) (539)
Maized (159) (192)
Brewer's wastese 135 101 267
Cassava wastes 1 068 1 089 0
f
2. Oil seeds 3 271 3 401 386
Groundnut cake 1 677 1 828
Cotton cake 607 631,
Coconut cake 508 488
Sesame cake 348 334
Palm kernel cake 131 120
3. Sugar cane 7497 3921 21
4. Other 3999 1763 44

Cocoa pods 1 032 444
Coffee pulp 801 681
Banana discards
Plantain 261 250
Poyo 170 162
Pineapple wastes 77 68
Groundnut hulls 1 159 93
Cotton hulls 499 65
Total 17 766 12 094 141

a) One FU is equal to 1 883 calories for ruminants, the amount of energy obtained
from a kilo of feed barley. It is the equivalent of 0. 7 of a starch unit (Kellner).
The maintenance ration for an adult head of cattle with a liveweight of 250 kg is
estimated at 2.5 feed units (FU) per day and 150 g of digestible crude protein (DCP)
b) Imported and locally produced wheat
c) Locally produced rice
d) Imported maize only
e) Industrial breweries
f) Assuming all seed production is converted into oil and cake
Source: ILCA (1979e).

217
them. A similar problem arises where the recovery of brewers'

grains, pineapple waste or other processed fruit pulps is concerned.
Most of the by-products are perishable. Undoubtedly they could be
preserved by drying or ensiling, but this would involve rather high
processing and transport costs. Ensiling, in particular, implies a
combination of farming conditions which is not generally found in
Tropical Africa.
Thus, in view of both the processing and the opportunity costs
(alternative uses), the utilization of agro-industrial by-products in
animal feeds does not yet appear to be generally profitable in
Tropical Africa. The opportunity costs of conventional by-products
can be estimated on the basis of export unit values. Bran and
other milled products sold by African countries were 10 US cents
per kilo in 1977 and 15 cents for oilcakes. On the basis of export
unit values and domestic meat prices, the price ratios of beef/ani
mal feeds are still lower in most African countries than they are
in developed countries, where fattening is mostly intensive.
Meat prices are, however, rising rapidly as supply continues to be
short and as demand rises with general economic development.
Trade flows of by-products to livestock producers in the industria
lized countries then lose their economic justification and more ex
panded use for livestock production in Tropical Africa should be
possible. But this is not an automatic outcome of trends. Nigeria
which has the highest meat prices of any African countries has
resorted to meat imports mainly from South America while crop
by-products continue to be exported on a large scale. Conscious
development efforts are apparently required in addition to general
economic conditions to establish an intensive livestock production
industry based on the feeding of by-products.
218
10 Conclusions for Livestock Development Planning
This study has focussed on a consideration of livestock production

and of livestock development in the context of ecological zones
and livestock production systems. Its aim of improving the planning
base for livestock development could only be pursued on that level.
But development planning most importantly takes place on the
national level, i. e. for countries or political units rather than
production systems or ecological units and has to be carried out
by national authorities. It therefore is appropriate to direct the
concluding remarks to some of the implications in principle of this
study for national development planning. This is done by outlining
the importance of national planning for livestock development
(section 10.1), by elaborating on some strategy issues that specifi
cally arise for national planning as a result of considering live
stock by production system (section 10.2) and by pointing to some
of the limitations of planning for livestock dr.velopment (section
10.3).
10.1 The Importance of Planning for Livestock Development
Livestock development involves the growth of aggregates like the

production of meat, milk and eggs. Structural changes within pro
duction systems in production technology, in marketing and pro
cessing, in farm organization, in attitudes and the like and changes
in the relative place of different production systems in the course
of time may be more essential characterisitics of development, but
it can be accepted that growth rates in the aggregates mentioned
are important targets in development planning and important out
comes of development efforts.
There are no objective and universally applicable criteria for the

desirable or necessary growth rates in an economy; i. e. for the
planning targets. But there are a number of plausible considera-\
tions from which orders of magnitude can be derived, e. g. that
production should keep pace with the growth of internal demand
as determined by growth of the human population and growth in
per caput incomes.* Population growth rates up to the year 2000
are rather uniformly predicted to lie between 2.5 and 3.0 per cent
per annum for the countries in Tropical Africa.
* The growth rates used in the following are largely those of the
United Nations and its agencies and of the World Bank as
summarized by de Montgolfier-Kou6vi and Vlavonou (1981).
219
Economic growth rates can be expected to vary much more. If

trends from the past are weighted and extrapolated per caput in
comes would grow at an average of 1.5 to 2.0 per cent per annum
in real terms over the same period. Income elasticities of demand
for livestock products are estimated at close to unity (which prob
ably constitutes an underestimate, compare section 4.1.2). These
elements combine for a growth rate of internal demand for live
stock products of about four to five per cent per annum. At this
rate total demand increases two- to threefold until the year 2000.
This sets the orders of magnitude for production targets in
international planning exercises like the FAO study AT 2000
(1979). Grosso modo the targets for livestock development in
Tropical Africa are set between a twofold and threefold produc
tion increase between 1975 and the year 2000. They are modest
targets in the sense that they only aim at keeping pace with
demand and at maintaining self-sufficiency ratios. They are
ambitious targets in the sense that they aim far above the per
formance levels achieved in the past (section 4.1.1).
There is no reason to believe that the implied dramatic increases
in the growth rates of production could happen in an automatic
and autonomous process within the production systems. Rather the
target- uall for huge organized efforts to act on these production
systems. Investment requirements alone are estimated to increase
ten-fold over the level in the past.* The size of the development
task is closely related to the size of the planning task to mobilize
the resources, to identify development paths, to determine priori
ties and to direct efforts on all levels.
International plans like those of the UN or FAO have an important
function in outlining the challenge, pointing to development paths
and stimulating the national authorities and the international aid
community. But they cannot substitute for national planning. It is
at this level that information on the production potential takes on
concrete forms to which fundamental policy decisions can be re
lated. Such decisions refer to overall objectives of the development
* As one indicator FAO (AT 2000 1979) estimates that to achieve
a trebling of livestock production by the year 2000 investments
of $ 8 billion in 1975 prices are required. This compares to
investments in the livestock sector between 1960 and 1975 of
about $ 600 million (Wissocq 1978; see also section 4.1.1).
220
process, targets within that process, regional and sectoral emphas

es, the place of a subsector like livestock production and the basic
policy instruments to be used. The combination of information and
decision at the national level translates into specific and directed
development measures more often than not cast in the form of
development projects. Such projects situated at the level of pro
duction systems require further planning efforts. Tactical questions
of development have to be addressed that concern the project
targets, its instruments and organization and its likely impact on
the production system concerned, in short the questions of project
design.
This study has dealt with the whole region of Tropical Africa. The
sequence of the approach from the assessment of the resource
base and production status by country, ecological zone and produc
tion system is in principle that of a national planner as well, i. e.
from the strategic to the tactical levels of development*. But the
information provided in this study on the different levels by neces
sity is still insufficient for a concrete national planning exercise.
The information on the resource base and production status which
gives a first delimitation of the production potential would need to
be expanded, tested for the specific conditions within a country
and refined. Similarly the large classes of production systems
examined would need to be differentiated according to the specific
types prevailing in a country and set against the specific develop
ment experience, which modifies the development possibilities as
outlined for the large classes of system. Furthermore the policy
decisions on overall objectives, sectoral Strategies and basic in
struments would intervene on the national level.
Thus this study can only provide a framework and a starting point
for national livestock development planning. Some of the informa
tion given on resources and production, production systems and de
velopment possibilities may be used directly in national plans, but
for the most part the information has to be gathered locally. The
contribution of this study then lies in the outline of the approach
and of the concepts required to identify the type of data needed
and to order information in a way useful for develo.-aent planning
and implementation.
* The differentiation of policy and strategy levels versus tactical

levels that are those of project design is taken from Marglin
(1967).
221
10.2 Production Systems and Strategy Issues in Livestock

Development Planning
Production systems are closely related with development planning

on the tactical level; project design must take account of the
specific characteristics of the production systems affected. But
viewing livestock development by production system raises specific
issues also on the strategic level. Essentially they concern the
relative place of the different production systems in the process
of development. The discussion of development possibilities by pro
duction system by necessity neglects that aspect, which, however,
becomes one of central importance for livestock development plan
ning at the national level.
Only in the simplest (and unrealistic) case would livestock devel

opment as measured by growth in some aggregate like value-added
of the sector or production of livestock foods result in a parallel
expansion of all existing systems in a country. It is more realistic
to conceptualize a starting point for a country characterized by its
overall resource base and production status and by a composite of
production systems in operation and an endpoint (the planning
horizon) which differs not only in its overall resource and produc
tion status but also in the set of production systems then prevail
ing. In this process the individual production systems change, and
change in different time sequences and dimensions. New production
systems complement and replace existing ones. The consequences
for livestock development planning may be referred to as specific
livestock strategy issues. These strategy issues can be put in the
form of various choices which in reality are interdependent but
can conceptually be separated for clarification. The weight of the
different issues and the actual choice made is likely to be dif
ferent in each country. Treatment can therefore only be given in
an exemplary way.
Traditional systems versus new systems: In the aggregate view the

pastoral range-livestock systems, the crop-livestock systems in the
different ecological zones and farm-yard pig and poultry produc
tion class as traditional systems while ranching and the intensive
landless livestock production are modern systems. The strategy
choice of which class of system to promote is largely determined
by the baseline situation in a country. A country dominated by
traditional pastoralism will hardly be able to completely ignore
that system. A densely populated country simply does not have the
option of going for ranching development and a country practically
.222
void of livestock, as some humid countries in Central Africa, does

not have to concern itself much with existing traditional livestock
production systems.
The question of traditional versus new systems can be formulated

in another way yet. Some production systems of a more or less
traditional nature normally exist in practically all countries.
Alongside these may be modern systems representing recent intro
ductions. The strategy choice is among the alternatives of
- improving traditional production and expanding these systems;
- improving and expanding existing modern forms of production;
- introducing new and modern systems to exist alongside tradi

tional ones;
- introducing capital and technology into traditional systems at

such a rate that complete transformation into modern production
systems is achieved.
Combinations of approaches are the most likely outcome of this

type of strategic considerations at the country level. Improvement
of traditional systems is usually an economic and political neces
sity but modern systems of production can play an important role
in victualling urban centres. Intensive livestock systems to be
profitable often havc to be based on a demand from higher income
groups for high-quality products. They cannot normally be provided
oy traditional systems and the rapid growth rates of urban demand
normally outpace their development capacity. There will therefore
often be a case for a dual livestock development strategy that
emphasizes very modern production systems as well as traditional
systems, that employs different instruments and that assigns dif
ferent objectives to the two development paths.
Expansion versus improvement: Livestock development without

formal planning and unassisted by organized development efforts
has in the past largely resulted in the numeric increase of herds
and flocks, i.e. an expansion of traditional systems without any
productivity impiovement. The scope for further expansion is ex
tremely limited in the arid zone and in densely populated areas of
other zones but there are still large areas of low population
density. To allow such expansion into new areas, however, means
missing an opportunity. It is at the point of claiming land and
223
taking it into production that improvements are most easily in

troduced and, if necessary, enforced.
The alternative of expansion versus improvement is closely connec
ted to the alternative of low potential versus high potential areas.
The arid zone with limited technical possibilities for improvement
and a low resource potential under population pressure offers least
room for manoeuvre. Areas with a high natural potential and low
population densities have the biggest scope for increasing produc
tion and for instituting measures to raise productivity.
Improvement in productivity on the national level can also be ob

tained by increasing the share of highly productive production sys
tems. A strategy that allows traditional systems to expand with
negligible productivity increases and that also actively promotes
the modern sector of ranching or of landless systems based on in
tensive feeding may achieve noticeable improvements in national
averages. In this form the strategy issue of improvement versus
expansion is obviously inseparable from that of traditional versus
modern systems.
Continual versus discontinual development: Development can be
viewed as a continual process by which e. g. a traditional pasto
ralist gradually improves, production techniques, increases output
and eventually reaches a productivity level not far from that of a
modern rancher, or by which a farm-yard poultry holder expands
and intensifies his operations to be eventually the owner of a
modern hatchery. The view of development as such a continual
process is connected to the notion of a long-term, gradual and
'organic' process which, while being vague, is attractive because it
suggests painlessness. But even a cursory look at the process of
economic development in today's industrialized countries and at
the more recent experience in the developing world gives little
indication of painless and 'organic' processes. There is no logical
ground either that there should be. Disruption of production sys
tems, collapse. human misery and large-scale dislocation of people
stand alongside with extremely rapid rises of production and pro
ductivity and accumulation of wealth in other areas, possibly with
in the same country. Development planning will try to reduce
these differences but the countries can hardly afford to lose de
velopment opportunities that certain production systems provide or
waste resources on others without development potential.
Some livestock production systems have' a capacity for rapid devel
opment. The dairy farms in the Kenyan highlands are an example.
In such cases there is no reason in principle not to induce radical
institutional changes like land adjudication, not to build up a mod
ern infrastructure or not to promote massive infusion of capital.
High levels of productivity may be rapidly reached and the process
is more one of transformation than of improvement and continual
change.
But if systems exist for which the transformation approach is

suitable there are others whose lack of development capacity has
to be recognized. Examples are highland subsistence farming on
eroded land under extreme population pressure as found in the
famine areas of Wollo in Ethiopia or pastoral systems under re
source pressure in Somalia, northern Kenya or the Sahel. These
are waiting rooms for development, waiting rooms in the sense
that development has to take place elsewnere and that measures
to prevent the worst of human misery and to encourage outmigra
tion are the most appropriate strategy choice.
Selective versus comprehensive approaches: Development efforts

need not necessarily touch on all aspects of a production system
but may have more reduced targets. It may only be one commodi
interest.
ty, one species, or one function of livestock that is of
Development approaches may also be selective in the instruments
applied: To improve the marketing infrastructure only; to rely
!argely on a price policy; or to concentrate on credit schemes.
The combination of selected targets and selected instruments and
their variation over time and their variation among the different
livestock production systems produce a wide array of development
approaches. Thus initially the commodity view may stand in the
foreground for modern production systems, or infrastructural and
institutional measuies without any immediate production impact in
a pastoral environment. At a later stage the commodity focus may
also be applied to the pastoral system accompanied by suitable
production development efforts. For subsistence crop-livestock sys
tems in the highlands initial efforts may be directed towards
commercial dairy development to create attractive conditions for
the introduction of high-yielding but costly and sensitive breeds.
Only at a later stage would attention move to meat production
from male calves, to the intensification of the manure economy
and to the use of cross-bred offspring for traction.
225
For certain production systems general education and infrastruc

ture are necessary to prepare the way. Such measu'res may have
priority over production-oriented ones for a long time. This may
apply to many pastoral societies. The intricate role of livestock in
the social and cultural spheres may constitute an obstacle for
production development that cannot be overcome by conventional
and direct measures aimed at production. But education which
changes the outlook on life, the availability of consumer goods,
which creates new aspirations, and the acceptance of banks for
savings rather than buying cattle may affect the organization of
land use much more profoundly in the long run.
The place of livestock: An essential task of a development strat

egy is to determine sectoral weights and thus also the weight to
be given to the sector 'livestock production'. This is not done in a
top-down, once-and-for-all manner. Initial tentative guidelines on
the strategic level aie carried to the tactical level of projects and
production systems. Constraints and opportunities found there lead
through a feed-back process to revision of initial decisions. In this
process the type of strategic issues arising from the existence of
different production systems as outlined above intervene to reduce
or increase the scope for livestock development. The appropriate
relative place of livestock in an overall agricultural development
plan can therefore only be determined once a whole range of
strategic and tactical issues in crop and livestock development
have been taken up.
The question about the relative place of livestock not only arises
at the sectoral level but also at the level of production systems.
The development of crop production under irrigation may consti
tute the most appropriate "livestock" development strategy in
over-used areas of the arid zone; intensification of cropping
through the application of fertilizers may be the most promising
point of entry for developing crop-.livestock production systems in
densely populated highland areas. Not always will those interested
in livestock want to prevail with a livestock-oriented development
approach. Livestock production is part of agricultural production
and it may well be in the interest of overall agricultural develop
ment to leave out livestock from development measures in certain
situations.
226
10.3' The Role of Monitoring for Livestock Development Planning

and for this Study
A major aim for this study has been the reduction of complexity
associated with livestock production and development. Possibly a
more correct expression would have been 'the transformation of
seeming chaos into orderly complexity'. Planning for livestock has
been shown to be extremely complex in spite - or may be because
- of the attempt to elaborate a more systematic view of livestock
production in Tropical Africa. In the last analysis there is no logi
cal reason why complex phenomena could always be adequately re
presented by simple models, why complex questions could be
substituted by simple ones, and why a complex task could be
achieved by a straight-forward approach. Planning for livestock
development remains a complex task compounded by the gener
alized lack of data. Massive data collection exercises are not a
suitable answer because they are costly and time-consuming. More
importantly, additional data are not equivalent to additional infor
mation and additional information is not equivalent to better
planning. And there remains the basic question about the corre
lation between plan and reality or planning efforts and develop
ment achievements.
It is a basic contention of this study that the size of the task of

livestock development and the complexity of the planning object,
livestock production, render the task of livestock development
planning a large and a complex one, and one to which considerable
efforts must be devoted. At the same time it is realized that
planning exercises also have to be judged by their costs and bene
fits. They use up scarce time and talents and these costs have to
be compared to the benefits eventually realized from the imple
mentation of the plan. If planning efforts are conceived of as such
'production' exercises (the product is not the plan but the bene
fits from its implementation) they can be conceived to be exer
cises with a falling marginal return from a point on. It can also
be postulated that this point is reached earlier, and the fall in the
marginal return is more rapid, the more the planning object is
characterized by dynamic interactions, lack of quantitative infor
mation about direction and magnitude of these interactions and by
uncertainty. These characteristics apply to livestock production in
Tropical Africa to a high degree.
The exposure to the vagaries of climate is direct and more conse

quential in terms of risk the more arid the zone (and therefore
227
the more livestock production becomes the exclusive form of land

use). Diseases, it might be argued, strike crop and livestock pro
duction in an equally unpredictable manner but unique to livestock
is the intricate way in which production decisions are interwoven
with the human environment. The subsistence requirements and the
income aspirations on one side and resource availability and
constraints on the other go a long way in explaining a farmer's
decisions in crop production. They only provide one segment of a
large spectrum of explanations of decision-making for a pasto
ralist. A cultivator's decisions about the livestock he keeps for
dung as fuel, for traction work in the field to reduce the drudgery
of labour, for transport, as an asset and for pleasure can be
explained in many ways but possibly the least by subsistence and
income objectives. And as organized development efforts are
undertaken one and the same measure will show quite different
and often unpredictable consequences in the different production
systems. The development of arable farming under irrigation in an
arid environment may be a technical success and reduce the need
to obtain subsistence via livestock from the over-used range but
the livestock population on the range may increase over previous
levels because all the cultivators now invest their surplusses from
cropping in livestock. The introduction of a dairy cow into a high
land dairy farm may have been carefully calculated for its econo
mic attractiveness and found marginal; yet the farmers respond
enthusiastically and it is only later found that the major reason
lies in the yield-raising effect of manure on the coffee trees.
Under such conditions it is a rational strategy to rely less on
planning and more on monitoring as a context for information
gathering and as an instrument of directing change in the desired
directions.
Monitoring - probably an unfortunate term because it bears as

sociations to admonishment, surveillance and other sinister con
cepts - simply means the collection of data in the course of an
on-going development process to understand better the systems
under change, to allow timely mid-course correction of the devel
opment approach and to contribute to its overall evaluation at a
suitable point in time (Jahnke and von Oven 1980). Monitoring in
this sense can play an important role as a management informa
tion system, as a tool in project evaluation and - maybe most
importantly - as an instrument of development policy and strategy;
it connects planning with implementation and provides the neces
sary feed-back to improve planning in the long run both on the
tactical and the strategic level.
228
Monitoring of complex processes in a situation of deficient ex

ante information and great uncertainly about the behaviour of the
system undergoing change, as is the case with livestock develop
ment, might have rising or constant marginal returns when plan
ning already shows decreasing returns. Almost certainly the mar
ginal returns fall less rapidly than in planning. There is not nor
mally an exact solution to the task of a rational allocation of
scarce planning resources between conventional planning and moni
toring because the respective returns cannot be adequately quan
tified. But conceptually the task remains and can guide planning
considerations.
To improve the planning base for livestock development has been

the aim of this study. Modesty about the achievement is called
for. Some of the information provided may be useful but a great
deal of it is beset with inaccuracies and often the level of aggre
gation is too high to be directly useful for concrete planning
exercises. The basic approach from the assessment of the resource
potential to the identification and characterization of production
systems and to the assessment of their development possibilities is
believed to have general application. But subjectivity in the selec
tion of key elements, in the use of development experience and in
the interpretation of results by necessity intervenes and the devel
opment inferences drawn have to be qualified accordingly. On the
other hand it will be a long time before a statistical apparatus
covers the countries and the continent concerned and supplies all
the information one would like to have for development planning;
it is in fact doubtful for practical and logical reasons whether
such a situation can ever be reached. The improvement of the
planning-base - and also the improvement of the contribution this
present study can make - is critically dependent on an improved
understanding of development processes and here monitoring has a
key role to play. Monitoring needs to be foccussed and has to
concentrate on major themes in order not to develop into massive
and costly data collection exercises with frw tangible results in
the end. If this study is useful for the formulation of specific
development hypotheses for livestock production systems which can
be empirically tested in the context of monitoring exercises it has
probably achieved all that one can reasonable hope for. It is in
this modest sense that improvement of the planning base for live
stock development in Tropical Africa as the major aim of this
study has to be seen.
ANNEX
230
Annex Table 1: The Ruminant Livestock Population in Tropical Africa by Country 1979
(1 000 Head/i 000 TLUa
Camels Cattle Sheep Goats TLU
Angola - 3 120 220 930 2 299

Benin - 800 950 950 750
Botswana - 3 300 450 1 200 2 475
Burundi - 836 336 585 677
Cameroon - 3 027 2 211 1 720 2 512
Centr. Afr. Rep. - 670 " 80 780 555
Chad 410 4 070 2 278 2 278 3 715
Congo - 71 66 119 69
Djibouti 25 32 310 520 130
Eq. Guinea - 4 34 8 7
Ethiopia 966 .25 900 23 234 17 120 23 131
Gabon - 3 100 90 21
Gambia 280 95 92 215
Ghana - 930 1 650 2 000 1 016
Guinea - 1 700 430 395 1 273
Guinea Bissau - 264 73 183 210
Ivory Coast - 650 1 150 1 200 690
Kenya 550 10 470 4 000 4 500 8 729
Liberia - 38 190 190 65
Madagascar 8 744 658 1 583 6 345
'alawi - 790 140 860 653
Mali 208 4 459 6 067 5 757 4 512
Mauretania 720 1 600 5 200 3 250 2 685
Mozambique - 1 380 105 330 1 010
Namibia - 3 000 5 150 2 150 2 830
Niger 330 2 995 2 500 6 400 3 317
Nigeria 17 12 000 8 500 24 500 11 715
Rwanda - 640 257 786 553
Senegal 4 2 806 1 884 1 000 2 256
Sierra Leone - 270 60 175 213
Somalia 5 400 3 800 10 000 16 000 10 660
Sudan 2 500 17 300 17 200 12 200 17 550
Tanzania - 15 300 3 000 4 700 !1 480
Togo - 250 835 748 334
Uganda - 5 367 1 068 2 144 4 078
Upper Volta 5 2 700 1 800 2 700 2 345
Zaire - 1 144 779 2 783 1 157
Zambia - 1 800 51 300 1 295
Zimbabwe - 5 000 754 2 061 3 781
Total 11 135 147 510 103 865 125 287 137 308
al TLU - Tropical Livestock Unit

(Camels : 1.0; Cattle s 0.7; Sheep/Goats : 0.1)

Annex Table 2: The Equine, Pig and Chicken Population in Tropical Africa by Country 1979
(1 000 Head)
Conry- Horses Mules Asses Pigs Chickens

Angola 1 - 5 380 5 300
Benin 6 - 1 470 3 500
Botswana 9 2 40 22 620
Burundi - - 51 3 032
Cameroon 61 78 806 10.352
Centr. Afr. Rep. - 1 128 1 433
Chad 154 271 6 2 940
Congo - 49 1 000
Djibouti 5 - -
Eq. Guinea - 8 85
Ethiopia 1 530 1 446 3 885 18 52 956
Gabon - 4, 6 1 703
Gambia - 9 260
Ghana 4 25 400 11 500
Guinea 1 3 37 5 500
Guinea Bissau 3 175 390
Ivory Coast I 1 320 11 000
Kenya 2- 65 17 500
Liberia -- 100 2 200
Madagaacar 2 580 14 082
Malawi 174 8 000
Mal 180 489 31 10 884
Mauretania 23 -220 - 3 000
Mozambique - 20 110 17 500
Namibia 45 6 66 36 450
Niger 230 440 - 7 600
Nigeria 250 700 1 100 11 000
Rwanda - - 83 872
Senegal 271 202 182 7 306
Sierra Leone - 35 3 600
Somalia 1 23 23 9 2 800
Sudan 20 1 680 8 26 000
Tanzania - 160 25 20 700
Togo 3 1 275 2 900
Uganda - 16 225 13 100
Upper Volta 90 - 180 170 11 000
Zaire 1 - 753 12 411
Zambia - 1 180 14 000
Zimbabwe 15 1 97 218 8 704
Total 2 899 1 478 7 618 7 244 426 180

232
Annex Table 3: General Agricultural Indicators of Tropical Africa by Country 1979
Agricultural Agricultural Land-man- Livestock-T

landa population ratiob ratIoc
Count (0 000 ha) (1 000 persons) (ha/person) (TLU/persoi
Angola 30 830 4 024 7.7 0.6

Benin 1 017 1 585 0.6 0.5
Botswana 45 360 646 70.2 3.8
Burundi 1 712 3 658 0.5 0.2
Cameroon 15 690 6 691 2.3 0.4
Centr. Afr. Rep. 5 910 1 903 3.1 0.3
Chad 46 950 3 729 12.6 1.0
Congo 14 967 524 28.6 0,1
Djibouti 245 116 2.1 1. 1
Eq. Guinea 334 267 1.3 0
Ethiopia 78 230 25 320 3.1 0:9"
Gabon 5 199 418 12.4 0
Gambia 595 460 1.3 0.5
Ghana 13 420 5 894 2.3 0.2
Guinea 7 170 3 941 1.8 0.3
Guinea Bissau 1 565 466 3.4 0.5
Ivory Coast 11 800 6 171 1.9 0.1
Kenya 6 540 12 318 0.5 0.7
Liberia 611 1 268 0.5 0
Madagascar 36 929 7 148 5.2 0.9
Malawi 4 138 5 029 0.8 0.1
Mali 32 050 5 653 5.7 0.8
Mauretania 39 445 1 323 29.8 2,0
Mozambique 47 080 6 671 7.1 0.2
Namibia 53 562 482 111. 1 5.9
Niger 12 412 4 556 2.7 0.7
Nigeria 44 840 40 420 1. 1 0.3
Rwanda 1 460 4 183 0.3 0.1
Senegal 244 4 135 0.1 0.5
Sierra Leone 2 770 2 224 1.2 0.1
Somalia 29 916 2 852 10.5 3.7
Sudan 31 515 13 828 2.3 1.3
Tanzania 7 665 14 179 0.5 0.8
Togo 1 620 1 793 0.9 0.2
Uganda 10 610 10 421 1.0 0.4
Upper Volta 5 646 5 519 1.0 0.4
Zaire 31 003 20 582 1.5 0.1
Zambia 35 058 3 678 9.5 0.4
Zimbabwe 7 336 4 233 1.77 0.9
Total/average 723 444 238 308 3.0 0.6
a) Agricultural land arable and permanent crop land plus permanent pastures'.
b) Agricultural land divided by agricultural population.
c) Ruminant livestock population divided by agricultural population.

233
Annex Table 4: Extent of Ecological Zones in Tropical Africa by Country 1979

(1 000 sqkm)
-.. Ejcologic. Total land Semi- Sub- High-

Country - area Arid arid humid Humid lands
Angola 1 246.7 53.4 274.9 708.1 94.4 115.9
Benin 110.6 - 30.8 70.6 3.2
Botswana 585.4 432.2 153.1 - -
Burundi 25.6 - - 6.0 0.5 19.1
Cameroon 469.4 - 43.2 91.5 323.9 10.8
Centr. Air. Rep. 623.0 - 30.5 287.8 304.7 -
Chad 1 259.2 871.4 311.C 76.8
Congo 341.5 - 11.3 330.2 -
Djibouti 22.0 22.0 - .
Eq. Guinea 28.0 28.0 .
Ethiopia 1 101.1 490.0 111.2 84.9 415.0
Gabon 257.7 - 257.7 -
Gambia 10.0 - 10.0 .
Ghana 230.0 - 10.1 102.8 117.1 -
Guinea 245.8 - 5.9 197.6 43.3 -
Guinea Bissau 28.0 - 1,2 26.8
Ivory Coast 318.0 - - 111.3 206.7
Kenya 569.3 425.3 52.4 11.4 80.2
Liberia 96.3 - - 96.3 .
Madagascar 581.5 44.8 116.3 225.6 -177.4 17.4
Malawi 94.0 - 19.7 61.1 9.0 4.2
Mali 1 220.0 847.9 320.9 51.2 -
Mauretania 1 030.4 1.011.9 18.5 - -
Mozambique 765.5 90.3 323.8 321.5 29.9
Namibia 823.2 631.9 135.0 -56.3
Niger1 260.7 1 204.6 62.1 - -
Nigeria 910.8 14.6 323.3 403.5 165.8 3.6
Rwanda 24.9 - 6.5 1.1 17.3
Senegal 192.5 23.7 150.7 18.1 -
Sierra Leone 71.6 - - 8.3 63.3
Somalia 627.3 624.9 0.7 . 1.7
Sudan 2 376.0 1 356.7 591.6 332.0 23.8 71.3
Tanzania 886.0 94.8 258.7 414.7 16.8 101.0
Togo 54.4 - 2.1 37.8 14.5
Uganda 199.7 0.9 33.3 99.6 53.1 12.8
Upper Volta 273.8 17.0 195.2 61.6 -
Zaire 2 267.6 - - , 412.7 1 805.0 49.9
Zambia 740.7 - 238.5 488.1 - 14.1
Zimbabwe 387.7 68.6 224.9 94.2 .
Total 22 361.9 8 327.0 4 049.6 4 858.0 4 136.7 990.6
Source: FAO (Production Yearbook 1979), FAO (Higgins et al 1978) and own estimates.
234
Annex Table 5: Extent of Tsetse Infestation in Tropical Africa by Ecological Zone by Countri
(1 000 sqkm)
, cological Total
Infested Semi- Sub- High-
Countr area Arid arid humid Humid lands
Angola 377.0 11.7 162.7 190.6 10.1 1.9

Benin 110.6 - 30.8 76.6 3.2 -
Botswana 24.6 - 24.6 -
Burundi 25.6 6.0 0.5 19.1
Cameroon 423.4 11.3 91.5 309.8 10.8
Centr. Afr. Rep. 623,0 30.5 287.8 304.7 -:
1 259.2 871.4 311.0 76.8 -

Chad
Congo 341.5 -11.3 330.2 -
Djibouti
Eq. Guinea 26.0 - 26.0
Ethiopia 99.0 2.2. 12.1 39.6 45.1
- - - 257.7
Gabon 257.7
Gambia 10.0 10.0
Ghana 230.0 - 10.1 102.8 117.1
Guinea 245.8 5.9 197.6 42.3
Guinea Bissau 28.0 - 1.2 26.8
Ivory Coast 318.0 1.- 111.3 206.7
Kenya 96.2 46.1 33.6 4.0 - 12.5
Liberia 96.3 - - 96.3
- - -
Mrdagascar
Malawi 61.1 - 61.1
Mali 229.3 178.1 51.2 .
Mauretania - -
Mozambique 570.3 23.7 245.7 273.3 27. 6
Namibia 1.7 - 1.7
Niger 32.9 2.5 30.4 -
Nigeria 771.2 7.2 263.2 337.9 159.3 3.u
Rwanda 24.9 - 6.5. 1.1 '17.3
Senegal 88.5 84.7 3.8
Sierra Leone 71.6 - 8.3 63.3
Somalia 28.9 28.9 - -
Sudan 287.5 - 59.4 225.7 2.4
Tanzania 640.6 36.3 205.6 374.8 - 23.9
Togo 54.2 - 2.1 37.7 14.4
Uganda 113.3 - - 73.9 36.2 3.2
Upper Volta 211.6 - 150.0 61.6
Zaire 2 158.8 - - 374.2 1 734.7 49.9
Zambia 300.0 - 109.6 185.2 5.2
Zimbabwe 70.1 8.1 62.0 - - -
Total 10 308.4 1 038.1 2 036.3 3 297.9 3 741.2 194.9
Note: As explained in the text the lIgures of tsetse infestation can be assumed to constitute a
significant overestimate. The use of this table should therefore be limited to compara
tive assessments of infestation in the different ecological zones.
Source: Own estimates on the basis of Ford and Katondo (1973) and FAO (Higgins et al 1978).
235
Annex Table 6: Distribution of Human Agricultural Population in Tropical Africa by

Ecological Zone by Country 1979
(1 000 Persons)
c, Semi- Sub- High

Count Total Arid arid humid Humid land s
Angola 4 024 302 1 220 711 378 1 413

Benin 1 585 - 172 1 413 - -
Botswana 646 530 116 -
Burundi 3 658 - - - 3 658
Cameroon 6 691 147 1 428 580 4 452 84
Centr. Afr. Rep. 1 903 - 166 927 810
Chad 3 729 1 313 1 923 493 - -
Congo 524 73 451 -
Djibouti 116 116
Eq. Guinea 267 267
Ethiopia 25 320 1 421.' t 10 994 ,1240 633 11 032
Gabon 418 - 418
Gambia 460 - 460 -
Ghana 5 894 1547 4 347
Guinea 3 941 55 2 782 1 104
Guinea Bissau 466 238 228 -
Ivory Coast 6 171 - 4 616 1 555
Kenya 12 318 2 888; 374 - - 9 056
Liberia 1 268 1 268 -
Madagascar 7 148 579 751 3 020 2 246 552
Malawi 5 029 - 5 029 -
Mali 5 653 527 4 606 520
Mauretania 1 323 1 005 31l - -
Mozambique 6 671 407 3 689 2 "48 227
Namibia 482 85 353 - 44
Niger 4 556 3 070 1 486 - -
Nigeria 40 420 293 17 043 - 11 955 1 129
Rwanda 4 183 - - 4 183
Senegal 4 135 555 3 572 8 - .
Sierra Leone 2 224 - 623 1 601 .
Somalia 2 852 2 819 - - 33
Sudan 13 828 7 231 3 084 3 250 263 -
Tanania 14 179 567 5 258 4 759 3 595
Togo 1 793 - - 1 560 233 -
Uganda 10 421 135 4 304 3 564 22 943
Upper Volta 5 519 57 4 681 781 - -
Zaire 20 582 - - 3 462 15 419 1 701
Zambia 3 678 - 1 497 2 037 -
Zimbabwe 4 233 941 2 116 1 176 - -
Total 238 308 24 853 65 735 59 442 A0 307'' 37 971
Note: Rough estimates only.
Source: Based on FAO background material to AT 2000 and FAO (Production Yearbook 1979)
.236
Annex Table 7: Distribution of Cattle in Tropical Africa by Ecological Zone

by Country 1979
(1 000 Head)
Ecologic. Semi- Sub- High-

Country z Total Ar'd arid humid Humid lands
Angola 3 120 624 874 842 62: 718

Benin 800 - 288 512
Botswana 3 300 2 708 594 - - -
Burundi 836 -_ - 836
Cameroon 3 027 82 920 1-771 188 68
Centr. Afr. Rep. 670 - 141 154 375 -
Chad 4 070 2 076 1 913 81 - -
Congo 71 -9 62 -
Djibouti 32 32 .
Eq. Guinea 4 - 4
Ethiopia 25 900 3 626 3 626'- 3 626 1 554 13 468
Gabon 3 - - - 3 -
Gambia 280 - 280 - -' " -
Ghana 930 - 372 558 -
Guinea 1 700 - 51 1 530 119
Guinea Bissau 264 - 88 176 . - "
Ivory Coast 650 585 65
Kenya 10 470 3 036 523 - 6911
Liberia 38 - - - 38 -
Madagascar 8 744 1 513 3 148 1 906 1 687 .490
Malawi 790 - - 790 -
Mal 4 459 2 229. 2 140 90 -
Mauretania 1 600 1 312 288" -
Mozambique 1 380 469 4l 359 69 -
Namibia 3 000 1 455 1275 270
Niger 2 995 2 450 545" -
Nigeria 12 000 240 8 700 1 795 857 .408
Rwanda 640 - - - 640
Senegal 2 806 589 2 217 - -
Sierra Leone 270 178 92 -
Somalia 3 800 3 420 - 380
Sudan 17 300 3 394 6 788 6 789 3'.9
Tanzania 15300 841 4 973 6 426 - 3 060
Togo 250 - 5 225 20
Uganda 5 367 510 2 979 510 1 368
Upper Volta 2 700 68 2 133 499 - -
Zaire 1 144 - 275 606 263
Zambia 1 800 1 251 544 5
Zimbabwe 5 000 1 300 1 700 2 000 - -
Total 147 510 31 462 45 454 32 758 8 814 29 022
Source: Own estimations after World Atlas of Agriculture (1976), OAU/STRC 1976 and
other sources; totals from FAO (Production Yearbook 1979) country figures.
237,
Annex Table 0: Distribution of Sheep in Tropical Africa by Ecological Zone,

by Country 1979
(1 000 Head)
ogic. Semi- Sub- High

Counry - zone Total Arid arid humid Humid lands
Angola 220 44 53 48 18 57
Beuin 950 - - 380 570
Botswana 450 369 81i" - -",
Burundi 336 - - 336
Cameroon 2 211 12 852 .1 136. 103 28
Centr. Afr. Rep. 80 - 17 18 45 -
Chad 2 278 934* 1 253 91'- -
Congo 66 8 58 -
Djibouti 310 310 -. - - -
Eq. Guinea 34 . . 34 -
Ethiopia 23 234 2 323 3 718 1 859 1 162 14 172
Gabon 100 - ". 100 -
Gambia 95 95 -
Ghana i 650 660'. 990
Guinea 430 - 4 340 89
Guinea Bissau 73 - 24 49 "
Ivory Coast 1 150 - ,. 276 874
Kenya 4 000 1.240 120 - 2 640
Liberia 190 - - - 190 -
Madagascar 658 434 118 53 - 53
Malawi 140 - 140
Mali 6 067 4 247 1 820 - -
Mauretania 5 200 4 940 260 ....
Mozambique 105 36 37 27 5 -
Namibia 5 150 3 625 577 - - 948'
Niger 2 500 2 375 125 - .
Nigeria 8 500 170 2 380 2 459 3 476 15
Rwanda 257 - - - - -257
Senegal 1 884 471 1 394 19 -
Sierra Leone 60 - 40 20-
Somalia 10 000 8 200 -1 800
Sudan 17 200 6 750 6 749 3 375 '326
Tanzania 3 000 285 1 035 990 - 690
Togo 835 - 17 785. 33
Uganda 1 068 101 593 102 272
Upper Volta 1 800 72 1 440 288
Zaire 779 - 171 475 133
Zambia 51 - 36 15
Zimbabwe 754 226 38F 143 -
Total 103 865 37 063 23 071 14 153 8 177 21 401,

Source: Own estimates after World Atlas of Agriculture (1978) and other sources; totals
from FAO (Production Yearbook 1979) country figures.
•238
Annex Table 9: Distribution of Goats in Tropical Africa by Ecological Zone

by Country 1979
(1 000 Head)
Eclogic. Semi- Sub- High.

C y Total Arid arid humid Humid lands
Angola 930 186 223 205 74 242

950 304 646 -
Benin
Botswana 1 200 984 216
Burundi 585 - 585
Cameroon 1 720 39 1 448 196 32 5
Centr. Afr. Rep. 780 - 164 179 437
Chad 2 278 934 1 253 91
Congo 119 15 104
Djibouti 520 520 - - -
Ec1 . Guinea 8 -8 -
Ethiopia 17 120 8 506 3 766 856 513 5 479
Gabon 90 - - 90
-
92 : 92 -
Gambia
Ghana 2 000 r 800 1 200
Guinea 395 - 4,, 312 79
Guinea Bissau 183 - 61 122
Ivory Coast 1 200 - 384 816
Kenya 4 500 2 385 315 1 800
190 -190
-
Liberia
Madagascar 1 583 1 171 412
Malawi 860 860 -
Mali 5 757 4 030 1 727
Mauretania 3 250 3 087 163
Mozambique 330 112 115, 86 17
Namibia 2 150 946 1 019 - 185
Niger 6 400 6 080 320 - -
Nigeria 24 500 245 10 780 7 820 5 621 34
Rwanda 786 - - - 786
1 000 250 740 10 -
Senegal
Sierra Leone 175 - 116 59 -
Somalia 16 000 15 040 - - 960
Sudan 12 200 4 787 4 787 2 394 232
Tanzania 4 700 259 1 668 1 880 - 893
Togo 748 - 15 688 45
Uganda 2 144 - 204 1 190 204 546
Upper Volta 2 700 108 2 160 432
Zaire 2 783 - 501 1 865 417
Zambia 300 - 208 91 -
Zimbabwe 2 061 618 1 051 392
Total 125 287 48 287 33 215 20 266 11 586 11 933

Source: As in Annex Table 8.
239
Annex Table 10: Distribution of Ruminant Livestock Units in Tropical Africa by

Ecological Zone by Country 1979'
(1 000 TLU)
Ecologic. Semi- Sub- High

Country zone Total Arid arid humid Humid lands
Angola 2 299 460 639 615 53 532
Benin 750 - 270 480 -
Botswana 2 475 2 030 445 -
Burundi 677 - 677
Cameroon 2 512 63 874 1 372 153 50
Centr. Air. Rep. 555 - 117 128 310
Chad 3 715 2 050 1 590 75 -
Congo 69 9 60
Djibouti 130 130 ' - .
Eq. Guinea 7 7
Ethiopia 23 131 4 387. 3 287 2 810 1 255 11 392
Gabon 21 21 -
Gambia 215 215 - I I -
Ghana 1 016 406, 610
Guinea 1 273 37 65 1 088 83
Guinea Bissau 210 70 140 -
Ivory Coast 690 - 476 214 -
Kenya 8 729 3 038 410 -- 5 281
Liberia 65 65 -
Madagascar 6 345 1 220 2 256 1 340 1 181 U348
Malawi 653 - 653
Mali 4 512 2 596 1 853 63 -
Mauretania 2 685 2 441 244 -
Mozambique 1 010 343 353 263 51 -
Namibia 2 830 1 476 1 052 - - 302
Niger 3 317 2 891 426
Nigeria 11 715 227 7 403 2 284 1 510 291
Rwanda 553 - - - -553
Senegal 2 256 489 1 767 - . -
Sierra Leone 213 - 140 73 -
Somalia 10 660 10 118 - - 542
Sudan 17 550 6 030 5 905 5 329 280
Tanzania 11 480 643 3 751 4 785 2 300
Togo 334 - 7 147 166, :"14
Uganda 4 078 - 388 2 264 388 1 038
Upper Volta 2 345 71 1 853 421
Zaire 1 157 - 260 658 239
Zambia 1 295 900 391 4
Zimbabwe 3 781 994 1 334 1 453 -
Total 137 308 41 697 37 446 26 370 8 149 23 646

Source: Annex Tables 1,7. 8 and 9.
240
Annex Table 11: GDP, GDP Per Caput and Sector Contributions by Agriculture and
Livestock in Tropical Africa by Country 1980 (1975 Prices)
Share of Share of
agri- C livestock
a b GDP per culture in agric. Livestock
GDPc Populaton Caput in GDP GDP GDP
Country million $ 1 000 $ million
Angola 3 102 7 078 438 36.0 18.6 208

Benin 619 3 530 175 37.8 11.7 27
Botswana n. av. n. av. n. av. n. av. n. av. n. av.
Burundi 461 4 612 102 60.8 6.0 17
Cameroon 2 602 8 444 308 31.4 9.9 81
Centr. Afr. Rep. 456 2 221 205 37.7 7.8 13
Chad 565 4 473 126 48.8 38.7 107
Congo 905 1 537 589 9.5 3.5 3
Djibouti n. av. n. av. n. av. n. av. n. av. n. av.,
Eq. Guinea n. av. n. av. n. av. n. av. n. av. n. av.
Ethiopia 3 079 32 601 94 45.1 33.0 458
Gabon 3 402 551 6.174 7.6 2.2 6
Gambia 111 603 184 38.7 16.1 7
Ghana 5 500 11 679 471 38.3 4.0 84
Guinea 1 180 5 014 235 38.6 11.2 51
Guinea Bissau n. av. n. av. n. av. n. av. n. av. n. av.
Ivory Coast 6 068 7 973 761 21.8 2.3 30
Kenya 4 127 16 402 251 27.5 34.8 395
Liberia 897 1 863 481 26.1 6.5 13
Madagascar 2 119 11 537 184 34.5 .20.7 151
Malawi 940 8 628 109 37.4 7.2 25
Mali 693 6 646 104 36.8 36.3 93
Mauretania 417 1 634 255 35.2 88.3 127
Mozambique 2 956 13 811 214 40.5 14.1 169
Namibia n. av. n. av. n. av. n. av. n. av. n. av.
Niger 678 5 305 128 56.8 29.8 115
Nigeria 35 941 77 082 466 24.4 11.0 9685
Rwanda 514 4 797 107 53.0 6.0 14
Senegal 2 479 5 661 438 21.6 21.3 114
Sierra Leone 560 3 474 161 45.2 6.2 157
Somalia 420 3 645 115 28.1 81.8 97
Sudan 5 516 18 371 300 38.2 36.3 785
Tanzania 2 822 17 934 157 40.1 24.5 277
Togo 686 2 699 254 23.9 10.3 17
Uganda 2 835 13 201 215 48.2 14.3 195
Upper Volta 726 6 908 105 41.8 27.3 83
Zaire 2 409 28 291 85 21.5 4.0 21
Zambia 2 046 7 764 264 13.3 30.3 82
Zimbabwe 3 019 10 310 293 20.8 35.7 224
Total/average 100 850 356 179 283 29.0 11.4 5 191
a) From FAO background material to AT 2000; 1975 figures based on national accounting
procedures.
b) Estimates as used by FAO (AT 2000); the 1980 estimates are consistent with the popu
lation figures in FAO (Production Yearbook 1979).
c) Based on FAO (AT 2000) projections from 1975 and corrected for the use of international
prices therein; agriculture includes livestock.
d) Share of livestock in total agriculture as in FAO projections from 1975, i. e. based on
international prices.
Source: See footnotes.

241
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HANS E.

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

KIELER WISSENSCHAFSVERLAG VAUK

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

KIELER WISSENSCHAFTSVERLAG VAUK

Livestock are vital to subsistence and economic development in

Many of the traditional livestock production systems of sub-Saha­

Research and development studies in more than a dozen institutes

agement conditions which are beyond the means of the majority of

opment choices made on the basis of the relative importance and

Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

This book has arisen from my work at the International Livestock

The complete list of direct and indirect contributors at ILCA

The members of ILCA's Programme Committee under the chair­

Valuable background material was provided by FAO; Mr. G.

The Institut d'Elevage et de Medecine Veterinaire des Pays Tropi­

The final draft of the work benefitted substantially from sug­

Finally I am grateful for competent technical support at first at

Previou.1s Page BlIY.­

F. Platte and Mr. H.-P. Schadek compiled statistics, Ms. H.

List of Tables XiV

5.2 Production and Productivity 79

6 CROP-LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN

7 CROP-LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN

8.2 Production and Productivity 187

9 LANDLESS LIVESIOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 202

Ifn CONCLUSIONS FOR LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT

LIST OF TEXT TABLES

2.1 Livestock Population in Tropical Africa by Species in 10

5.1 Types and Characteristics of Pastoral Production' 67

7.3 Livestock Contribution to Farm Income in Selected 156

LIST OF ANNEX TABLES

1 The Ruminant Livestock Population in Tropical Africa

2.1 Species Composition of the Livestock Population in 11

BDPA Bureau pour le Ddveloppement de la Production Agricole,

AT 2000 Agriculture: Towards 2000 (FAO publication)

of man and stock. Diversity is further accentuated by the coexist­

Livestock production is a form of agricultural production with

1.2 Aim and Scope

To order the phenomena a concept ooaf .Jivest~ck .pldYMTA .t.ott.orms,

on that of development projects to determine causes and remedies.

Quantitative information on the resource base and on livestock

Tropical Africa has been chosen as the area of investigation. At

to the soil types.

production, production systems and development possibilities may

Livestock production is the topic of chapter 3. The sector contri­

livestock product, the function(s) livestock have in the farming

- Pastoral Range-livestock Production Systems

Production and productivity levels are characterized for each pro­

2 Resources for Livestock Production

The main categories of domestic livestock in Tropical Africa are

LW 0 7 3 is termed the metabolic weight (see Riviere 1978,

Table 2.1: Livestock Population in Tropical Africa by Species in

1 000 TLU conver- 1 000

Horses 2 899 0,8 2 319

Source: FAO (Production Yearbook 1979); TLU conversion factors constitute

Figures on livestock populations in Tropical Africa are only rarely

120 Camels (11Mio TLU)

Source: FAO (Production Yearbook 1979).

Many of the traditional livestock production systems of sub-Saha

The members of ILCA's Programme Committee under the chair

The Institut d'Elevage et de Medecine Veterinaire des Pays Tropi

The final draft of the work benefitted substantially from sug

Previou.1s Page BlIY.

of man and stock. Diversity is further accentuated by the coexist

Livestock production is the topic of chapter 3. The sector contri

Production and productivity levels are characterized for each pro

Source: Map projection FAO (Higg~ins et al 1978); regional sub

required; in turn these are only meaningful if related to the po

ately preceding or following the growing period during which pre

- Quadrant IIIshows countries with a relatively more advanced eco