CYPECAD Calculations Manual

alculations manual
YPECA Software for

Architecture,
Engineering and
Construction
CYPECAD
Calculations manual
www.cype.com
CYPE Ingenieros, S.A.

Avda. Eusebio Sempere, 5
03003 Alicante
Tel. (+34) 965 92 25 50
Fax (+34) 965 12 49 50
[email protected]
www.cype.com
2
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document substantially describes the properties and methods of use of the program o programs accompanying it. The information con-
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CYPECAD - Calculations manual 3
Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 1.7.3. Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

1.8. Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
1. Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
1.8.1. Ultimate limit states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
1.1. Description of problems to resolve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
1.9. Data entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
1.2. Description of the analysis undertaken by the program . . . . . . .9
1.9.1. General data of the job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
1.3. Discretisation of the structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
1.9.2. Loads. Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
1.3.1. Node sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
1.9.3. Wind loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
1.3.2. Force envelopes at supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
1.9.4. Seismic loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
1.4. Analysis options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
1.9.5. Fire resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
1.4.1. Redistributions considered by the program . . . . . . . . . . .16
1.9.6. Additional loadcases (special loads) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
1.4.2. Stiffnesses considered by the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
1.9.7. Limit states (combinations) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
1.4.3. Torsional stiffness coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
1.9.8. General data of floor/groups, columns,
1.4.4. Axial stiffness coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 column starts and shear walls (Column Definition tab) . . . . . . . .38
1.4.5. Minimum moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 1.9.9. Floor slab data (Column Definition tab) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
1.4.6. Other options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 1.9.10. Loads. Sloped beams. Diagonal bracing . . . . . . . . . . . .48
1.5. Loads to consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 1.9.11. Stairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
1.5.1. Vertical loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 1.10. Analysis of the structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
1.5.2. Horizontal loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 1.11. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
1.6. Materials used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 1.11.1. Consulting on screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
1.6.1. Concrete for foundations, slabs, columns and walls . . . . .32 1.11.2. Printed reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
1.6.2. Bar steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 1.11.3. Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
1.6.3. Steel for steel columns, beams and baseplates . . . . . . . .33 1.12. Design and check of elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
1.6.4. Integrated 3D structures materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 1.12.1. Horizontal and inclined panel beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
1.7. Weighting factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 1.12.2. Sloped beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
1.7.1. Analysis method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 1.12.3. Steel beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
1.7.2. Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 1.12.4. Columns, shear walls and reinforced concrete walls . . . .61
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4 CYPECAD
1.12.5. Joist floor slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 3. Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88

1.12.6. Composite slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 3.1. Masonry walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
1.12.7. Hollow core slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 3.1.1. Masonry wall properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
1.12.8. Flat slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 3.1.2. Masonry wall introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
1.12.9. Waffle slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 3.1.3. Correct use of masonry walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
1.13. Beam deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 3.2. Reinforced concrete walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
1.14. Slab deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 3.2.1. Reinforced concrete basement walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
1.14.1. One-way spanning slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 3.2.2. Load bearing walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
1.14.2. Composite slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 3.2.3. Correct use of reinforced concrete walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
1.14.3. Flat and waffle slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 3.2.4. Wall design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
1.14.4. Deflection between 2 points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 3.2.5. Foundation design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
1.14.5. Foundation elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 3.3. Practical advice for reinforced concrete wall in buildings . . . .98
2. Mat foundations and foundation beams . . . . . . .78 3.3.1. Revision of the analysis results of the wall . . . . . . . . . . . .99
2.1. Discretisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 4. Footings and pile caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102

2.2. Subgrade modulus for mat foundations and foundation beams78 4.1. Footings and pile caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
2.3. Design options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 4.2. Advanced design of surface foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
2.4. Loads to consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 4.3. Pad footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
2.5. Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 4.3.1. Bearing pressures on the soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
2.6. Checks and combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 4.3.2. Equilibrium states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
2.7. Design of mat foundations and foundation beams . . . . . . . . .82 4.3.3. Concrete states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
2.8. Analysis results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86 4.4. Strip footings below walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
2.9. Element design and check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86 4.5. Strap beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
2.9.1. Foundation beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86 4.6. Tie beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
2.9.2. Mat foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 4.7. Pile caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109

2.10. General recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 4.7.1. Design criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
2.10.1. Mat foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 4.7.2. Sign criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
2.10.2. Foundation beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 4.7.3. Design and geometry considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
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4.8. Baseplates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112 6.6. Comments on the use of joist floor slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
4.9. Mass concrete footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
7. Sloped floor slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
4.9.1. Design of footings as rigid solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
7.1. Element design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
4.9.2. Design of footings as mass concrete structures . . . . . . .114
4.9.3. Design report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115 8. Composite beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
4.10. Specific checks due to the code that has been considered (foo- 9. Composite slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
tings, beams and pile caps) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
4.11. Footings with non-rectangular limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117 10. Stairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
10.1. Common data of the staircase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
5. Corbels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
10.1.1. Geometrical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
6. Joist floor slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119 10.1.2. Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
6.1. Concrete joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119 10.2. Staircase flight data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132
6.1.1. Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119 10.3. Results, reports and drawings of the Stairs module . . . . . .133
6.1.2. Stiffness considered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119 10.3.1. View staircase reinforcement details . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
6.1.3. Estimating the deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119 10.3.2. View forces and displacements using contour maps . . .133
6.2. Reinforced/Prestressed joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119 10.3.3. Staircase design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
6.3. In-situ joist floor slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120 10.3.4. Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
6.3.1. Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120 10.3.5. Stair drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
6.3.2. Stiffnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
11. Integrated 3D structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
6.3.3. Estimating the deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
6.3.4. Design for bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120 12. Rigid Diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
6.3.5. Design for shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120 12.1 Rigid diaphragm in exempt beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
6.4. Steel joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121 12.2 Rigid diaphragm in reinforced concrete walls,
masonry walls and reinforced concrete block walls . . . . . . . . . . .136
6.4.1. Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
12.1. Load codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
6.5. Open-web joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
12.2. Material codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
6.5.1. Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
6.5.2. Considered stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121 12.3. Combinations codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
6.5.3. Joist design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121 13. Code implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
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6 CYPECAD
14. Interaction of the structure with

the construction elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
14.1. Model used to analyse the effect
of the non-structural elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
14.2. Cracked or fissured states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
14.3. Analysis example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
14.3.1. Description of the structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
14.3.2. Construction elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
14.3.3. Seismic action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
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Presentation
CYPECAD is the software for reinforced concrete and steel buildings which provides the spatial ana-
lysis, structural element design, reinforcement and section edition, and construction drawings of the structure.
It carries out the analysis of three dimensional structures composed of supports and floor slabs, in-
cluding their foundations, and the automatic design of reinforced concrete and steel elements.
If the user has acquired Metal 3D, integrated Metal 3D structures (steel and timber sections) can be
included with 6 degrees of freedom per node, with the design and optimisation of sections.
With CYPECAD, the engineer holds a precise and efficient tool to resolve all the aspects related to
the analysis of the structure of any type of concrete as well as being adapted to the latest international Codes.
The user will always have complete control of the project, without risks.
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8 CYPECAD
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1. Calculations
1.1. Description of problems to resolve The deformation compatibility is established at all nodes,
taking into account 6 degrees of freedom and the hypothe-
CYPECAD has been conceived to carry out the force sis that each floor of the structure cannot be deformed, pre-
analysis and design of reinforced concrete and steel struc- venting any relative displacements between nodes of the
tures supporting joist floor slabs (generic, reinforced, pre- floor (rigid diaphragm). Therefore, each floor will only be
stressed, in-situ, steel and open web joists), hollow core able to rotate and suffer displacements as a whole (3 de-
plate slabs, composite slabs, waffle slabs and flat slabs in grees of freedom).
buildings exposed to vertical and horizontal loading. The
beams supporting the slabs can be reinforced concrete, The rigid diaphragm state for each independent zone is
steel or composite (steel and concrete) beams. The sup- maintained even if only beams and no floor slabs have
ports can consist of reinforced concrete or steel columns, been introduced in the floor, , except for the case of exempt
reinforced concrete shear walls, reinforced concrete walls, beams which the user disconnects from the rigid di-
with or without lateral pressures or masonry walls (generic aphragm and walls that are not in contact with floor slabs
or concrete block walls). The foundations can be com- (as of the 2012.a version) (please refer to chapter 12. Rigid
posed of footings or pile caps, or alternatively by use of diaphragm of this manual).
mat foundations. The foundations can be designed individ-
ually with respect to the rest of the structure by simply intro- When independent zones exist on a single floor, each one
ducing the column starts. Reinforced concrete stairs, sup- will be taken as a different section when regarding the de-
ported by the floor slabs can be also be introduced. formations of the zone and the influence of the other zone
will not be taken into account. Therefore, each floor will be-
Using the program, the technical drawings of the structure have as independent non-deformable planes. A column
can be obtained which include the dimensions and rein- which is not connected to an element is considered as an
forcement of beams, columns, shear walls and walls via independent zone.
plotter, printer and/or DXF/DWG or PDF files, as well as the
analysis reports and results. If the Metal 3D license has A static analysis is carried out for all load states (except
been acquired, Integrated 3D structures can be intro- when dynamic loading is considered due to seismic load-
duced using steel, timber and aluminium bars. ing, in which case a modal spectral analysis is used). A lin-
ear behaviour of the materials is assumed and therefore, a
first order analysis in obtaining displacements and forces.
1.2. Description of the analysis undertaken by
the program When analysing Integrated 3D structures, 6 degrees of
freedom will always be used.
The analysis of the forces is carried out by means of a spa-
Stairs also have 6 degrees of freedom, are resolved inde-
tial 3D analysis using stiffness matrices forming all the ele-
pendently and their reactions are transmitted to the structure.
ments defining the structure: columns, RC shear walls,
beams and floor slabs.
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10 CYPECAD
1.3. Discretisation of the structure inciding with the discretisation nodes along the wall
support, which considerably increases its stiffness
The structure is discretised as bar elements, bar and node (x100). It can be interpreted as behaving as an extreme-
meshes, and triangular finite elements as follows: ly rigid supported beam with very short spans. The
types of supports are:
• Columns
- Fixed. Displacements and rotations prevented in all
These are vertical bars between floors, with an initial
directions
node at the foundations or on another element such as
- Pinned. Prevented displacements but free rotation.
a beam or slab, and other nodes at floor intersections,
- Pinned with free horizontal displacement. No
its axis being the cross section of the element. Eccen-
vertical displacement permitted but has free hori-
tricities due to dimension variations with increasing
zontal displacement and rotation.
height at each floor are considered.
The length of the bar is the height or free distance to The effects these types of supports have on the remain-
the surface of other elements between its initial and fi- ing elements if the structure should be taken into ac-
nal floors. count. If vertical movement of the structure has been
• Beams prevented, all the structural elements supported by or
These are defined on the floor layout by fixing nodes at connected to them will also have their vertical move-
intersections with the surfaces of support elements (co- ment prevented. This is important if columns with exter-
lumns, shear walls or walls), as well as at intersection nal fixity are being used and are in contact with these
points with floor slab elements and beams. This way types of supports; their load will be ‘absorbed’ by the
nodes are created along the axis and at the ends, at support and will not be transmitted to the foundations.
the ends of overhanging beams, free ends or at contact This may even cause negative reactions to arise, which
points with other floor slab elements. They possess, by represent the weight of the column or part of its weight
default, 3 degrees of freedom, maintaining the rigid dia- ‘hanging’ at the wall support.
phragm hypothesis between all the elements located Especially in the case of a pinned connection with dis-
on the floor. For example, a continuous beam suppor- placement, when a beam is connected to the end of a
ted by various columns will conserve the rigid dia- wall support a fixed effect is obtained due to the beam
phragm theory even though no floor slabs are present. being taken as an extension of the crown beam of the
Exempt beams can be disconnected from the rigid dia- wall support. This can be observed in the force en-
phragm. Please refer to chapter 12. Rigid diaphragm. velopes whereby negative moments are present at the
Reinforced concrete, steel and composite beams are end. In reality, it must be verified whether or not these
available. Beams are discretised as bars whose axis conditions will actually be met on site as they must be
coincides with the mid plane passing through the verti- complied with when it is executed.
cal web, and at the height of its centre of gravity. If the beam is not a straight extension of the wall support
Wall support simulation. Three types of beams (ex- but deviated from its axis, a hinged effect is produced.
ternal fixity beam) are available which simulate a wall If the beam is a straight extension of the wall support,
support which is discretised as a series of supports co- but the user does not wish for the connection to behave
as a fixed connection, the connection should be pinned.
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It is not possible to obtain the reactions on this type of These may be analysed based on their construction
support. process in an approximate manner by modifying their
Foundation beams. These are ‘floating’ beams sup- edge fixities using a simplified method.
ported by elastic soil. They are discretised into nodes
and bars, where the nodes are assigned a spring con- • Flat slabs
stant which, in turn, is defined by the subgrade modu- Flat slabs are discretised as meshes of bar type elements
lus (see Mat foundations and foundation beams possessing a maximum size of 25 cm. A static conden-
chapter). sation is carried out (exact method) of all the degrees of
freedom. Deformation due to shear is considered and the
• Sloped beams rigid diaphragm hypothesis is maintained. The torsional
These are bars spanning between two points, which stiffness of the elements is taken into account.
can be at the same elevation or floor, or at different
floors and which create two nodes at these intersec- • Composite slabs
tions. When a sloped beam joins two independent
These are joist floor slabs discretised by bars every
zones the non-deformable effect of the plane with rigid
40cm. They are made up of a flat slab and a ribbed
behaviour is not produced, as they possess six de-
deck which acts as formwork for the slab. The deck can
grees of freedom without restrictions.
be used so it behaves in the following ways: as lost
formwork (Form deck) and contributing deck (Compos-
• Corbels ite deck). For more information, please consult the
Please consult the Corbels chapter of this manual. Composite slabs chapter.
• Joist floor slabs

• Mat foundations
Joists are bars defined within slabs between beams or
These are ‘floating’ solid slabs whose discretisation is
walls which create nodes at the face intersections and
identical to that of flat slabs used at floor levels and
corresponding axis of the beam they intersect. Double
whose spring constant is defined based on the as-
or triple joists can also be defined. The geometry of the
signed subgrade modulus. Each slab is permitted to
joist section with which each joist is simulated in the
have different coefficients. (see Mat foundations and
program is defined in the corresponding data file of the
foundation beams chapter)
slab. Please consult the chapter on Joist floor slabs
of this manual for more details.
• Waffle slabs
• Hollow core slabs Waffle slabs are discretised into bar type element
These are joist floor slabs discretised by bars every meshes whose bar size is one third of the rib spacing
40cm. The geometrical and resistance properties are defined in the data window of the slab. Their moment
defined in a slab properties sheet, which may be intro- inertia (for both solid and lightweight zones) is half of
duced by the user and hence create a library of hollow the solid zone and the torsional inertia is double that of
core slabs. the moment inertia.
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12 CYPECAD
The dimensions of the mesh are kept constant for both sol- of each side can be different at each floor and their
id and lightweight zones, adopting the previously indicated thickness can be reduced at each floor.
mean inertias at each zone. Deformation due to shear is For walls, one of the transverse dimensions of each
considered and the rigid diaphragm hypothesis is main- side must be at least five times greater than the other
tained. The torsional stiffness of the elements is taken into dimension. If this condition is not verified, their discreti-
account. sation as a finite elements is not adequate and can be
considered as being columns and treated as linear ele-
ments.
• Shear walls
Both beams and slabs can be connected to the sides
These are vertical elements with any transverse section
of the walls at any position or direction. All nodes that
composed of multiple rectangles between each floor
are generated correspond to one of the nodes of the tri-
and defined by an initial and final floor. The dimensions
angular finite element mesh of the wall.
of each side are constant in height, however their thick-
nesses may be modified. The discretisation is undergone by finite elements
whereby the wall resembles a thick three dimensional
For shear walls, one of the transverse dimensions of
sheet, which takes into account deformations due to
each side must be at least five times greater than the
shear. They are composed of six nodes, at the vertices
other dimension. If this condition is not verified, its dis-
and at the mid-points of the sides, each with six de-
cretisation as a finite element is not adequate and can
grees of freedom. The wall is discretised into a triangu-
be considered as being a column and treated as a lin-
lar mesh adjusted to the dimensions of the wall, its
ear element.
geometry, openings and with a more refined mesh in
Both beams and slabs can be connected to the sides critical zones, which reduces the size of the elements at
of the walls at any position or direction, by means of a angles, edges and singularities.
beam with a width of the thickness of the span and a
constant depth of 25cm. The nodes do not coincide Walls which are not in contact with any floor slabs are
with the nodes of the beam. not considered as rigid diaphragms at that floor level.
Please consult chapter 12. Rigid diaphragm.
• Stairs
Stairs are discretised using triangular thick shell finite
elements, for both sloping and horizontal spans. The
start and end supports are discretised as a floor slab si-
Fig. 1.1 Shear wall examples mulation by means of a beam with elevated stiffness,
and the intermediate supports by means of elastic sup-
• Reinforced concrete walls, masonry walls and reports simulating real masonry walls or ties. The load-
inforced concrete block walls cases considered are only those corresponding to gra-
vitational loads; dead and live loads.
These are vertical elements with any transverse section
composed of multiple rectangles between each floor Once the reactions have been established after a de-
and defined by an initial and final floor. The dimensions sign process (carried out independently), they are inte-
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grated at the supports and represented as line loads,

which are applied to the structure at its connection
points and then included in the analysis of the com-
plete structure. Their design has not been integrated in
the analysis procedure due to the great impact of hori-
zontal loads on them.
1.3.1. Node sizing

A group of general nodes with finite dimensions is created
at column axes and at intersections of slab elements with
beam axes. Each general node has one or several associ-
ated nodes. The associated nodes are formed at intersec- Fig. 1.2 Discretisation of the structure
tions of slab elements with beam faces and column faces,
and at intersections of beam axes with column faces. δz1, θx1, θy1 are considered as being the displacements of
column 1 and δz2, θx2, θy2 are considered as being the dis-
Given that they are related due to their deformation com-
placements of point 2, which represents the intersection of
patibility with the assumed flat deformation, the general
the beam axis with the face of the column. Ax and Ay are
stiffness matrix and associated matrices can be resolved
the coordinates of point 2 relative to point 1.
and hence obtain the displacements and forces in all the
elements. The following conditions are met:
As an example, the discretisation would be carried out as

shown in the diagram below. Each finite dimension node
can have several or no associated nodes, but there will al-
ways be one general node.
Given that the program does take into account the size of
the column, and supposing a linear behaviour within the The size of the beams is taken into account in the same
support, with flat deformation and infinite stiffness, the de- way, considering their deformation to be flat.
formation compatibility is considered.
The bars defined between the axis of column 1 and its

faces are considered as being infinitely rigid.
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14 CYPECAD
In the overall analysis of frames, when lef is less than the

distance between axes of columns the dimensions of the
joints should be taken into account by introducing rigid ele-
ments between the centroidal axis of the column and the
end section of the beam.”
Generally, the reaction at the support is eccentric due to

Fig. 1.3
the presence of an axial force and a moment being trans-
mitted to the support, the size of the nodes is considered
when rigid elements have been introduced between the ax-
The structural model defined by the program responds to the
data introduced by the user, therefore special attention must be is of the support and the end of the beam. This is reflected
paid that the geometry defined for the elements is compatible in the considerations detailed below.
with the type of chosen element and that its use is adequate in
real situations. A linear reply is assumed within the support representing
Particular attention is brought to those elements which are consi- the reaction of the loads transmitted by the lintel and those
dered as being linear in the program (columns, beams, joist) applied at the node which have been transmitted by the
when they may not be in real life, resulting in elements with two rest of the structure.
dimensional or three dimensional behaviour whereby the analy-
sis criteria and reinforcement provided by the program will not
be adjusted to the real design of these elements.
Examples of where this may occur include: corbels, wall-beams
and plates, situations which may occur in beams, slabs which
are really beams, or columns or short shear walls not complying
with the geometric limits between their transverse and longitudi-
nal dimensions. For these cases, the user must carry out the ne-
cessary manual corrections after the analysis so the results of
the theoretical model are adapted to their physical reality.
Fig. 1.4
It is known that:
1.3.2. Force envelopes at supports

The 1990 CEB-FIP Model Code, which inspired the Eu-
rocodes, is considered. When quoting the design effective The moment equations reflect, generally, a cubic parabolic
span, article 5.2.3.2. indicates the following: curve with the format:
“Usually, the span l has to be introduced as the distance

between adjacent support axes. When reactions are locat-
ed significantly away from the axis of support, the effective The shear force is the corresponding differential equation:
span has to be calculated taking into account the real posi-
tion of the support section.
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By assuming the following conditions: Eurocode 2 allows for moments to be reduced at the supports;
the reduction depending on the support reaction and width:
x=0 Q = Q1 = c
x=0 M = M1 = d
x=1 Q = Q2 = 3al2 + 2bl + c

If it is to be executed as a single element between sup-
x=1 M = M2 = al3 + bl2 + cl + d ports, the design moment can be taken as that of the sup-
port face and no less than 65% of the support moment, as-
a system of four equations with four unknown variables, suming a perfect fixed connection at the faces of the rigid
which can easily be resolved, is obtained. supports.
The force diagrams are as follows: In this sense, it is worth mentioning the Argentinean codes:
C.I.R.S.O.C. which are based on the German D.I.N. codes
which allow for the parabolic rounding of the force dia-
grams depending on the size of the supports.
Within the support, the depth of the beams is considered to

increase in a linear manner, in accordance with a 1:3 slope,
up to the axis of the support. By considering the size of the
Bending moment diagram Shear force diagram nodes, the parabolic rounding of the force diagrams and the
Fig. 1.5 increase of depth within the support, a more economic longi-
tudinal reinforcement solution is obtained for bending in
These assumptions were taken on by several authors beams; as the maximum steel area occurs between the face
(Branson, 1977) and are related with the debate on the de- and axis of the support, the most usual case being at the
sign span and free span and the way in which it is contem- face depending on the geometry that has been introduced.
plated in various codes, as well as whether the design mo-
ment is calculated taking the distance between support ax- In the case of a beam supported by a long element such as
es or support faces. a wall or shear wall, the moment diagrams will be extended
at the support as of the face of the support for a length
The structure is being idealised into linear elements, with a equivalent to that of the depth of the beam, designing the
length to be determined by the real geometry of the struc- reinforcement up to this length and not extending it past
ture. In this sense, the size of the columns should be taken the point where it is not required. Even if the beam has a
into account. greater width than the support, the beam and its reinforce-
ment are interrupted once it has penetrated a distance of
It should not be forgotten that, to consider an element as one depth into the shear wall or wall.
being linear, the beam or column is to have a span or ele-
ment length greater than a third of its mean depth and
greater than four times its mean width.
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16 CYPECAD
1.4. Analysis options at their faces, i.e. the free span is affected. The new mo-
ment values within the support are calculated using the mo-
An ample series of structural parameters of great impor- ments redistributed at the face and taking into account the
tance for obtaining forces and for the design of elements rounding of the force diagrams indicated in the previous
can be defined. Given the vast amount of options available, section.
it is recommended the help explanations of the options be
consulted. Additionally for beams and floor slabs, besides the moment
redistributions, the user can define the minimum positive
The general options for beams, floor slabs, joints are locat- and negative moments specified by the code in use.
ed in the Beam Definition tab > Job. The reinforcement
tables and specific options for each element can be found
in General data > By position icon (situated to the right Fixity coefficient at the last floor
of Steel: Bars). The most significant of these are mentioned
below. The negative moments at the connection between the top
of the last span of a column with the end of the correspon-
ding beam can optionally be redistributed. This value varies
1.4.1. Redistributions considered by the program between 0 (pinned) and 1 (fixed), even though 0.3 is
recommended as an intermediate value (default value).
Negative moment redistribution coefficients
The program undertakes a linear interpolation between the
A negative moment redistribution of up to 30% is accepted
stiffness of bars fixed at either end and those with one end
in beams in joists. This parameter can be optionally estab-
fixed and the other pinned, which affect the EI/L terms of
lished by the user, however it is recommended it be set at
the matrices of the last span of the column:
15% for beams and 25% for joists (default values). This re-
distribution is carried out after the analysis.
By considering a moment redistribution, the resulting rein-

forcement is more expensive but is safer and easier to exe- Where α is the value of the introduced coefficient.
cute on site. However, it must be noted that an excessive Fixity coefficient at the top and bottom of columns, at
redistribution produces deflections and cracking which are slab, beam and wall surfaces; pinning of beam ends
incompatible with the internal partitions.
A fixity coefficient can also be defined for each column
A redistribution of 15% in beams produces generally ac- span at its start and/or end (0 = pinned; 1 = fixed) (default
ceptable results and can be considered as the optimum value). The coefficients corresponding to the top of the col-
value. In slabs it is recommended a redistribution factor of umn at its final span are multiplied by these. This plastic
25% be used, which is equivalent to approximately equalis- joint is physically considered at the connection point of the
ing the positive and negative moments. top or bottom of the column with the beam or flat/waffle
The moment redistribution is carried out using the mo- slab reaching the node.
ments at support surfaces, which in the case of columns, is
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column and shear wall contact edges where the connection

is always taken as fixed. A rigid bar is defined between the
support and the axis, and so there is always a moment
present at the axis produced by the shear at the edge due
to its distance to the axis. This moment becomes a torsion-
al moment if the reinforcement is not continuous with that of
adjacent slabs. This option should be used with special
care because if the edge of a panel is pinned at the inter-
Fig. 1.6
secting surface with its perimeter beam and the beam’s tor-
sional stiffness is reduced, without it becoming a mecha-
It may occur that absurd results, even mechanisms, be ob- nism, ridiculous deflection results may be obtained of the
tained at beam ends and at tops of columns when very panel at its edge and therefore, also of the design forces.
small coefficients are used due to the presence of two
hinges being connected by rigid spans.
Fig. 1.8
Pinned connections can also be defined at beam ends.

Fig. 1.7 They are physically present at the support surface, be it a
column, wall, shear wall or wall support.
A fixity coefficient can be defined when using flat slabs,
These redistributions are taken into account in the analysis
joist floor slabs and waffle slabs at their supported edges.
and therefore affect the final displacements and forces that
The value may oscillate between 0 and 1 (default value).
are obtained.
A fixity coefficient whose value may vary between 0 and 1
(default value) may be defined at beam edges, in a similar
1.4.2. Stiffnesses considered by the program
way as for slabs only here for one or several edges, due to
it being specified using a beam. To obtain the terms of the stiffness matrix, the gross section
of all concrete elements are considered.
When fixity coefficients are defined simultaneously at beam
When obtaining the terms of the stiffness matrix, the follow-
and slab edges, these are multiplied by one another to ob-
ing values have been distinguished:
tain the resulting coefficient to apply at each edge.
EI/L: Bending stiffness
The defined plastic joint is created at the edges of slabs GJ/L: Torsional stiffness
and at the edge of beams and walls, and is not effective at EA/L: Axial stiffness
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18 CYPECAD
And the coefficients indicated in the following table have 1.4.4. Axial stiffness coefficient
been applied:
The shortening of reinforced concrete columns, walls and
Element (Ely) (Elz) (GJ) (EA) shear walls due to axial forces is taken into account by the
program. This is affected by an axial stiffness variable be-
Columns G.S. G.S. G.S. · x
G.S. · axial
tween 1 and 99.99 which enables to simulate the construc-
stiffness coeff.
tion process of the structure and its influence on the final
Sloped beams G.S. G.S. G.S. · x G.S. forces and displacements. The recommended value lies
between 2 and 3, where 2 is provided as the default value.
Steel or concrete beams G.S. ∞ G.S. · x ∞
Joists G.S. ∞ G.S. · x ∞

1.4.5. Minimum moments
Limit beam G.S. · 10-15 ∞ G.S. · x ∞
A minimum moment represented as a fraction of that of a
Wall support
G.S. · 102 ∞ G.S. · x ∞ simply supported element (wl 2 /8) may be covered by
(external fixity beam)
beams. This minimum moment can be defined for both
G.S. · axial negative and positive moments with a wl2/x format, where x
Shear walls and walls G.S. G.S. F.E.
stiffness coeff. is a whole number greater than 8. The default value is 0, i.e.
Flat and waffle slabs G.S. ∞ G.S. · x ∞
they are not applied.
Hollow core plates It is recommended that reinforcement capable of resisting a

G.S. ∞ G.S. · x ∞
and composite slabs negative moment of wl2/32 and a positive moment of wl2/20
be placed. This minimum moment requirement can be ap-
G.S.: Concrete gross section
∞: not considered due to the relative non-deformable plied to the whole structure or only part of it, and may also
shape of the floor be different for each beam. Each code usually indicates the
x: Torsional stiffness reduction coefficient minimum values to apply.
F.E.: Flat finite element
Similarly, minimum moments can be defined for joist floor
slabs and hollow core plates. They can be defined for the
entire job or for individual panels and/or different values. A
1.4.3. Torsional stiffness coefficients
value of ½ of the static moment (=wl2/16 for a uniform
An option exists whereby a torsional stiffness reduction co- load) is reasonable for positive and negative moments. It is
efficient can be defined (x). This option is not applicable to recommended the user consult the Options.
steel sections. When the dimension of the element is less
The bending moment envelopes will be displaced so that
than or equal to the value defined for short bars, the value
these minimum moments are met, followed by the negative
defined within the options will be taken. The gross section
moment redistribution that is to be applied.
(G.S.) will be considered for torsion GJ, and for when it is
required to achieve equilibrium of the structure. The equivalent value of the applied line load is:
Consult Job > General options > Torsional stiffness

reduction coefficients for default values.
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If a minimum moment (+) has been considered, it must be intermediate overlaps at floor level eliminated until the
verified that indicated length is reached without exceeding it. The
process is applied starting at the top pf the column and
working its way down, as long as the reinforcement is
identical.
If the applied minimum moment is less than the design mo- The overlap at each floor level, in the case of discon-
ment, the greatest of the two is taken. nected columns, can be ignored and hence provide re-
inforcement without overlaps until the next floor or over-
lapping at all floors, even though no beams reach the
columns at that floor, as long as the reinforcement is
identical.
• Cutting of starter bars at the last span (top of col-
umn). This option cuts the starter bars at the top of the
column’s last span. Only drawings and reinforcement
take-off values are affected by this option. The process
is not analysed and so care must be taken. It is recom-
mended the fixity coefficient at the last floor be reduced
Fig. 1.9
to its minimum value as well as activating the reduction
of anchorage lengths at the last floor. It may arise, how-
Note that these considerations work correctly with line ever, that even by applying these options, if the bars
loads and approximately with point loads. have large diameters, they may have to be bent at their
ends. This is cancelled by this option.
1.4.6. Other options • Reduction of anchorage lengths in columns. The
reduction of anchorage lengths at start level at interme-
Below are options that have not yet been mentioned which diate floors (default option = deactivated) and at the
influence the analysis. last floor (default option = activated) can be activated
or deactivated, reducing, in accordance with the ratio of
Columns the real stress in the reinforcement to the maximum
• Vertical reinforcement layout (maximum lengths, stress. In this case those columns containing reinforce-
connection of short spans, intermediate overlaps). The ment of the same diameter will result in having starter
maximum length of a bar (default value of 8m), makes it bars of a different length as a result of the analysis and
compulsory for reinforcement overlaps to used if a therefore cannot be matched. If this is to be so, deacti-
span exceeds this value. vate the option, even though slightly greater starter bars
will be obtained at the last span.
The maximum connection length for short spans (de-
fault value of 4m) is activated when the elevation differ- • Reinforcement symmetry criteria. The reinforcement
ence between floors is small. The spans are joined and layout can be defined in the reinforcement tables. They
may be the same or different for sides X and Y of the
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20 CYPECAD
column section. During the analysis, the program runs • Transitions due to dimension variation. When the
through the reinforcement table and selects the first re- change in section of a column from one floor to the next
inforcement distribution which complies for all the de- is large, the vertical reinforcement must be bent. The
sign force combinations as well as consisting of a sym- angle at which the reinforcement is bent is limited. If
metrical layout in its four sides. If the total reinforcement these geometric conditions are exceeded, the reinforce-
area is compared for both cases and the percentage ment must be cut and anchored in the bottom span
difference obtained, the layout complying with that and new starter bars placed corresponding to the rein-
marked in the % difference box of the option (default forcement of the span above. The bending angle de-
value of 0%, i.e. not symmetrical) shall be selected. If pends on the depth of the slab or beam the column
the column section reinforcement is to be symmetrical, reaches.
introduce a high value, e.g. 300. • Rounding of bar lengths. Bars are commonly cut so
• Bar continuity criteria. Columns are analysed by their lengths are a multiple of a value (default value
span starting at the top and moving downwards where- 5cm) so to ease work on site and fabrication.
by, in usual circumstances, their reinforcement increas- • Hatching of columns and shear walls. These are
es in diameter as the column descends. However this symbols which graphically represent if a column starts,
does not always occur due to the results provided by continues to another floor or ends. The user may
the program being those obtained from analysing the choose which to apply.
forces acting on the column and its dimensions. Using
• Reinforcement splices at central span zones. For
this option, one can force the program to maintain the
seismic zones, the reinforcement overlaps are moved
reinforcement; the bar diameter at the corners and
to the central part of the span, far from the areas sub-
faces, as well as the number of bars and apply it from
mitted to the maximum forces. The default setting of
the last or penultimate floor to the first span. This pro-
this option is set as deactivated, however it is recom-
vides results with less discontinuity in the reinforce-
mended it be activated where high seismic activity is
ment.
present.
The program applies continuity criteria applicable to
• Overlaps in walls and shear walls. Verifies that the
corner bar diameters as of the penultimate floor.
overlap is in compression or in tension, applying an am-
• Geometric cover. Distance between the external sur- plification coefficient to the splice length which depends
face to the first reinforcement element; the stirrups (the on the bar separation.
default value depends on the selected code).
• Required compliance factor for walls and shear
• Steel column layout. The user can opt to reduce the walls. The reinforcement of a wall or shear wall span
size of the introduced section, if possible, or maintain may contain peak stresses which penalise the rein-
and check it. It is important to bear in mind that the forcement if the user intends for the wall to pass with a
force analysis is undertaken using the section that has 100% compliance factor. Using this option, a smaller %
been introduced. If this is modified and the change in compliance can be checked or alternatively, the rein-
dimensions is large, it is recommended the structure forcement may be modified and check its compliance
be reanalysed to take into account this change. During factor. During the analysis, the reinforcement is de-
the analysis, the program locates the most economic signed in such a way that a compliance factor is at least
section.
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the default value of 90%. It is convenient that this value • Concrete cover in beams (top, bottom and lateral)
be checked and if less than 100% see at which points • Concrete cover in foundation beams (top, bottom and
the reinforcement fails and if local reinforcement is nec- lateral)
essary.
• Properties of precast beams*
• Stirrup layout. It is convenient stirrups be placed at in-
• Prestressed beam library
tersections with slabs or beams (the default setting of
this option is set as activated), also at the top and bot- • Error evaluation
tom of columns at an established height and with a • Frame ordering criteria
smaller separation than in the rest of the column (de- • Beam numbering criteria
fault setting = deactivated). It is recommended it be
• Assembly reinforcement
activated for structures in seismic zones.
• Joining of assembly reinforcement in overhangs
• Column start options
• Shear envelopes (continuous or discontinuous)*
• Minimum ratios
• Shear reinforcement (provision of skin reinforcement,
• Corbel options
section for shear check)*
• Stirrup selection*
• Cracking*
Beams • Minimum foundation beam ratios
Below are options relative to beams. • Beam reinforcement within walls and crown beams
• Symmetrical top reinforcement in single span beams

• Percentage difference for symmetrical top reinforce- Flat slabs, composite slabs and waffle slabs
ment
• Flat slab and waffle slab reinforcement
• Hook layout criteria
• Minimum steel areas
• Hooks at ends of alignment
• Mechanical steel area reduction
• Minimum stirrup length
• Torsion reinforcement
• Symmetry in stirrup reinforcement
• Minimum reinforcement bar lengths
• Stirrups of different diameters in a beam
• Flat slab cover
• Anchorage length in stirrup closure
• Waffle slab cover
• Bend hooks in U
• Detail base reinforcement in drawings (default option =
• Multiple stirrup layout deactivated). It is not drawn or measured if deactivated.
• Prefabricated beam reinforcement • Rounding of bar lengths
• Prestressed beam stirrups • Hooks in flat slabs
• Beam detailing for seismic design • Order and numbering criteria in flat slabs
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22 CYPECAD
• Rectangular flat slab reinforcement • Active deflection and total long term deflection
• Cover in foundations – Constructive process
• Cover in joist floor slabs, hollow core slabs and com- • Shear in in-situ joist floor slabs
posite slabs • Buckling coefficients for sloped beams
• Buckling coefficients for diagonal braces
Stairs
• Match reinforcements
Footings and pile caps
• Starter bars at start and dowel bars at end
• Reinforcement layout • General and specific options
• Geometric cover
• Anchorage length in slab
Strap and tie beams
• Depth of foundation
• General and specific options

Beam and slab general options
• General drawing options* Drawing
• Maximum bar cut off length*
• Layer, text size and pen thickness configuration for
• Minimum steel areas for top reinforcement in joist floor drawings*
slabs
• Minimum steel areas for top reinforcement in hollow There are options which are saved and conserved with the
core plates job. Others (*) are general options and may therefore vary
• Reinforcement in usual slabs from job to job.
• Reinforcement in hollow core plate slabs
To recover the default options, an ‘empty’ installation must
• Minimum moments to cover with reinforcement in slabs be completed, without the existence of the USR directory.
and beams This way all the default options and tables will be installed.
• Girder (beam) reinforcement Some options contain a button offering to install the default
• Torsional stiffness reduction coefficient in joist floor settings which allows for them to be recovered directly with-
slabs out having to execute the ‘empty’ installation.
• Consideration of torsional reinforcement in beams
• Options for steel beams and joists
• Deflection limits in beams, joists, hollow core plates
and composite slabs
CYPE
1.5. Loads to consider Additional loadcases (special loads)
1.5.1. Vertical loads As indicated, CYPECAD generates automatic loadcases,

such as Permanent loads (composed of the self weight of
Permanent loads
the construction elements and the dead loads introduced
Self weight of reinforced concrete elements, calculated on each group on all floors), the Live load (defined for
using its volume based on its gross section and multiplied each group for all the surface of the floor), the Wind load
by 2.5 (specific weight of concrete) for columns, shear (generated automatically for each X, Y direction depending
walls, walls, beams and slabs. on the selected code and the defined structure dimen-
sions), and the Seismic load which depends on the se-
The self weight of a slab is defined by the user upon lected code.
choosing the type of slab, which can be different for each
floor or panel, depending on the selected type. For flat Additional loadcases may be added to those generated au-
slabs, it will be calculated by multiplying its depth by 2.5, tomatically, which in previous version were referred to as
the same is applicable to drop panels of waffle slabs. For Special loads, and may be established as Dead loads or
lightweight zones of waffle slabs and joists floor slabs, the Live loads regardless of whether they are point, line or sur-
value indicated by the user in the data sheet of the selected face loads.
slab will be taken. In the case of joist floor slabs, the value
So, additional loadcases of a different nature may be crea-
of the weight per square metre is multiplied by the rib spac-
ted (dead load, live load, wind, earthquake and snow) and
ing resulting in a line load applied to each joist. In flat and
combine them with those that have been previously created
waffle slabs, the product of the weight by the tributary area
automatically and amongst themselves (this is not compati-
of each node is applied to each node.
ble with wind and seismic loads).
Dead loads Additional loadcases associated to Lateral soil pressures

and Accidental loads can also be defined.
These are estimated as being uniformly distributed on the
floor. These are elements such as flooring and partitions Different load distributions can be created for each load-
(even though this last element could be considered as being case, creating groups which can be combined establishing
a variable load if its position or presence varies with time). whether they can act simultaneously by assigning them as
compatible, incompatible or simultaneous.
The self weight of the structural elements plus the dead
loads make up the Permanent loads. These are automat- When additional loadcases are created, the user can define
ically applied to the bars of the structure. whether or not they are compatible with each other.
Once all the loadcases have been defined, along with the
Variable loads (live load) load distribution, simultaneity and combination modes (in
The applied live load is considered as being uniformly dis- accordance with the selected codes, materials used and
tributed on the floor. It is applied automatically to the bars use category of the building), the combinations for all the
of the structure making up the floors of each floor.
CYPE
24 CYPECAD
Limit States are generated automatically, from material fail- 1.5.2. Horizontal loads
ure, bearing pressures to node displacements. A fire check
Wind loads
can also be carried out.
The program automatically generates the horizontal loads
All this is configured in the Loads section of the General to be applied at each floor, in accordance with the selected
Data dialogue box. The same can be applied to the Inte- code, in two orthogonal directions X, Y, or in a single direc-
grated 3D structures. tion, and for the two cases (+X, -X, +Y, -Y). A load coeffi-
cient can be defined for each wind direction and case. If a
Vertical loads on columns
building is isolated the pressure will act on the windward
Loads (N, Mx, My, Qx, Qy, T) can be defined acting at the face of the building and the suction on the leeward side. It
top of any column. These are in reference to the general is usually estimated that the pressure is 2/3 = 0.66 and the
axes and can be defined for any loadcase, additional to suction 1/3 = 0.33 of the total pressure. Therefore for an
those obtained from the analysis. The diagram below indi- isolated building, the load coefficient is 1 (2/3 + 1/3 = 1)
cates the positive direction of the loads: for each direction. If the building is protected on its left side
because of an adjacent building in the X direction, the wind
coefficients may be modified to reflect the situation. In this
case +X = 0.33 as there is only suction in the leeward di-
rection and –X = 0.66 as there is only pressure in the wind-
ward direction:
Fig. 1.10
Columns or starts with the applied loads can be introduced

on mat foundations or foundation beams so to simplify an
analysis.
Fig. 1.11
Horizontal loads on columns
The tributary width is defined as the façade length perpendicu-
Point loads and uniform loads along the whole height of lar to the direction of the wind. A different value can be intro-
the column can be applied. They can be applied in refer- duced for each floor. When the wind acts in the X direction, the
ence to the local axes of the column or to the general axes y length of the building is to be provided and when it acts in
of the structure. the Y direction, the x length of the building is to be provided.
When there are independent areas on the same floor, the

load is distributed proportionally to the width of each zone
with respect to the total width B defined for that floor.
CYPE
B is the tributary width defined when the wind acts in the Y

direction. b 1 and b 2 are calculated geometrically by
CYPECAD in accordance with the coordinates of the edge
columns of each zone. Therefore the tributary widths ap- As a generic method for obtaining the wind loads in an au-
plied to each zone will be: tomatic manner, select the Generic code option.
Having defined the directions in which the wind acts, the

load coefficients and tributary widths per floor, the pressure
curve must be selected. A library of pressure curves exists
which allows for existing pressure curves to be selected and
create new ones. These curves display the total pressure as
a function of the building’s height. These values are interpo-
lated for intermediate heights, which is necessary to calcu-
late the pressure at the height of each floor of the building.
The Shape factor is a coefficient which is applied to the
building to correct the wind load depending on the shape of
Fig. 1.12 the building. This may be due to the shape of its floors being
rectangular, circular, etc. and because of its slenderness.
Once the tributary width of one floor is known, and the
heights to the floor above and the floor below, if the half A Gust factor can also be defined. This is a coefficient
sum of these two heights is multiplied by the tributary which amplifies the wind load so to take into account the
width, the surface exposed to wind on that floor is ob- geographical position of the building in exposed locations
tained. If this is then multiplied by the total pressure calcu- such as valleys, hill-sides etc. These situations produce
lated at that height and by the load coefficient, the wind greater wind speeds and so should be taken into account.
load for that floor and in that direction will be obtained. The total wind load applied to each floor is obtained by multi-
plying the pressure at its height by the exposed surface,
If there are guardrails (or a solid perimeter wall) on the roof,
shape and gust factors. The application point of the load at
it can be taken into account by proportionally modifying the
each floor is at the geometric centre of the floor, determined
band width b and using b’.
by the perimeter of the floor. The value of the wind load ap-
plied at each floor can be consulted and displayed in a report.
For each defined code, the pressure is calculated automat-
ically, once the initial data has been introduced which can
be consulted within the code to be used.
In the case of Integrated 3D structures, wind loads are not
generated automatically. They must be introduced manually
on the nodes and bars. If additional loadcases are defined, a
combination can be created with the automatic loads.
Fig. 1.13
CYPE
26 CYPECAD
It is important the loadcase combinations be checked as well as Cxi, Cyi: Seismic coefficient for each direction at floor i, also
their compatibilities when a Metal 3D job is imported as an inte- known as “Seismic action in X or Y” in the data entry part of
grated structure, especially, if the wind loads of the job had alre- the dialogue box. The seismic mass of each floor is multi-
ady been generated previously using the Portal Frame Generator. plied by this coefficient to obtain the static force applied at
each floor.
Seismic loads
The displacements of the floor with respect to the general
Two types of general analysis methods can be used for axis are:
seismic loads: static analysis and dynamic analysis.
It is possible to apply both general methods or the specific

methods indicated in the code or the application regula-
tions depending on the location of the building.
Static analysis. Seismic loads using coefficients. Seis- and the applied forces:
mic loads can be introduced as a system of static forces
equivalent to the dynamic loads, generating horizontal
loads in two orthogonal directions X and Y, applied at each
floor level, at their centre of gravity.
As a general method, the seismic loads can be applied by

floor coefficients.
The second order effects may be considered if the user
wishes for them to be so.
Within the integrated 3D structures, if the static earthquake
loadcase is activated as loads on nodes and bars, it cannot
be combined with seismic loads by coefficients or with dy-
namic seismic loading.
Fig. 1.14 Similarly, if a static analysis using floor coefficients is to be
carried out in CYPECAD, it cannot be carried out for the in-
The static forces to apply in each direction, per floor, are:
tegrated 3D structures, hence, the structure cannot be ana-
Sx = (Gi + A · Qi) · Cxi lysed. It may be analysed if a joint dynamic analysis is un-
dertaken. An additional static seismic force loadcase could
Sy = (Gi + A · Qi) · Cyi be activated, but the automatic loadcases would have to be
Where: deactivated.
Gi: The permanent loads of floor i
Dynamic analysis. Modal spectral analysis. The dy-
Qi: The variable loads of floor i
namic analysis method which is generally considered by
A: Live load, snow load or quasi-permanent load simultane-
ity coefficient the program is the modal spectral analysis, for which the
following parameters must be indicated:
CYPE
• Design acceleration with respect to g (acceleration due dom, with which the modal decomposition shall be under-
to gravity) = ac taken. The program carries out a static and dynamic con-
• Ductility of the structure = µ densation, whereby the dynamic condensation is attained
by means of the simplified classic method, and only by
• Number of modes to analyse
means of the dynamic degrees of freedom will the forces of
• Live load quasi-permanent coefficient = A inertia appear.
• Design acceleration spectrum
The dynamic degrees of freedom that are worked with con-
sist of three per floor of the building: two displacements in
These are to be completed and the corresponding spec-
the horizontal plane and the corresponding rotation of the
trum selected from the default library provided with the pro-
plane. This simplified model corresponds to that recom-
gram or using another created by the user. Each spectrum
mended by the vast majority of earthquake codes. Hence
is defined by coordinates (X: period T; Y: spectral ordinate
when defining the number of modes, the user is recom-
α (T)) therefore allowing to view the generated graph. For
mended to define three for each floor of the building.
the definition of the normalised elastic response spectrum,
the user must know the factors that influence it (type of At this point in the analysis the stiffness and mass matrices,
earthquake, type soil, damping, etc.). These factors must both reduced and with the same number or rows/columns,
be included in the spectral ordinate, also known as the am- have been obtained. Each of them represent one of the
plification factor and referred to the period, T. previously described dynamic degrees of freedom. The
next step consists of the modal decomposition which the
When any type of dynamic earthquake loadcase is speci-
program resolves by means of an iterative method and
fied for a building, the program carries out, as well as the
whose results are the autovalues and autovectors corre-
normal static design for gravitational loads and wind, a
sponding to the diagonalising of the stiffness matrix with
modal spectral analysis of the structure. The design spec-
the mass matrix.
trums depend on the earthquake code and the parameters
of the code that have been chosen. In the case of the The system equations to be resolved are as follows:
modal spectral analysis, the user directly indicated the de-
K: Stiffness matrix
sign spectrum.
M: Mass matrix
To carry out the dynamic analysis, the program creates the
mass and stiffness matrices for each element of the struc-
ture. The mass matrix is created based on the self weight ω2: Autovalues of the system
loadcase and the corresponding live loads multiplied by ω: Natural frequencies of the dynamic system
the quasi-permanent coefficient. CYPECAD works with
concentrated mass matrices, resulting to be diagonal.
The following step consists in condensing (simultaneous

with the element assembly) of the complete stiffness and φ: Autovectors of the system or condensed vibration modes
mass matrices of the structure, to obtain other reduced
From the first equation, a maximum number of solutions
matrices which only contain the dynamic degrees of free-
can be obtained (values of ω) equal to the assumed num-
CYPE
28 CYPECAD
ber of dynamic degrees of freedom. For each of these so- These values are calculated in the following way:
lutions (autovalues), the corresponding autovector (vibra-
aij = φij · τi · aci
tion mode) is obtained. Nonetheless, it is rare that the max-
imum number of solutions of the system be required and i: Each vibration mode
only the most representative of the number indicated by j: Each dynamic degree of freedom
the user as vibration modes intervene in the analysis. Upon aci: Design acceleration for vibration mode i
indicating this number, the program selects the most repre-
sentative solutions of the system, which are those dis- The maximum displacements of the structure, for each i vi-
placed by the mass and correspond to the natural frequen- bration mode and j degree of freedom in accordance with
cies of the greater vibrations. the equivalent linear model, are obtained as follows:
The condensed vibration modes that are obtained (also

called shape coefficient vectors) are the result of a homog-
enous (the vector of independent terms is null) and unde-
termined (ω2 has been calculated so the determinant of the Therefore, for each dynamic degree of freedom, a maxi-
coefficient matrix be null). mum displacement value is obtained for each vibration
mode. This is equivalent to an imposed displacement prob-
Therefore, this vector represents a direction or deformation
lem, which is resolved for the remaining degrees of free-
mode, and not specific values of the solutions.
dom (not dynamic), by means of modal expansion or
Based on the vibration modes, the program obtains the ‘backward’ substitution of the previously condensed de-
participation coefficient for each direction (τi) in the follow- grees of freedom.
ing way:
Finally, a displacement and force distribution over the whole
structure is obtained for each vibration mode and for each
dynamic loadcase, with which the modal spectral analysis
is concluded.
The program uses de CQC method (complete quadratic

Where [J] is a vector which indicates the direction of the combination) to attain the maximum values of a force, dis-
earthquake load. For example, for an earthquake load act- placement etc, whereby a modal coefficient dependent on
ing in the X direction: the ratio between the vibration periods to combine is calcu-
lated. The formula of the method is as follows:
[J] = [100100100…100]
Once the natural vibration frequencies have been found,

these are introduced in the selected design spectrum,
along with the ductility, damping, etc parameters, and the
design acceleration for each vibration mode and dynamic
degree of freedom is obtained.
CYPE
where: ω: Angular frequency = 2π/T

µ : Ductility
ζ : Buckling coefficient, uniform for all vibration modes and Effects of torsion
with a value of 0.05
x: Resultant force or displacement When a dynamic analysis is undertaken, the total moment
xi, xj: Forces or displacements corresponding to the modes and shear force is obtained due to the earthquake loads on
to combine the building. By dividing them, the eccentricity with respect
to the centre of gravity is obtained. Depending on the se-
For those cases in which the evaluation of the concomitant
lected earthquake code of each country, it is compared
forces is required, CYPECAD undertakes a linear superpo-
with the minimum eccentricity specified in each code and if
sition of the various vibration modes in such a way that for
less, the rotational mode is amplified, in such a way that at
a given dynamic loadcase, n groups of forces are really
least the minimum eccentricity is obtained.
obtained, where n is the number of concomitant forces that
are required. For example, during the design of concrete If the earthquake loads on the structure are analysed in a
columns, three forces are being dealt with simultaneously: generic manner (Modal spectral analysis), the minimum ec-
axial force, bending in the xy plane and bending in the xz centricity the program takes into account is 0.05.
plane. In this case, upon requesting the combination with a
dynamic loadcase, the program will provide three different This is important especially in the case of symmetrical
combination versions: one for maximum axial force, anoth- structures.
er for maximum bending in the xy plane and the other for
maximum bending in the xz plane. Additionally, the created
Base shear
combinations are multiplied by ±1, as the earthquake
loads can act in either of the two directions. When the base shear due to dynamic seismic loading is
less than 80% of the static base shear, the proportion will
The second order effects can be considered, if the user
be increased so not to be smaller than it.
wishes for them to be so, by activating the option, as the
program does not consider them automatically.
∆)
Consideration of 2nd order effects (P∆
Upon carrying out the analysis, the user may consult, for
each mode, the period, the participation coefficient in each The user may optionally choose to consider, when defining
design direction X, Y and what is referred to as the seismic wind or seismic loadcases, to amplify the forces due to the
coefficient, which is the displacement spectrum obtained presence of these horizontal loads. It is recommended this
as Sd: option be activated in the analysis.
The method is based on the P-delta effect of the displace-

ments produced by the horizontal loads, taking into ac-
count, in a simple manner, the second order effects based
α (T) : Spectral ordinate on a first order analysis and a linear behaviour of the mate-
CYPE
30 CYPECAD
rials with mechanical properties bases on the gross sec- The following coefficient:
tions of the materials and secant elastic modulus.
A horizontal load Hi acts at each floor i. The structure de-

forms and displacements, ∆ij, occur at each column level.
At each column j, and at floor level, a load with value Pij represents the stability index for each gravitational load-
acts for each gravitational loadcase, transmitted by the case and for each direction of the horizontal force. If it is
slab to column j at floor i. calculated, an amplification coefficient to be applied to ap-
plied loadcase safety factor can be obtained for all the
An overturning moment MH due to the horizontal forces is combinations in which horizontal forces act. This value is
defined, acting at elevation zi with respect to elevation 0.00 referred to as γz and is calculated using the following for-
or elevation without horizontal displacements, for each di- mula:
rection of action:
i: Number of floors
j: Number of columns where:
γfgi: Safety coefficient for permanent loads of loadcase i

γfqi: Safety coefficient for variable loads of loadcase j
γz: Global stability coefficient
It must be recalled when calculating the displacements due

to each horizontal load loadcase, that an first order analysis
Fig. 1.15 Wind action was carried out using the gross sections of the elements. If
forces for ultimate limit state design are being calculated, it
is logical that if a thorough calculation of the displacements
In the same way a moment due to P-delta effects, MP∆ is
is to be obtained, it be done using the fissured and ho-
defined, due to the loads transmitted by the slabs to the
mogenised sections of the elements which may result to
columns Pij for each of the defined gravitational loadcases
be very laborious, as that implies linear simplification of the
(k), because of the displacements due to the horizontal
materials, geometry and load states. This causes it to be an
load ∆i.
unpractical solution using the analysis methods available.
Therefore a simplified method must be established consist-
ing of supposing a reduction in the stiffness of the sections,
which implies an increase in the displacements, as they are
where: inversely proportional. The program requires the increase
k: For each gravitational loadcase (self weight, live load…) or ‘multiplication factor of the displacements’ to take this
stiffness reduction into account.
CYPE
At this point there is no single criteria, therefore it is for the tio can be established for the global stability if the floor are
user to decide which value to introduce depending on the very similar:
type of structure, estimated fissure grade, other stiffening
γz: Global stability coefficient = 1 / (1-Q)
elements, nuclei, stairs etc, which in reality may reduce the
calculated displacements. Regarding the limits establishing whether the floor corre-
sponds to a non-sway fame system, or what in this case
In Brazil, it is common to consider a reduction coefficient of
would be the limit as to whether it is to be considered or
the longitudinal elasticity modulus of 0.09 and assume a
not, it may be taken as Q = 0.05, i.e. 1 / 0.95 = 1.05.
reduction coefficient of the fissured inertia with respect to
the gross inertia of 0.70. Therefore, the stiffness is reduced For this case, it is to be calculated and always taken into
by these factors: account if the value is exceeded, which results in always
Reduced stiffness = 0.90 · 0.70 · Gross stiffness = having to consider the calculation and amplify the forces
=0.63 · Gross stiffness using this method.
Due to displacements being the inverse of the stiffness, the Regarding the displacement multiplication coefficient, it is
multiplying factor of the displacements will be indicated that given that the horizontal loads are temporary
1 / 0.63= 1.59. This value will be introduced into the pro- and act during a short period, a reduction of approximately
gram. As a general rule, if γz > 1.20, the structure’s stiff- 70% of the inertia can be considered, and as the elasticity
ness should be increased in that direction, as the structure modulus is smaller (15100 / 19000 = 0.8), in other words, a
can deform easily and has little stability in that direction. If displacement amplification coefficient of 1 / (0.7 · 0.8) =
γz < 1.1, its effect is small and practically negligible. 1.78, which according to the global stability coefficient,
does not exceed 1.35 would be a reasonable value.
In the new NB-1/2000 code, in a simplified manner, it is rec-
ommended the displacements be amplified by It may be appreciated that the model code criteria would be
1/0.7 = 1.43 and limit the value of γz to 1.3. recommendable and easy to remember for all its applica-
tion cases:
In the 1990 CEB-FIP model code, a moment amplification
Displacement multiplication coefficient = 2
method is applied which recommends, unless a more pre-
cise analysis is undertaken, the stiffnesses be reduced to Limit for global stability coefficient = 1.5
50% or similarly, apply a displacement amplification coeffi-
cient equal to 1 / 0.50 =2.00. For this assumption, it may It is true, on the other hand, that stiffening elements are al-
be considered that if γz > 1.50, the structure’s stiffness in ways present in buildings: façades, stairs, load bearing
that direction must be increased, as the structure can de- walls, etc., which assure that a smaller displacement be
form easily and has little stability in that direction. 2nd order present against horizontal loads than those calculated. Be-
effects do not have to be considered if γz < 1.1, however it cause of this, the program leaves the value of the displace-
is recommended they always be activated. ment multiplication coefficient at 1.00. It is left to the user’s
criteria as to what the value should be modified to, given
The ACI-318-95 code refers to a stability index Q per floor, that not all the elements can be discretised in the structure.
not for the global stability of the building, even though a ra-
CYPE
32 CYPECAD
Once the analysis has concluded, the calculated values for al second order eccentricity of the isolated bar will always
each of the combinations can be checked at the following be calculated together with the P-delta amplification effect
option: General data > Wind and Earthquake options of the considered method. This way, reasonable results are
> Second order effects button > Amplification fac- obtained within the slenderness field established by each
tors button. Here, the maximum value of the global stabil- code.
ity coefficient can be seen in each direction. A report can
also be printed within the Job reports section. It is left to the user’s choice, given that it is an alternative
method. In this case, the user can opt for the rigorous ap-
The case may arise where the structure is unstable, in plication of the corresponding code.
which case an error message is emitted before the analysis
has concluded warning a global instability phenomenon is
present. This will occur when the value of γz tends to infinity 1.6. Materials used
or, which is the same in the formula, becomes negative or All the materials are selected from lists within the program.
zero because: The material’s properties are defined within a file. The data
to be specified for each case is:
It may be studied for wind and/or earthquake loads and is 1.6.1. Concrete for foundations, slabs, columns and
always recommended it be calculated, as an alternative walls
calculation method to second order effects, especially for
A file exists containing a list of concrete types defined by
sway-frame structures or presenting some sway, as occurs
their design resistance, reduction coefficient, secant elastic
in most buildings.
modulus and Poisson coefficient ν = 0.2 defined in the
Recall that all of the live load loadcase is considered and code.
given that the program does not carry out any automatic
The concrete used can be different for each element. Addi-
live load reduction, it may be convenient to repeat the
tionally, in the case of columns, can be different for each
analysis previously reducing the live load, which would only
floor. These values correspond to those most frequently ad-
provide valid results for the columns.
mitted in the code.
Regarding the ACI 318 code, once the stability of the build-
ing has been studied, the reduction of the column stiffness
1.6.2. Bar steel
for their design is carried out by applying a formula indicat-
ed in the code appendix of the program. A file exists which contains a list of the steel types defined
by their elastic limit, reduction coefficient and elasticity
In that case and given the difficulty of calculating the buck- modulus defined in accordance with the code.
ling coefficients by determining the bar stiffnesses at each
column end, it is sufficiently safe to assume buckling coeffi- It is always considered due to its position and type of ele-
cients with a value = 1, with which the fictitious or addition- ment.
CYPE
The steel may be different depending on whether it be for: type of steel is defined for the plates and stiffeners, as well
as the type of steel to use for the anchorage bolts. The
Columns, walls, shear walls and corbels available steel types and diameters are predefined within
the program and may not be modified.
• Bars (vertical and horizontal)
The materials to be used in Integrated 3D structures are to
• Stirrups
be defined per bar be it timber or steel.
Floor beams and foundation beams

1.6.4. Integrated 3D structures materials
• Bottom reinforcement
The materials to be used in Integrated 3D structures (steel,
• Top reinforcement timber, aluminium, concrete or generic) are to be defined in
• Assembly reinforcement Job > General data.
• Skin reinforcement
• Stirrups
Floor slabs and mat foundations 1.7. Weighting factors

• Punching shear The weighting factors are established in accordance with
• Mat foundation top reinforcement the properties of the materials to use, the loads acting on
the structure and the analysis method to be used used
• Mat foundation bottom reinforcement
which specified in the selected design code.
• Waffle and joist floor slab top reinforcement
• Waffle slab bottom reinforcement
1.7.1. Analysis method
Footings and Pile caps To calculate the weighting factors the Limit states method
is used or the corresponding method to apply for each se-
lected code.
1.6.3. Steel for steel columns, beams and baseplates
CYPECAD allows for steel beams and columns to be used, 1.7.2. Materials
in which case the type of steel to be used must be indicat- The reduction coefficients to be applied to the materials
ed. A library containing steel types which can be selected used are defined for each code. The corresponding articles
by the user is available. This library is saved as a file and of the code may be consulted.
cannot be modified by the user. The file contains informa-
tion such as the elastic modulus, elastic limit, Poisson coef- Upon selecting the material, the execution control level on
ficient and all the parameters required for the analysis. site (if it exists for the selected code) must be indicated and
Rolled, welded and cold formed steel sections are avail- therefore, the predefined weighting coefficient, which is pre-
able. In the case of baseplates at steel column starts, the defined in a file associated with the selected design code.
CYPE
34 CYPECAD
1.7.3. Loads • U.L.S. for failure. Rolled and welded steel. Section design.
The weighting coefficients will be applied depending on the • U.L.S. for failure. Cold formed steel. Section design.
execution control level and on the foreseeable damage that • U.L.S. for failure. Timber. Section design.
may occur within the project and on site, as well as its con-
struction method. Therefore, combination groups can be defined and activate
the limit states which are to be checked for the selected
It should be taken into account whether the effect of the
code, and the weighting coefficients to be used. It is com-
loads is favourable or unfavourable, as well as the origin of
mon practice for each country to establish the states de-
the load. The values may vary.
tailed below.
These values will have to be established for each combina-
tion. To do so, the weighting and simultaneity factors de-
fined in the corresponding combination file will be read, de-
1.8.1. Ultimate limit states
pending on the number of loadcases of each of the simple
loadcases in accordance with its origin. This file cannot be These are defined to check and design the sections. The
edited or modified by the user, although he/she can define previously mentioned combination groups for concrete,
his/her own combinations. rolled steel, welded steel, cold-formed steel, timber and
aluminium are usually indicated. They are not contemplated
by codes which use allowable stresses.
1.8. Combinations
Once the basic simple loadcases that intervene in the
1.8.1.1. Project situations
analysis have been defined, and in accordance with the
code to apply, a group of element states must be checked The load combinations will be defined in accordance with
which may require an equilibrium, tensile, fracture, fissure, the following criteria for the various project situations:
deformation, etc check to be undertaken. All this is sum-
marised in the limit states analysis, which may, additionally, Non-seismic situations
be obtained depending on the material to be used. A group
of combinations is defined for each of these limit states, • With combination coefficients
with their corresponding weighting coefficients, which the
program generates automatically and has to be selected
for the analysis. The following states are checked:
• U.L.S. for failure. Concrete. Section design. • Without combination coefficients
• U.L.S. for failure. Foundation concrete. Section design.

• Soil pressures. Check for pressures acting on soil.
• Displacements. To obtain the maximum displacements
of the structure.
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Seismic situations 2. Job description (2 lines).

3. Concrete for floor slabs
• With combination coefficients
4. Concrete for foundations, foundation data
5. Concrete for columns and shear walls. May be different
for each floor.
6. Concrete for walls. May be different for each floor.
• Without combination coefficients
6.1. Generic masonry wall properties:
Modulus of elasticity E
Shear modulus G
where: Unit weight
Gk: Permanent load
Design compressive strength
Design tensile stress
Qk: Variable load
Consider shear stiffness
AE: Seismic load
In the case of block walls, the mortar and block
γG: Partial safety factor for permanent loads resistance is selected and horizontal joint reinforce-
γQ1: Partial safety factor for main variable loads ment steel.
γQi: Partial safety factor for accompanying permanent loads 7. Steel for concrete reinforcement
(i > 1) for non-seismic situations 7.1. For columns, shear walls and corbels
(i ≥ 1) for seismic situations Vertical bars
γA: Partial safety factor for seismic loads Stirrups
ψp1: Combination coefficient of the main variable load The program contains two tabs; one for floor slabs and
ψa1: Combination coefficient of the accompanying variable loads the other for foundations
(i>1) for non-seismic situations 7.2. For beams:
(i ≥ 1) for seismic situations Top reinforcement (bottom additional reinf. for
foundation beams)
Bottom reinforcement (top reinf. for foundation
1.9. Data entry

beams)
Assembly reinforcement (bottom reinf. for founda
The data to be introduced for the analysis of a job includes: tion beams)
Skin reinforcement
1.9.1. General data of the job Stirrups
7.3. For floor slabs:
The data included in points 3 to 6 is selected from a list of Shear and punching shear reinforcement
materials. Flat slab and mat foundation top reinforcement
1. Design codes for concrete, steel (cold-formed and Flat slab and mat foundation bottom reinforce
rolled), aluminium, timber, block walls and composite ment
slabs.
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36 CYPECAD
Waffle slab, drop panel and joist floor slab top

reinforcement
Waffle slab, drop panel and in-situ joist floor slab
bottom reinforcement
8. Steel for steel beam and column sections
8.1. Cold formed steel
8.2. Hot rolled steel
9. Wind loads
10. Seismic loads
11. Fire resistance check Fig. 1.16
12. Additional loadcases (special loads)

13. Limit states (combinations) When a column is disconnected in both directions for sev-
eral consecutive floors, the column is designed for each
13.1. Concrete
span or floor, therefore when it comes to calculating the
13.2. Foundations
slenderness and effective length l0, the program takes the
13.3. Cold formed steel
maximum value amongst all the consecutive disconnected
13.4. Rolled steel
spans, multiplying it by its total length = sum of all the
13.5. Timber
lengths.
13.6. Aluminium
13.7. Ground bearing pressures
13.8. Displacements
14. Buckling coefficients for each floor in each direction
14.1. Concrete columns
14.2. Steel columns Now, l0 = α · l (for both X and Y local directions of the col-
umn, with its corresponding value).
These coefficients can be defined per floor or for each in-
dependent column. The program assumes a default value When a column is disconnected in a single direction for
of α = 1 (also called β), whereby the user has to vary this several consecutive floors, the program will take, for each
value if he/she considers it to be so due to the type of floor i, l0 = α1 · li, not acknowledging it not being connect-
structure and connections of the column with beams and ed. Therefore, if it is to be effective, in the direction where it
slabs in both directions. is not connected, the value of each αi must be obtained, in
such a way that:
Observe the following case (Fig 1.16), whereby the buck-
ling coefficients of a column which is not braced in various This the value corresponding to completely exempt span, l.
floors are analysed. Here, it can be seen that it may buckle
along the whole of its height: The value of each span, i, will be:
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the various codes only indicate how these values are exact-
ly determined for frames, and given that the spatial behav-
iour of the structure does not correspond to the buckling of
a frame, it is preferable not to provide the values in an inex-
act manner.
Nell’esempio corrente
Therefore, when the program calculates the buckling length 1.9.2. Loads. Groups
of floor 3, it will calculate: In this section, the user indicates whether or not to consider
horizontal, wind and/or seismic loads and the code which is
to be applied for each case. The program chooses the
combination for each limit state internally.
Likewise, the weighting factors are validated depending on

the materials used and the intervening loads. The additional
which coincides with that indicated for the complete un-
loads are also selected and are assigned to each loadcase.
connected span, even though the calculation is carried out
for each floor, which is correct, but it will always take the The user can also modify the global dead and live loads for
length as α· l. each floor group. The self weight of the floor slab is indicat-
ed in the file containing its description.
The height which is considered for buckling design is the
free height of the column, i.e. the height of the floor minus
the height of the beam or slab, whichever has the greatest
depth) which reaches the column. 1.9.3. Wind loading
The code to apply is to be selected. Please consult the sec-
tion of the corresponding code.
1.9.4. Seismic loading

If earthquake loads are present, the data to introduce will
be in accordance with the selected code. Please consult
the section of the corresponding code.
Fig. 1.17
The final value of α of a column is the product of the α of

the floor by the α of the span. Note: Loads associated to wind and/or earthquake loadcases
can be defined in the additional loadcases section, if they are
It is left to the user’s opinion as to the values to be intro- not automatically previously generated.
duced in each direction of the local axes of the columns, as
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38 CYPECAD
1.9.5. Fire resistance 1.9.7. Limit states (combinations)

The coating (if present) of each structural element and The group corresponding to each state to calculate is se-
group is defined, as is the required resistance and whether lected.
the floor slab fulfils its compartmentation duty. • Concrete
• Foundations
• Cold formed steel
1.9.6. Additional loadcases (special loads)
• Rolled steel
Additional loadcases (special loads) can be defined auto-
• Timber
matically, and are different to general loads:
• Aluminium
• Permanent loads (self weight of floor slabs + dead
loads) = (permanent loads) • Ground bearing pressures
• Live load defined within group data (live load) • Displacements
• Wind in accordance with the selected code (Wind)
• Seismic load in accordance with the selected code
1.9.8. General data of floor/groups, columns, co-
(Earthquake) lumn starts and shear walls (Column Definition tab)
If the user wishes to define loads (point, line or surface 1.9.8.1. Floors/groups
loads) which are to belong to these loadcases, these must
Here, the data to introduce includes:
first be created. The permanent loads and live loads are al-
ways defined by default. • Name of the groups, live and dead loads
• Elevation of the foundation plane, name of the floor and
If alternating live loads are to be created, i.e. loads that do height between floors.
not act simultaneously for a combination, additional load-
Upon indicating the heights (h) of the floors, the difference
cases must be defined; the number of which is to corre-
between the top floor slab surface is defined (or mean top
spond with the number of independent loads that are to be
reference plane). The elevations are calculated by the pro-
considered. The load disposition option within each load-
gram based on the indicated data.
case can also be used.
The combinations are generated automatically based on

the defined loadcases and their combinability.
Upon introducing these special loads, be they line, point or

surface loads, the loadcase associated to the load i.e. the
loadcase to which it belongs, must be selected.
Fig. 1.18
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1.9.8.2. Columns The first defined vertex is the insertion fixed point even
though its position may be varied. When defining a shear
Their cross sectional and elevation geometry is to be de-
wall, the following parameters are selected:
fined, indicating:
• Shear wall type
1. The type of column (concrete or steel)
• Reference
2. Cross section at each floor level
• Angle
3. Reference
4. Rotation angle
The shear walls possess the same geometry on plan,
5. Start at foundation (with external fixity) or whether it whereby only their thickness can be varied. They may not
starts elsewhere (without external fixity) and up to which start on columns, and columns cannot start on them. They
floor it reaches. If the column starts on a beam or mat are of constant geometry and brought about to brace the
foundation, it must be defined without external fixity. building horizontally.
6. Fixity coefficients at top and bottom of the column
7. Buckling coefficients at each floor and in both local di-
1.9.8.5. Horizontal loads on columns
rections; x and y (see text for Job general data).
8. If the column is a steel column, the type and series of The type of load, loadcase and application point are de-
the steel section selected from the library is indicated. fined.
9. Support elevation change and depth, if present, so to

include the details in the job drawings.
Horizontal loads on columns can be defined with the follow-
1.9.8.3. Column starts ing properties:
It is possible to only define the start of a column (i.e. col- • Type of load: point, uniform load or strip load
umn with zero height), so that foundation elements may be • Loadcase: those defined in the job (self weight, live
designed by simply defining the applied loads as loads load, wind earthquake)
acting at the top of the column.
• Application point: at any column elevation
• Direction: in local or general axes, in X or Y.
1.9.8.4. Reinforced concrete shear walls
First of all, a shear wall series is defined, indicating: 1.9.8.6. Vertical loads on columns
• Name Loads (N, Mx, My, Qx, Qy, T) can be defined acting at the
• Initial and final group top of the last span (where it ends) of any column. These
• Sides and vertices are in reference to the general axes, for any loadcase, ad-
ded to those obtained from the analysis and in accordance
• Thicknesses at each floor to the left and right of the ax-
with the following sign criteria:
is of the side
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40 CYPECAD
A Fixity coefficient can be defined at beam edges. Its value

varies between 0 (pinned) and 1 (fixed). Any slab panel
joining that edge of the beam will be affected by that coeffi-
cient.
Hinges can be introduced at the ends of any beam span, at

connection points with beams, shear walls or other beams.
Fig. 1.19
If the beam introduced is a foundation beam, the subgrade
There is other data that can be consulted and modified modulus and allowable bearing pressure are required.
such as the support conditions, fixity and buckling coeffi- If a composite beam is going to be introduced, please con-
cients. sult section 8. Composite beams.
1.9.9. Floor slab data (Column Definition tab) 1.9.9.2. Walls

The geometry of the beams is defined graphically on the Two types of walls can be defined:
floor plan for each group of the structure. The columns and
Reinforced concrete walls. These are reinforced con-
shear walls are visible for each group. The logical order in
crete walls, which may or may not receive lateral pressures
which the data is to be entered is as follows:
from the soil.
Masonry walls. These are brick or concrete block walls,

1.9.9.1. Beams, external wall supports and foundation
which receive and transmit loads but no lateral pressures.
beams
The type of beam is selected and its dimensions defined. The following data is to be indicated:
• Start floor
• End floor
• Mean thicknesses at each floor (to the left and to the
right)
• Soil lateral pressures (only for reinforced concrete walls)
indicating:
- Loadcase of the pressure
- Apparent unit weight
- Submerged unit weight
- Slope angle
- Internal friction angle
- Loads on fill (if present)
Fig. 1.20
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• Beam or foundation support • The reinforced and prestressed joists can be of the fol-
- Foundation beam (without external fixity) lowing types:
- Strip footing (without external fixity) - Manufacturer: data provided by a manufacturer. It
- With external fixity (with or without a footing) cannot be edited.
- Beam without external fixity - Library: contains joists defined by manufacturers
and by users using a specific program “The floor
When required, the data of the footing is to be indicated: slab file editor” provided by CYPE, which any user
can use.
• Allowable bearing pressure of the soil
- Geometrical properties, provided by the user whe-
• Soil subgrade modulus. A high default value is provid- reby all the data can be edited. Regarding the de-
ed = 100,000 kN/m3, because if there are columns flection calculation, it may be designed as a reinfor-
present, differing settlements on the ground can occur, ced or prestressed beam.
which will not really occur if an analysis is carried out
later on with pad footings below the columns. If all the
• By joist type: This depends on the resisted moment of
foundation plane consisted of elements without external
the joist whereby the type of joist may be visualised in-
fixity (floating), a subgrade modulus corresponding to
stead of the bending moments, The value is indicated in
the type of soil and dimensions of the foundations
dNm, per metre width, per joist with the applied safety
would be introduced. Generally speaking, it is not rec-
factor.
ommended elements with external fixity and elements
without external fixity be used simultaneously. The pro-
gram will emit a warning if this occurs. Each panel may consist of a different type of floor slab, and
its position may be perpendicular to beams, parallel to
beams or defined by two pass-through points.
1.9.9.3. Type of floor slab
The existence or non-existence of continuity between joists
The floor slab is defined by giving it a name and introduc- of adjacent panels can be achieved (except in the case of
ing a series of data: steel and open web joists, which are always simply sup-
ported). By copying panels, continuity is obtained from one
to the next. By varying the insertion point, so joists in adja-
1.9.9.3.1. Joist floor slabs
cent panels are not aligned, the continuity is eliminated.
Several types of joist floor slabs are available: This is achieved as long as the distance between the ends
• Concrete joists (generic geometry) of the joists of adjacent panels is greater than the short
bar length (default value of 0.20m, which can be varied us-
• Reinforced joists
ing the option Reduction coefficient of flexural stiffness
• Prestressed joists of joist floor slab. The same continuity effect is produced
• In-situ joists if a beam is located at the end of a joist and works as an
• Steel joists extension of the joist, where the separation of their axes is
• Open web joists less than the short bar length.
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42 CYPECAD
Having defined a group, one of the previously defined The data contained in the properties sheet can be taken from
groups can be copied and then carry out the required the use authorisations of the manufacturers, or introduce the
modifications. values of a specific plate or slab to be built in-situ. There is
some data which is required and should be clarified:
Elevation changes can be defined between panels. These
changes are reflected in the drawings and reinforcement • Reference. To identify the properties sheet.
layout of slabs and beams affecting the heights of the sup- • Description. The name of the plate.
ports which intersect the elevation change beam. This must
• Total slab depth. The total depth of the plate and the
be used with caution, as the program does not calculate
compression layer thickness (if present)
the transverse bending of the beam. It is, therefore, recom-
mended that the construction details be consulted and the • Plate width. The width of the plate.
stirrups and anchorage lengths of the transverse reinforce- • Compression layer thickness. The compression lay-
ment of the beam be checked manually. er thickness if present.
• Minimum plate width. Is the smallest value that may
The minimum negative and positive moments for joists can
be obtained from a longitudinal cut of a typical plate, as
be consulted and modified. It is important they be consult-
a consequence of the panel dimensions upon reaching
ed and assigned correctly.
the edge of the panel, where a special plate with a
Double, triple…joists can be introduced. In this case the smaller width is placed instead. The width of the last
program will take the defined weight, which is limited to a plate varies between the typical width of the plate and
triple joist. In this situation, a bar or joist parallel is intro- this minimum value.
duced at a distance equal to the width of the joist defined • Maximum and minimum bearing. When the plate is
in the properties sheet of the slab. slanted with respect to the normal of the support, the
bearing at each edge of the plate is different, varying
A fixity coefficient can be defined at joist edges or ends (0 between the maximum and minimum values. If the max-
= pinned, 1 = fixed which is the default value) for each imum value is exceeded, the plate is bevelled.
panel.
• Lateral bearing. This is the value the plate may overlap
laterally with a parallel or slightly sloped support with re-
1.9.9.3.2. Composite slabs spect to the longitudinal direction of the plate.
Please consult section 9. Composite slabs of this Calcu- • Self weight. This is the weight per square metre of the
lations manual. complete slab.
• Concrete volume. This is the concrete volume in
opening infills, joints between plates and compression
1.9.9.3.3. Hollow core slabs layer, if present. The program adopts the value corre-
To define a hollow core plate, its geometric data and me- sponding to the compression layer by default.
chanical properties must be introduced. • Plate concrete. This is information data to display
which materials were used to calculate the resistance
data of the section.
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• Layer and joint concrete. Same as above. The decompression moment is that corresponding to class
• Top reinforcement steel. Same as above. II, and so the positive service moment is compared with
that in the table, choosing the corresponding column.
The resistance data of the section are described below:
2. Slab negative flexure
1. Slab positive flexure. The data of the plate with joint
infill concrete and compression layer, if present. • Diameter / Diameter / Spacing: Two columns of diame-
ters are indicated, which allow the combination of two
• Ultimate moment. The maximum resisted moment
different diameters at a given spacing. With such rein-
(ultimate)
forcement distributed in the zone of negative moments,
• Cracking moment. To calculate the deflection using
the mechanical properties of the section are indicated
the Branson method.
in each row.
• Total stiffness, of the concrete-plate composite sec-
tion, used to generate the stiffness matrix of the • Ultimate moment of the typical section. This is the neg-
bars into which the slab is discretised. ative moment resisted by the section for a given rein-
• Cracked stiffness. To calculate the deflection using forcement.
the Branson method. • Cracking moment. To calculate the deflection using the
• Service moment. Resisted moment depending on Branson method.
the type of prestressed concrete, which is not he • Total stiffness. To calculate the deflection using the
same as the environment. The equivalence is: Branson method.
Environment I = Class III (Structures in building in-
• Cracked stiffness. To calculate the deflection using the
teriors or exterior areas of low humidity)
Branson method.
Environment II = Class II (Structures in normal or
non-aggressive exteriors, or in contact with normal • Ultimate shear. Shear resisted by the section for a given
waters or ordinary soil) reinforcement.
Environment III = Class I (Structures in aggressive
Based on the calculated reinforcement, the value of the
industrial or marine environment, or in contact with
shear resisted by the plate is known, which is compared
aggressive soils, salt or slightly acidic waters)
with the design shear.
The program compares, according to the environ-
ment defined for the plate, the service moment from If it fails, the program issues a message at the end of the
the analysis with that from the sheet and, if it is analysis, and 'Insuf.' is indicated on the plate, on screen
smaller, the plate is acceptable. Otherwise, the pro- and in the drawing. If there are no values in the sheet, shear
gram looks in the table for a plate that does not fail, is not checked.
and if one is not found, a message appears after
the analysis.
• Ultimate shear. Ultimate shear resisted by the total Design process used
section. It is displayed in two columns depending
on whether it is greater than the decompression Once the maximum design positive moment Md is known,
moment (Mg) the program searches in the positive slab flexure column,
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44 CYPECAD
ULT. M., for a value greater than that obtained in the analy- elastic analysis subject to the total load = permanent load
sis. At the same time, and depending on the environment + live load. This is equivalent to building the floor on
defined for the panel, the program looks in the SER. M. (1, shoring, and upon their removal, the floor is subject to this
2, or 3) column for a value that meets the analysis service total load.
moment (obtained with the deflection combinations). A
plate is chosen that meets both conditions. If this is not In this analysis, the negative moments are generally greater
possible, a message is emitted warning that it is outside than the positive moments.
table range.
In the same way, and for the plate selected for flexure and B. Unshored
environment, the program checks in the shear column, of
The precast hollow core plate floors are generally con-
positive and negative slab flexure, whether the design
structed without shoring, such that the final load state is
shear is less than that resisted by the slab. If it fails, a warn-
comprised of two states:
ing is emitted.
1. The plate is subject to the self-weight of the slab w, which
The lengths of the bars are established depending on the
follows the typical moment equation for a simply supported
bending moment envelope, and the minimum lengths de-
element (M=wl2/8).
fined in the options.
2. The floor in its continuity is subject to an additional load,
The envelopes are obtained according to the acting forces,
after the erection of the slab, comprised of the dead loads
considered redistribution and minimum applied moments.
and live loads.
This check is not carried out when data has not been de-
The superposition of the two stages leads to a load state
fined for deflection, environment or shear analysis.
which produces greater positive moments than negative
Within the Panel manager option, the environment can be moments, in the majority of cases.
selected, as well as the fixity coefficient at edges and mini-
In the current version of the program, the analysis is not
mum moments for each type of span: end, intermediate,
carried out in two stages. If the floor is constructed without
isolated or overhanging.
shoring (case B), reasonably approximate results that con-
cur with what is expected are obtained. This is done by
modifying the fixity coefficients in the continuous panels.
Construction process
As a guide, the value of the fixity coefficient to assign to
The analysis can be carried out as a shored or unshored panels depends on the relationship between the self-weight
construction. of the floor and the total load, assuming a state of uniform
loads.
A. Shored
The value of the fixity coefficient would be:
The analysis that is carried out by the program when conti-
nuity is considered, with a fixity coefficient value =1, is an fix.coeff. = 1 - (floor slf.wt. / total load)
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For example, consider the case of a floor weighing

400 kg/m2, with paving weighing 100 kg/m2 and a live load
of 500 kg/m2:
floor slab self weight = 400
total load = 400+100+500 = 1000 Fig. 1.21
fix.coeff = 1-(400/1000) = 1-0.4 = 0.6 A base reinforcement mesh, spanning in both directions, top
and/or bottom can be defined, which is considered in the
A fixity coefficient of 0.6 would be assigned to continuous
analysis and has its diameter designed during the process.
slabs. The program assigns this value automatically to
each panel of hollow core slabs when the unshored option
has been activated.
In any case, it is recommended that the user consult with

the manufacturer on the construction process and ask for
advice for the design, verifying that the plate in its first
phase, subject to its self weight and a construction live Fig. 1.22
load (generally 100 kg/m2) can withstand the construction
phase. Very important: If a base reinforcement is considered, the
option Job > General data > By position > Floor slabs
As for obtaining the deflection, it is calculated based on the tab > Options for flat, waffle and one-ways slabs > De-
mechanical properties indicated in the slab properties tail base reinforcement in drawings must be activated,
sheet or those defined by the user, and with the moment otherwise it will not be visible on screen. Therefore it will not
envelopes for the final state. These values can be consult- be measured in the takeoff reports or bar schedules in draw-
ed as a function of the established deflection limits in the ings. Special attention must also be paid when printing draw-
hollow core plate options. ings so to ensure that it does exist, has been considered in
the analysis and therefore must be placed on site. The draw-
ings should be checked and the necessary details added to
1.9.9.3.4. Flat slabs
indicate the overlap lengths and areas where these can occur.
The depth of the panel and reinforcement direction are de-
fined. Each panel may have a different depth. A fixity coeffi- If this option is activated, the base reinforcement can be
cient may be applied for any type of flat slab at its edges seen as any other reinforcement and can be edited and
when connecting with the beams supporting it. The value modified. The bottom base reinforcement is always contin-
may vary between 0 (pinned) and 1 (fixed), as well as any uous, and overlaps in areas with maximum negative bend-
other value between these limits. Elevation changes may ing. The top reinforcement is not continuous and is only
be defined between panels, with the same applied obser- placed where necessary. In the case of mat foundations,
vations as indicated with joist floor slabs. the positions are inverted. The reinforcement is measured
in the takeoff reports and is drawn on drawings as addi-
tional reinforcement.
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46 CYPECAD
The direction in which the reinforcement is placed can also

be indicated.
Mat foundations can also be used. In this case, the depth of
the slab is to be indicated, as well as the subgrade modulus
and allowable bearing pressure. The base reinforcement in
mat foundations is determined automatically depending on
the minimum steel ratio defined in the slab options.
1.9.9.3.5. Waffle slabs

Waffle slabs are formed by panels in which two zones are Fig. 1.23
present: a lightweight zone and a solid zone.
The lightweight zone is the first to be defined and is done so

by selecting it from an editable program library or using the
user’s own definition. The lightweight zone can consist of re-
movable or lost forms. Once the type of form is selected, the
corresponding data must be filled in (Figs. 1.23 and 1.24):
• Reference
• Total depth
• Compression layer thickness
• Number of elements making up the lightweight form
(for lost form only)
• Geometry of the transverse section: rib spacing, which
can be the same or different in X and Y and the rib
Fig. 1.24
width (which can be variable in the case of removable
forms).
• Concrete volume/m2 Having defined this data, the pass-through point, which
• Self weight of the slab (approximate, depending on the may vary, of the rib mesh is indicated on the panel. The ribs
material making up the lightweight zone) can span in any direction. Elevation changes between pan-
els can be defined, obeying the same rules as for joist floor
slabs.
A base reinforcement mesh, spanning in both directions,

Remember: when introducing data, an estimate of the total top and/or bottom can be defined, which is considered in
weight is carried out, as the program initially displays the volume the design of the reinforcement.
and approximate weight of the infilled zones, compression layer
and the selected default material (concrete). If this is not the ca-
se, the value may be modified. In the case of removable forms,
only the value of the infilled concrete is estimated.
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with a 40º angle of vision. If no other column is ‘seen’ (for

Very important: If a base reinforcement is considered, the example in the case of edge columns) the same value as
option Job > General data > By position > Floor was taken in the opposite sense of the same direction is
slabs tab > Options for flat, waffle and one-ways
used. The drop panel limits are set at 2.5 – 5 times the
slabs > Detail base reinforcement in drawings must
be activated, otherwise it will not be visible on screen. Therefore depth. An option is included in the program (Slabs > Drop
it will not be measured in the takeoff reports or bar schedules in panels > Configuration of drop panel generation in
drawings. Special attention must also be paid when printing the Beam Definition tab) which allows for these design
drawings so to ensure that it does exist, has been considered in parameters to be modified.
the analysis and therefore must be placed on site. The drawings
should be checked and the necessary details added to indicate
If these are generated manually, solid zones may be introdu-
the overlap lengths and areas where these can occur.
ced, always adjusting them to the lightweight zone. These
are not to be used to simulate beams. In that case intro-
If this option is activated, the base reinforcement can be duce beams. Also, always do so at free edges. Drop panels
seen as any other reinforcement and can be edited and always have a base reinforcement between ribs which is
modified. The bottom base reinforcement is always contin- considered and deducts additional rib reinforcement in the
uous, and overlaps in areas with maximum negative bend- analysis. It is not measured and cannot be indicated, there-
ing. The top reinforcement is not continuous and is only fore drawings must be checked, its presence indicated and
placed where necessary. In the case of mat foundations, construction details provided for construction on site.
the positions are inverted. The reinforcement is measured
in the takeoff reports and is drawn on drawings as addition- When printing out the floor plan layout drawings, the pro-
al reinforcement. gram always places an information box indicating the base
reinforcement of the ribs and drop panels, even though the
The floor slab can be different for each panel. If the beams bars are not displayed or detailed.
separating each panel are flat, the beam will adopt the
greatest depth of the two slabs on either of its sides. In the The forms provided in the lightweight zone of the slab can
case of dropped beams, the amount by which it drops is optionally be drawn.
measured as of the greatest depth. A fixity coefficient can
be applied to the edges of the panel whose value may vary Predefined reinforcement
between 0 (pinned) and 1 (fixed).
Reinforcement can be defined in any position and direction
The solid zones or drop panels can be generated automat- which is deducted from the necessary additional reinforce-
ically over columns or at any zone or the panel. These ment in its zone of action.
adopt the same depth as the lightweight panel in which
they are situated. Their depth can be modified so their bot- Openings
tom surface drops below that of the lightweight section of
the slab. Panels in which no floor slabs are introduced remain empty,
and are represented by a question mark; therefore users
When drop panels are generated automatically, the dimen- must delete the panel which is the same as introducing an
sions in each direction are adjusted to 1/6 of the distance opening, which is represented by two intersecting discon-
between the column in question and the one closest to it, tinuous lines.
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48 CYPECAD
Additionally, rectangular openings may be introduced in ex- strap and/or tie beams can be inserted which can also con-
isting flat or waffle slabs. nect to strip footings below walls.
Beams located between two openings or between an Rectangular footings are design as rigid solids and may
opening and the external edge, if they have been defined support several columns and/or shear walls. The same is
as flat and do not have a lateral slab, do not have their applicable to pile caps, in accordance with a defined type
depths defined and therefore must be changed to dropped of resolved cases.
beams, indicating their dimensions.
Strap beams are defined to absorb the moment transmitted
If the type of beam considered contains a reduced form at the to the footing or pile cap they reach. Several beams may
side at which the opening is located, it will not be taken into act simultaneously to absorb the moment in a given direc-
account and the program will warn that the data is incorrect. tion, in which case it will be distributed proportionally to
their respective stiffnesses.
If, at any floor, there is an independent zone whose perimeter is
defined by beams contained within an internal opening, even
though there is no slab, the stiffness or non-deformable hypo-
thesis of the floor is maintained. 1.9.10. Loads. Sloped beams. Diagonal bracing
Therefore, if horizontal loads are present, incorrect results will Apart from the general surface loads, point, line and sur-
not be obtained. This situation is recommended when using slo- face loads may also be introduced. All these are introduced
ped or exempt disconnected beams defined in the same group, graphically on screen and may be visualised to be consult-
which are elements that possess 6 degrees of freedom and do
not consider the non-deformable hypothesis of the floor. ed or to be modified at any moment.
If reinforced concrete walls have been defined with acting lateral Each type of load has an easily identified graphic diagram,
pressures, and there are joist floor slabs running parallel to the
as well as being displayed in different colours, if they be-
wall, these should have sufficient stiffness to behave as a rigid
diaphragm, and so the infills and corresponding details, which long to different loadcases.
the program does not carry out automatically will have to be pro-
vided. In the case of sloped beams, their dimensions must be in-
dicated, as well as the loads that may act on them (point,
For versions earlier than the 2012.a version, if there are empty
panels next to the wall and perpendicular beams exempt from line, strip, triangular,…), and where they span from and to
the wall, these must be placed as sloped beams so they may be (initial and final groups). They always have 6 degrees of
designed for compressive bending, as normal beams and slabs freedom. They can consist of rectangular concrete sections
are only designed for simple bending. Please refer to chapter 12.
or steel sections. Their ends can be fixed or pinned. The di-
Rigid diaphragm if the program version is greater than or equal
to the 2012.a version. agonal bracing consists of sloped beams, crossing each
other between two supports and between two floors; these
Integrated 3D structures can also be created between indepen-
dent zones. are always steel sections.
1.9.9.3.6. Foundations 1.9.11. Stairs

caps can be defined at starts of columns and shear walls Please consult chapter 10. Stairs of this calculations
‘with external fixity’. Spanning between these elements, manual.
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1.10. Analysis of the structure until the end, emitting a report once it has concluded. It is
convenient that the error messages of all the elements be
Once all the data has been introduced, the structure can checked.
be analysed. During the process, information messages
will appear regarding the analysis phase the program is If one or several Integrated 3D structures have been creat-
running through. Error messages are also emitted if data ed, bear in mind that these can be processed individually
exists which is incompatible with the analysis. and in an independent manner to the floor groups. It is con-
venient this be done and the introduced sections designed.
The first phase of the program consists in generating the This way, when the complete structure is processed, includ-
geometric structure of all the elements forming a stiffness ing the defined Integrated 3D structures, the results will be
matrix of the structure. If the program detects incorrect da- closer to the final section sizes that will be required.
ta, error messages will be emitted and the process will
stop. This phase can be executed independently for one It is possible that in many cases, especially when concern-
group or for all the job. ing steel columns and beams and Integrated 3D structures
containing steel elements, that the section sizes have to be
The second phase consists in inverting the stiffness matrix modified before the analysis, and that, due to their inertias
using frontal methods. If it is singular, a message will be varying significantly, make it obligatory to launch a new
emitted indicating it is a mechanism, if this situation is de- analysis.
tected for an element or part of the structure. In this case
the process stops. This occurs frequently in steel structures and should not
worry the user. Sometimes the analysis process must be
In the third phase, the displacements are obtained for all repeated several times until all the steel sections are those
the defined loadcases. A message will be emitted indicat- to be used as the final section sizes. In the case of rein-
ing there are excessive displacements at those points forced concrete, due to the program working with the gross
where the structure exceeds a value, whether it be due to section of the element, if the sections do not vary, or if they
an incorrect design of the structure or to the torsion stiff- vary by a small amount, they are usually accepted as they
nessess defined for an element. remain.
If global stability problems exist, the structure should be re- Regarding an analysis carried out with Stairs, the user
vised, when second order effects have been considered. should bear in mind that the stairs are designed indepen-
dently, obtaining the reactions at the start, end and interme-
The fourth phase consists in obtaining the combinations
diate supports, transforming these reactions into line loads
and envelopes of all the defined combinations for each ele-
which are applied on the structure as live and dead loads.
ment: beams, slabs, columns, etc., and for each limit state.
With these loads applied to the structure, the program ana-
In the fifth phase the program designs and reinforces all lyses the complete CYPECAD job. An integrated analysis
the defined elements in accordance with the combinations has not been undertaken because their contribution and in-
and envelopes, geometry, materials and existing reinforce- fluence on the structure when exposed to horizontal loads
ment tables. A message is emitted if any of the limits indi- is large and could provide results which do not usually arise
cated in the code are exceeded. The program continues in common practice, especially when what traditionally is
done is apply their reactions and not integrate them.
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50 CYPECAD
Upon concluding the analysis, the errors and problems that 1.11.1.2. Results of regular beams and foundation
have arisen during the analysis of the different elements can beams
be consulted. They may be consulted on screen or by print-
All beam data may be consulted:
ing out a file, depending on the type of error. Other errors
must be consulted per element, column, beam, slab, etc. • Active deflection and other deflection, deflection/span
ratio, consideration of minimum moments.
• Beam envelopes with or without seismic loading, with
1.11. Results bending moments, shear forces and torsion moments.
Once the analysis has finished, the results can be consult- All this can be measured numerically or graphically.
ed on screen, obtain reports from text files or via printer • Beam reinforcement, considering the number of bars,
and copy the job in any drive. their diameter, their lengths and the stirrups with their
lengths. These results may be modified. The design
Elements defined without ‘exterior fixity’: footings, pile caps, and necessary top and bottom reinforcement areas can
strap and tie beams can be designed simultaneously or lat- be consulted, for longitudinal and transverse reinforce-
er on. All these foundation elements can be edited, modi- ment.
fied, redesigned or checked in an isolated manner to the
• Beam errors: excessive deflection, bar spacing, ancho-
rest of the structure.
rage lengths, compressed reinforcement, and oblique
compression due to shear and/or torsion and all the
1.11.1. Consulting on screen other inadequate design or reinforcement data. Colour
codes can be assigned to valuate their importance.
The following data can be consulted at any moment.
• Fixity coefficient at beam edges
1.11.1.1. Job general data • Sections designed using steel beam option and sec-
It is convenient that the data introduced be revised: tions which verifies all the checks of the section series.
columns, groups (live loads, dead loads), floor heights, In the case of composite steel beams, the shear studs
wind and seismic loading, materials used, options, rein- are designed.
forcement tables, etc. The options contained in this section
are saved with the job, as well as those reinforcement ta- Beam sections may be modified. If the dimensions of the
bles that have been converted into Special tables. It is con- beams have varied, the Redesign option is available to ob-
venient these be saved separately because if options or ta- tain new reinforcement with same forces of the initial analy-
bles have been modified and the job is reanalysed after sis. In this case the errors should be rechecked.
some time, different results may be obtained.
It is possible to redesign only those frames that have un-
If this data is modified, the job must be reanalysed. If they dergone dimension changes, conserving those where only
have been validated, the result consultation may continue. the reinforcement has been modified, or redesign all, in
Options and tables may be modified and then redesign the which case the reinforcement of all the beams which have
structure to obtain a new result. been modified is redesigned.
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The reinforcement may also be blocked, then checked af- 1.11.1.5. Composite slab results
ter another analysis has been run.
Please consult chapter 9. Composite slabs.
If the dimensions of the beams have varied greatly, it is highly
recommended the job be reanalysed.
1.11.1.6. Hollow core slab results
The beam reinforcement may be modified, if the user wishes to
do so and he/she is responsible for this. The program displays The following may be consulted:
a colour code to verify the beam contains no errors. If beam di-
mensions have been modified in Errors, study whether it is • Bending moment and shear envelopes for the selected
more convenient to redesign to obtain new reinforcement. panel strip and with a mean value per metre width
• Type of selected hollow core plate
• Top reinforcement at supports, indicating, depending
1.11.1.3. Loads on the activated views, the number, diameter, spacing
and length of bars.
The values of all the loads introduced: point, line and sur-
face, can be visualised graphically. Each group of loads • Deflection information
associated to different loadcases has a different colour • Analysis errors, be they due to moments, shear, deflec-
code. This way, it is possible to check whether the data is tion or environment.
correct. If any load modifications are undertaken, the job
should be reanalysed. The type of hollow core plate can be modified, as well as
the top reinforcement.
1.11.1.4. Joist floor slab results

The following data can be consulted in regards to joist floor 1.11.1.7. Results of flat slabs, waffle slabs and mat
slabs: foundations
Data of introduced slabs.
• Bending moment and shear envelopes in joist align-
ments (with applied safety factor and per beam) • Defined base reinforcement, and when required, that
• Top reinforcement for joists. Their number, diameter modified in the design.
and length are taken into account. • Discretised element mesh (see 3D model)
• Bending moments and shears at ends with applied • Required reinforcement area envelopes displayed per
safety factor and per metre width for joists. metre width, in the direction of the defined reinforce-
ment, top and bottom.
The joist bending moments and shear can be made uni-
form in reference to mean values, percentage differences • Displacements in mm. For any loadcase of any node.
or maximum values. All the previous values can be modi- • Forces per loadcase of any node and required design
fied for drawings, to those values considered by the user. steel area in each reinforcement direction. The method
Please consult chapter 6. Joist floor slabs for more infor- used to obtain the design forces is the Wood method,
mation on data and results. known internationally, required for the correct consider-
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52 CYPECAD
ation of moments possessing both signs and torsion 1.11.1.8. Column results
forces.
It is possible to consult column reinforcement and modify
• Maximum displacements of panels for each loadcase. the columns’ dimensions so to obtain a new reinforcement
Not to be confused with deflection. In the case of mat arrangement. Their reinforcement can also be modified.
foundations this indicates the settlement. If the values The forces (axial, moments, shear and torsion) in columns
are positive, uplift is present and the analysis would not by loadcase may also be consulted at any point along the
be correct using the applied theory. column, at any floor, as well as being able to visualise the
• Consultation of the reinforcement obtained in any longi- force diagrams.
tudinal or transverse direction, top or bottom of the de-
fined base reinforcement, if present. Likewise, the worst case forces (with applied safety factor)
which determine the reinforcement to be placed, for any
• Check and design of punching shear reinforcement, if
span can be consulted (please recall that various worst
required, of solid areas and ribs of the lightweight zone.
case combinations can exist for a specific reinforcement
• Matching of reinforcement in any direction to obtain i.e. reinforcement may be valid for those forces but the rein-
maximum reinforcement areas and lengths. forcement checked immediately before is not). Deformation
• Excessive bearing pressures in mat foundations. and stress diagrams of the concrete and steel for a section
• Force, displacement and steel area, contour lines and perpendicular to the neutral axis are also provided. The re-
contour maps. sultant moments due to the amplification because of acci-
dental and second order (buckling) eccentricity, which ap-
If flexure lines have been introduced before the analysis, pear, in red, below the worst case forces table.
minimum reinforcement lengths and bottom reinforcement If the column does not verify a check, an abbreviation ap-
overlaps must be provided, if required, in accordance to pears to indicate why the column fails e.g. SAe: Exces-
that indicated in the option for minimum lengths for flat and sive ratio: due to it exceeding the limits stated in the code,
waffle slabs. It is recommended this introduction be done even though in this case, the program does provide col-
before the analysis, as if it is carried out later, the overlaps umn reinforcement.
will be constructive (30cm) and will not be redesigned.
More messages can appear which should be consulted.
All these modifications are carried out on screen and ac-
cording to the user’s criteria. If the reinforcement or the column dimensions are modified
and the column still fails, a sign appears to the left indicat-
Flat and waffle slabs may be redesigned after the first ing the maximum steel ratios have been exceeded.
analysis. By executing the Redesign option (introducing a
matching line) to obtain new reinforcement using the forces If important modifications have been carried out it is highly
of the initial analysis. recommended the job be reanalysed, as the stiffnesses will
have varied.
Once the data has been consulted, the next phase con-
sists in obtaining graphical results.
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If a column is present with insufficient section, it will not be analysis can be consulted and the amplification values of
drawn or measured. the applied forces and resultant factor due to the horizontal
load of each intervening combination viewed on screen. All
Using the Column schedule option, columns can be is explained when entering the data and a report of the re-
grouped amongst each other. Those that fail are displayed sults may also be printed out.
in red.
A column’s reinforcement can be blocked and maintained; 1.11.1.11. Wind results

hence after running through another analysis, it may be
checked to see if it does not fail. The values of the wind load in X and the wind load in Y at
each floor level can be consulted and the results printed
out.
1.11.1.9. Results of shear walls, reinforced concrete

walls and masonry walls 1.11.1.12. Earthquake results
The normal and tangential stress diagrams may be con- The values of the vibration period for each mode consid-
sulted for the whole height of the shear wall for each calcu- ered can be consulted, the participation coefficient of the
lated combination, as well as displacement diagrams for mobilised masses in each direction and the seismic coeffi-
the defined loadcases. The force distribution diagrams are cient corresponding to the resultant displacement spectrum.
displayed in colour scales, indicating the maximum and
minimum values.
1.11.1.13. Contour maps and contour lines in flat and
The reinforcement can be consulted and modified to the
waffle slabs, and mat foundations
user’s judgement, as well as the thickness. The wall is dis-
played in red if it fails. It may be redesigned. In this section of the program, the displacements, forces
and steel areas in cm2/m may be consulted for all the pan-
A coded information text exists with messages explaining
els of any group.
the state of the design.
The Compliance factor of the reinforcement provided may
also be consulted, given as a %, and the areas where addi-
1.11.1.14. Deformed shape
tional reinforcement is required. A 3D model can be observed displaying the deformed
shape for each loadcase and combination, as well as its
A report of the worst case forces of the span is also avail- animated deformation.
able as well as the forces per loadcase of the resultant.
1.11.1.10. Results of the analysis with 2nd order ef- 1.11.2. Printed reports
fects
The data introduced and the analysis results are displayed
If 2nd order effects have been considered in the analysis, in a report which can be printed out or saved as a text file.
be it because of wind or seismic loading, the results of the
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54 CYPECAD
The following data can be printed out: • Report on earthquake participation coefficients, which
• General reports. These include the name of the job, include mode periods, mobilised mass participation co-
groups, floors, heights, coordinates, column dimen- efficient, and resultant seismic coefficient in each direc-
sions and their fixity, shear walls, gravitational load dation (dynamic analysis).
ta, wind data, seismic data, materials used, control lev- • Report on maximum displacements of columns, at
els, slabs used in the job, geometry and self weight. each floor for all the columns, for the most unfavourable
• Report of combinations used in the analysis. combination for each direction.
• Beam reinforcement report. Contains the necessary • Maximum column distortion report.
mechanical capacity envelopes, moments, shear • Foundation report. Provides a report on the material da-
forces, torsion, provided reinforcement and active de- ta, loads and pad footing, pile cap and strap and tie
flection. beam geometry as well as their takeoff.
• Envelopes report, with bending moment, shear and tor- A report on the design checks of the foundation ele-
sion envelope drawings. ments is also obtained.
• Beam takeoff report • Corbel report
• Beam fabrication tag list • Integrated 3D structures report
• Beam interchange file. This is a text file which includes • Column and beam ultimate limit state checks
information on beam reinforcement.
• Floor slab and beam, surface and volume report The reports are a complement to the graphical information
• Joist takeoff report for each type of joist and length obtained on screen, just as the drawings define the geome-
try and reinforcement of the project.
• Form takeoff report
• Joist floor slab reinforcement takeoff
• Report on the reinforcement per square metre of the 1.11.3. Drawings
job The project drawings can be configured in different for-
• Flat and waffle slab reinforcement report mats, be it a standard format or one defined by the user.
• Report on forces in sloped beams, with moment, axial Similarly for the paper sizes to be used. They can also be
force and shear moments and provided reinforcement. drawn using different peripherals: printer, plotter or DXF/
DWG and PDF files. They will have to be configured in Win-
• Report on columns and shear walls, which includes the
dows for them to work correctly and have the correspon-
reinforcement report, forces at column starts, forces by
ding drivers installed.
loadcase and worst case forces in columns and shear
walls. Any type of construction detail or drawing in DXF or DWG
• Report on the displacements per loadcase for each col- format can be included, as well as using the edition re-
umn and at each floor. sources the program allows: texts, lines, arcs, DXF. Any
• Second order effects report scale, line thickness, text size, title block, etc. can be ap-
plied, in such a way that the drawing can be completely
• Wind load report
personalised, including the active DXF or DWG template.
CYPE
All the elements are defined by layers and the elements to 6. Foundation loads. Drawing of all the foundation starts
be drawn in each drawing can be selected. Basically, the with the loads at the starts (by loadcase), expressed in
following drawings can be drawn: general axes. Columns and shear walls are included.
7. Reinforced concrete and load bearing wall eleva-
1. Layout plan. Draws and dimensions all the elements
tions. Elevation of each wall span, with a reinforcement
per floor and in reference to the layout axes. Includes,
table for each span and floor, including an approximate
as an option, the surfaces and volumes of slabs, as
takeoff.
well as the reinforcement areas in the information block.
8. Load distribution. Special applied loads are drawn by
2. Floor plans. Geometry of all the elements on the floor:
loadcase for each group.
beams, columns, shear walls, walls, joist floor slabs (in-
dicating positive moments and shear forces at joist 9. Corbels drawing. The geometry and reinforcement is
ends, lengths and bars of additional top reinforcement), drawn.
flat and waffle slab reinforcement, with a block detailing 10. Contour lines. The contour lines and contours are
the base reinforcement in flat slabs, and drop panels drawn for flat and waffle slabs.
and ribs of waffle slabs, punching shear reinforcement 11. 3D Structure. This is drawn if the user possesses Me-
in solid and lightweight zones. A summary block can be tal 3D and Integrated 3D structures have been created.
detailed with their corresponding takeoff and total take-
offs. Drawings of the foundation elements can also be
obtained.
3. Beam drawings. Drawing of the beam alignments, in-
1.12. Design and check of elements
cluding their name, scales, dimension, reinforcement The parabola-rectangle and rectangular diagram methods
number, diameters, lengths and spacing, as well as are used for the design of reinforced concrete sections at
their position, stirrup type, diameter and spacing. The ultimate limit state, together with stress-deformation dia-
detailing can be displayed in a summary block together grams of the concrete and for each type of steel, in accor-
with the total takeoff. dance with the current code (see Code implementation
4. Column and baseplate schedule. Diagram of the chapter).
column sections, indicating their references, position,
The limits required for both geometric and mechanical,
stirrups, type, diameter, lengths, steel sections and is
minimum and maximum steel areas indicated in the codes
grouped by equal types. A block is provided containing
are used. The required bar layout, regarding the number of
the baseplates at steel column starts, with their dimen-
steel bars to provide, minimum diameter and minimum and
sions, anchorage bolts and geometry. They can be
maximum spacing between bars, is also taken into ac-
drawn or selected by floor, as well as including a sum-
count. These limits can be consulted and modified on
mary of their takeoff.
screen in Options. Other parameters are saved in internal
5. Detailing of columns. Drawing providing details on files.
the columns and shear walls, including an elevation of
the lengths and a block with the lengths of all the bars.
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56 CYPECAD
1.12.1. Horizontal and inclined panel beams The second and third types may be of a smaller length, but
are always symmetrical, complying with minimum percent-
1.12.1.1. Longitudinal reinforcement due to bending age lengths (d and e in the figure) of the span specified in
The reinforcement is determined by carrying out a simple Options.
bending calculation at, at least, 14 points of each beam
span, limited by the elements with which it contacts, be it
joists, flat or waffle slabs. At each point, and based on the
bending moment envelopes, the required top and bottom
reinforcement (tension and compression reinforcement de-
pending on the sign of the moments) is determined. This
reinforcement is checked with the minimum geometric and
mechanical values provided in the code, adopting the
largest value. It is determined for seismic and non-seismic
envelopes and the largest steel area obtain for both is Fig. 1.25
placed.
NOTE: The first type always passes beyond the support by 10

Bottom reinforcement diameters measured from the face of the support.
Once the required design area is known for all the calculat-
ed points, the reinforcement sequence immediately after
When a reinforcement combination cannot be found within
the required area is located in the bottom reinforcement
the reinforcements table that covers the required steel area
table. The reinforcement tables are defined for the speci-
for the dimensions of the beam, φ25 will be provided. The
fied width and depth.
program will indicate: Bottom reinforcement outside table.
The total reinforcement in the reinforcement tables is divid-
ed into 3 types. Each one may have a different diameter.
The first type consists of the reinforcement spanning be- Top reinforcement
tween supports but goes beyond them and anchored in a
constructive manner. In other words, the support axis pass- There are two types of top reinforcement:
es up to the opposite face by at least 3 centimetres, except Top reinforcement (in normal beams, bottom in foun-
if (because the bottom reinforcement is close to or reaches dation beams). Once the required design area is known
the support or because compression reinforcement is re- for the calculated points, the reinforcement sequence im-
quired at the supports) it is necessary to anchor the re- mediately proceeding the necessary reinforcement in the
duced anchorage length as of the axis. The default rein- top reinforcement table is placed. Reinforcement with up to
forcement tables provide this first type of reinforcement three different cut off lengths can be placed; in Beam rein-
whose steel are is always greater than a third or a quarter forcement options, a minimum span % can be defined for
of the total reinforcement in the default reinforcement ta- each group. The reinforcement tables are defined for the
bles of the program. If the tables are modified, the user widths and depths specified in the table. The total rein-
must ensure this proportion is maintained.
CYPE
forcement is divided into three types. Each type can be of a Other longitudinal reinforcement considerations
different diameter.
Within the support zone of the column, a linear variation of
Assembly reinforcement: Continuous or stirrup-hold- the depth of the beam will be considered (1/3), which leads
er. Continuous assembly reinforcement is used when the to a reduction of the required reinforcement. This will be the
steel of beams spanning from one support to the next is greatest obtained between the faces of the edges of the
constructed in the workshop, including the top reinforce- support, where the most usual case will consist of it being
ment and stirrups, and having to place the additional top close to or at the edge of the support.
reinforcement (or bottom in the case of foundation beams)
at the supports on site. The user can choose whether or
not to consider the assembly reinforcement as collaborat-
ing in regards to top reinforcement. When top compression
reinforcement is required, it always collaborates. The an-
chorage of this assembly reinforcement is optional, with a
hook or straight, as of its end or the axis, and is displayed
clearly in the options dialogue box.
Fig. 1.26
• For T sections, additional reinforcement is place to hold
the ends of the stirrups at the top of the T.
Regarding shear walls and walls, depending on the width of
• The assembly stirrup holder reinforcement is used for
the side to which the beam reaches, a length or design
in-situ assembly, by placing it between the ends of the
span equal to the smaller of the following two values is cal-
top reinforcement, using small diameter bars and a
culated:
construction splice with the reinforcement. This is re-
quired so there is reinforcement holding the stirrups. It • The distance between shear wall axes (or mid-point of
may also be used in seismic zones where the splices of the axis of the cut beam)
the nodes are to be placed further away. It is conven- • The free span (between faces) plus two times the depth
ient it be selected and choose what is usually used.
With this criteria, the envelopes within the shear wall are ob-
When one which does not fail cannot be found in the rein- tained and the cut-off length of the reinforcement, which do
forcement tables, the required number of 25mm diameter not exceed the design span by a value of two depths, is al-
bars will be placed. The program will emit the message: so obtained.
‘outside table’ be it for assembly reinforcement or regular
reinforcement. If skin reinforcement is required, due to the depth of the
beam, which is defined in Options, it will be placed in the
When the top reinforcement lengths at either side of a span lateral faces with the defined diameter and minimum sepa-
are joined (consult Options) automatically, it becomes col- ration, in accordance with the code and that indicated in
laborating assembly reinforcement. the options.
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58 CYPECAD
Longitudinal reinforcement due to torsion an option exists where the reinforcement is anchored and
overlapped outside the confined zone next to the supports.
Once the longitudinal reinforcement due to bending is
known, the required reinforcement due to torsion is calcu-
lated in accordance with the code, for each section. If the
Transverse reinforcement (Stirrups)
real reinforcement, placed at the corners, is able to absorb
this increment with respect to that required due to bending, When designing for shear forces, a check for oblique com-
it will be sufficient. Otherwise, the longitudinal reinforce- pression is carried out at the edge of the direct support.
ment will have to be increased and add reinforcement in The stirrups are designed as of the aforementioned edge
the lateral faces, as if it consisted of skin reinforcement. or, optionally, at a distance equivalent to a percentage of
the effective depth from the edge of the support (Fig. 1.27).
The check for oblique compression due to torsion and
Minimum diameters and separations can be selected for
shear is carried out at a distance of the effective depth from
the stirrups, or shear reinforcement, depending on the di-
the edge of the support in accordance with the formulae of
mensions of the beam. Their layout can also be defined;
each code.
whether they be laid out symmetrically and whether differ-
ent calibres be used depending on their position along the
Longitudinal reinforcement cut-off beam. Simple (section perimeter), double, triple and verti-
cal legs can be defined. Stirrups and legs can also be used
Once the envelope of required top and bottom reinforce-
jointly, up to two or three in the same section.
ment area is known, an equivalent envelope is established
whereby each point on the envelope has been displaced a There are tables which can be defined by the user in which
distance equal to the effective depth plus the reduced net stirrups and legs can be used, as mentioned.
length (= anchorage length · required/real area) depending
on its position (II = bad adherence, I = good adherence).
Hence, a maximum length is established in its zone for
each of the reinforcement groups in the unfavourable or
decreasing force direction. These lengths are adjusted to
defined minimum values which correspond to a percent-
age of the span and multiples of 5 cm. The reinforcement is
anchored at the ends by means of hooks, calculating the
necessary vertical leg, and providing a minimum if it is indi-
cated in the options. At intermediate supports, the bottom Fig. 1.27
reinforcement is anchored at either side of the support as
of its axis, as well as of a distance equal to ten diameters The minimum stirrups are established in accordance with
measured from the face of the support (Fig. 1.25). the selected code, the section of the beam and the rein-
forcement table, checking the length it can cover of the
When the maximum lengths of the bars are exceeded, the
shear force envelope in its central zone.
bars are cut and overlapped by a value equal to double
the anchorage length. When earthquake loads are present,
CYPE
At lateral zones, to the left and right, the required stirrups It is checked that the spacing of the stirrups corresponds to
up to the supports are established and are placed at their that specified in the code when the longitudinal reinforce-
required length plus half an effective depth. It is checked ment is in compression, which affects the diameter and the
that these lengths are greater than the minimum indicated maximum separation, depending on the longitudinal rein-
lengths in the Options. forcement in compression.
Finally, if torsion is present, the required transverse rein-

forcement due to torsion is calculated, whereby the mini-
mum values are those stated in the corresponding code The starts of columns without external fixity, i.e. columns start-
ing on a beam, should be checked. It is recommended the fixi-
(minimum spacing, closed stirrups). This is added to that ty coefficient be reduced as much as possible at the base of
obtained for shear, resulting in a stirrup layout whose diam- the column in its first span, to avoid large diameters which re-
eters, spacing and layout length covers the sum of both ef- sult in large anchorage lengths at the starts.
fects. For this last case, a joint check (oblique compression) When short spans of beams of great depth are present, the
of the tangential shear and torsion stresses is carried out. case may arise whereby the span is less than twice the depth,
in which case, a manual check and design of the span where
this occurs should be carried out.
Columns starting on beams. Loads close to supports. Beams
of great depth and width. In the special case of columns start- It may also occur that the width is greater than twice its span. In
ing on beams (without external fixity), the vertical stirrups are this case, this wide beam is not really a beam or flat two-dimen-
designed using the value of the shear between the edge and sional element or slab, whereby it is recommended the discreti-
the support of that span. It is important to remember that, in the sation be checked and it be introduced as a slab instead of a
special case of columns starting on beams or point loads close beam, as the design criteria are different.
to supports, i.e. at a distance less than or equal to the effective
depth, that a transmission of loads is produced by means of in- Finally, recall that in the case of flat beams, where, due to their
clined struts in compression and tension requiring horizontal width, the width of the support is exceeded by more than a dis-
reinforcement, in the same way as in the case of a corbel, tance equivalent to the depth, a manual check for punching
whose design criteria is not contemplated in the program. In shear should be carried out as well as a verification of the stir-
this case, a manual design and check should be carried out of rups at the support, reinforcing it with transverse reinforcement,
the span or spans at which this occurs, in accordance with that if necessary.
indicated in the code for these cases, as well as complement- If hanging loads applied below the neutral axis of the section
ing the beam drawings with the corresponding additional de- are present, or point loads due to beams supported by other
tails. It may also be resolved using inclined bars. beams, the required reinforcement should be added to sus-
pend these loads, as the program does not carry this out.
Check for cracking in beams
A limiting crack width can be defined optionally. The formu-

Fig. 1.28
lae used corresponds to the CEB-FIP Model Code. The
characteristic width is calculated as:
Due to the importance this type of support possess and how
fragile it is, it is fundamental that its control be extreme, in re-
gards to its design and construction on site.
CYPE
60 CYPECAD
The indicated top and bottom longitudinal reinforcement is

the maximum or envelope of all the calculated sections
along the length of the sloped beam. Reinforcement is
drawn on drawings for this type of beam and can only be
consulted on screen. The user must provide a separate de-
tailed layout of its reinforcement for its end node reinforce-
ment connections.
where:
c: cover of the reinforcement in tension
The envelope of these forces can be displayed in a job re-
s: spacing between bars. If s > 15 d, s = 15φ port if the user wishes for it to be so, as well as a descrip-
K1: 0.4 (corrugated bars) tion of the connection nodes.
K2: 0.125 (simple bending)
As: Total area of the bars within the effective area If the beam is a steel beam, the same criteria that is applied
Ac,effective: Effective area surrounding the reinforcement at for the design of steel columns is applied here.
a height of ¼ of the depth of the beam.
σs: Stress of the reinforcement
σsr: Stress of the reinforcement at fissure point 1.12.3. Steel beams
Es: Elasticity modulus of the steel
K3: 0.5 These are designed in accordance with the corresponding
code and steel type. The program proposes the optimum
section within the series. They are designed for simple ben-
This formula is generally applied, except for the NB-1 code ding, as the axial force is not considered. Lateral buckling
and Eurocode 2 which have their own specific formulas. of the bottom flange, in the case of beams placed below
the floor slab, can be optionally checked.
If the check is activated and is not verified, the bars are
made longer or the steel area is increased so it does com- The corresponding design code and deflection limits and
ply. A warning message (not an error message) is emitted are applied as design criteria. The usage coefficient is ex-
in the beams errors list. pressed as a percentage with respect to the design code
and deflection limits.
1.12.2. Sloped beams The design procedure for composite beams can be consul-
ted in chapter 8.Composite beams.
They may be made of reinforcement concrete or steel.
These elements are designed for bi-axial bending and Castellated beam are modelled as Vierendeel beams and
compression, based on the bending moment and axial are designed as rolled steel using the corresponding code.
force envelopes and in the case of the stirrups, based on
the shear force envelope. The design process consists in The ultimate limit state check reports result to be very illus-
designing the reinforcement for the two planes parallel to trative of the checks run by the program.
the sides of the beam, i.e. for both, the horizontal and verti-
cal planes.
CYPE
1.12.4. Columns, shear walls and reinforced the column can be increased and the section is automati-
concrete walls cally redesigned.
Concrete column design is carried out by means of bi-axial Please recall that if the section dimension modifications
compression. Based on the reinforcement table selected vary greatly from how they were, it is convenient the job be
for the job, the reinforcement areas are checked sequen- completely re-analysed due to the stiffness variations. The
tially. These may be arranged symmetrically at two sides, at diameters and spacing of the stirrups are designed in ac-
four sides or with a percentage difference. The program al- cordance with the default application code, with predefined
so checks whether the reinforcement provided can with- arrangements defined in the reinforcement tables. These
stand all the possible load combinations. Compatibility be- can be modified by the user as well as the spacing and di-
tween forces and deformation is established as well as ameters which depend on the longitudinal reinforcement.
checking that the admissible stresses of the concrete and There are reinforcement tables for which, depending on the
steel are not overcome or their deformation limits. vertical reinforcement, different stirrup and leg configura-
The minimum or accidental eccentricity is considered, as tions can be defined as a function of the transverse dimen-
well as any additional eccentricity due to buckling in accor- sions, whereby different tables can be selected depending
dance with what is indicated in the code. Due to the appli- on the job. If a section does not have its stirrup arrange-
cation field of the applied formulas being limited because ment defined in the table, only the perimeter stirrup will be
of the slenderness, if this is overcome, the section is insuffi- provided.
cient (even though the user may manually introduce rein- The shear check that is carried out is that due to oblique
forcement bars) resulting in the emission of a message in- compression and due to tensile failure of the web, depend-
dicating excessive slenderness. ing on the provided reinforcement. A warning message is
The limits or minimum and maximum, geometric and me- emitted if the reinforcement fails and is displayed in the col-
chanical, steel areas are defined in a hidden file within the umn next to the stirrups.
program, so that these are complied with when designing Splice lengths are calculated as anchorage lengths in posi-
the reinforcement. If the reinforcement fails and the maxi- tion 1 (good adherence), depending on the type of steel,
mum limits are overcome, this will be indicated in the report concrete and consideration of dynamic loads. A reduction
and on screen as excessive ratio SAe. can be applied to the indicated anchorage length depend-
In this case the concrete section must be increased. If rein- ing on the required and real reinforcement, without reduc-
forcement cannot be found within the table which can cope ing that which has been reduced. These lengths can be ed-
with the design forces, the program will search for rein- ited and modified.
forcement, until the bars on one side do not fit in a single It is assumed that a column works predominantly in com-
layer, in which case the message: MANUAL REINFORCE- pression, and so if any columns are working in tension (as
MENT will be displayed. The type of reinforcement within ties), the anchorage lengths must be increased manually,
the reinforcement tables should be increased and the col- and provide the appropriate complementary details.
umn redesigned. In this case only those columns which re-
quire to be redesigned can be re-analysed without having Regarding the vertical reinforcement of a column, the rein-
to re-analyse the complete job. Alternatively, the section of forcement in its last and penultimate spans is designed in
CYPE
62 CYPECAD
accordance with its forces from that point downwards, The user can choose whether or not the reinforcement is to
span by span, in such a way that the reinforcement of the be continuous or not, as well as whether the diameter of the
span below will never be smaller than that provided in he reinforcement in the corners or the number and diameter of
span above, in case the corresponding continuity bar crite- the bars at the sides is to be kept.
ria be adopted within the Options.
Finally, the section may be modified, in which case the rein-
The sections that are checked to obtain the reinforcement forcement is redesigned, as well as being able to modify
of a column at a floor are those indicated in Fig. 1.29; the the vertical reinforcement and the stirrup type.
top and bottom of the current span, and bottom of the
span above. If horizontal loads have been applied to the
columns, intermediate sections will be checked as the 1.12.4.1. Steel columns
force envelopes could increase.
If steel columns have been defined, they are designed in
When elevation changes are present, the same method is accordance with the selected code for the type of steel, be
applied for each span in which the column is divided due it rolled or welded. The previously mentioned buckling coef-
to the elevation change. ficients must be introduced by the user. If the criteria to
maintain the current section is adopted, the column must
be checked after the analysis so to ensure it does not fail in
any way.
If, on the contrary, the user allows for the program to place
the required section, the user must bear in mind that the
design forces were obtained with the initial section and that
if this varies considerably, it is recommended the job be re-
analysed, as the forces can vary substantially.
Fig. 1.29 Finally, the baseplates are designed at the start of the steel
columns. In this case, the program verifies the general and
If the reinforcement tables are modified, the stirrup arrange- local stresses of the steel, concrete, bolts, and checks for
ment must be checked. If no stirrups or reinforcement have punching shear and tearing.
been defined for the column section, complete the table pro-
viding the required stirrups and legs. Check the shear forces. If the column starts on an element, other than a foundation
The provided stirrups are checked and if these fail, a message
element, the length of the anchorage bolts and anchorage
is emitted: ‘Qe’. In this case, the following steps must be taken
until the stirrups no longer fail: conditions should be checked manually.
• Reduce the stirrup spacing. The span starts at each floor should also be checked
• Increase the diameter. whether it be at a beam or floor slab, as this is an important
• Propose other stirrup and/or leg arrangements. In this case construction detail which is not contemplated in the analysis.
the reinforcement tables must be modified and the
columns redesigned.
• In some cases, increase the vertical reinforcement.
CYPE
1.12.4.2. Shear walls and reinforced concrete walls can be consulted. It will be the user’s decision whether or
not to include this additional reinforcement, which will have
Having calculated the forces and for each combination, the
to be added manually to the edited results in the drawings.
stresses and deformations of the concrete and steel for the
reinforcement provided in the tables is checked for each It is also possible to modify the reinforcement directly and
side of reinforcement. The program runs through the table calculate the compliance factor for the new reinforcement.
in a sequential manner until it finds a reinforcement combi-
nation which does not fail for all the combinations. The pro- When a reinforcement arrangement fails, as well as the program
gram runs through a similar process in the transverse di- displaying a warning message, the text is displayed in red.
rection, calculating the additional reinforcement that must
Splices at each floor can be edited, and are calculated with
be provided if necessary. This process is repeated for each
a different length depending on whether it is tension or
of the sides of the shear wall or wall.
compression reinforcement.
The checks for minimum and maximum steel areas, maxi-
mum and minimum spacing, dimensions of the sides (the
1.12.4.3. Masonry walls
width of one sides must be greater than five times its thick-
ness; the program emits a warning if this is not verified and The compressive stress and tensile stress (10% of the com-
the limits applicable to columns are used) are carried out in pressive) limits are checked with a compliance factor equal
accordance with the selected application code. Slender- to 80%.
ness limits for shear walls and walls are checked for each
side, and if exceeded, the program emits a warning. If it fails, a warning is emitted in the final analysis report.
Finally, the reinforcement obtained can be checked on

screen as well as any design errors that have been in- 1.12.5. Joist floor slabs
curred. If the reinforcement and/or thickness is varied, a
Joist floor slab analysis is carried out in an individualised
check is carried out. The program will emit any errors that
manner for each joist for simple bending. The maximum
arise. If the cross section is varied, the program can re-
value for the maximum positive bending moment, dis-
design the wall and hence obtain new reinforcement and
played in kNm per metre width and with the corresponding
undertake a new check.
applied safety factor is provided. The bending moments
Within the Wall edition dialogue box, a value is displayed can be matched for panels to the maximum or minimum
indicating the Compliance factor of the wall. The default values or mean values as a function of the percentage dif-
value is set at 90%. If a smaller value is displayed (for ex- ference between adjacent joists, hence obtaining more uni-
ample 80%) and is redesigned, less reinforcement is ob- form results.
tained and red dots appear on the wall elevation. These
red dots represent the 20% of the total surface of the wall The values of the moments can be displayed by type, ex-
which fails with that reinforcement. pressed as a name, if the resisted moment values for each
type have been indicated for that type of floor slab. If the
By clicking on the Show additional reinforcement but- values of the indicated table are exceeded, INSUF is dis-
ton, the additional reinforcement required at each red dot played. In this case the table should be modified to include
a broader range of values.
CYPE
64 CYPECAD
Negative moments are calculated for simple bending. The 1.12.7. Hollow core slabs
top reinforcement provided is obtained from the correspon-
The analysis process has been explained in the Data entry
ding reinforcement table. Its length complies with the mini-
section of this manual.
mum length specified within the Options, as well as the
minimum required area. This top reinforcement can be 1.12.8. Flat slabs
modified and matched as a function of the percentage dif-
ference in length. 1.12.8.1. Base reinforcement
When compression reinforcement is required in the nega- Top and bottom, longitudinal and transverse base rein-
tive moment area, forms will be removed up to the point forcement may be optionally defined. These may be differ-
where it is no longer required. This will be indicated on the ent and can be defined and modified in a reinforcement
floor by means of an infill line of the joists. table. This reinforcement always collaborates with the addi-
tional reinforcement as long as it has been defined. It may
The ultimate moment and shear envelopes (with the ap- be increased, if having concluded the analysis the user ob-
plied safety factors) can be consulted on screen. At joist serves more reinforcement due to bending is required, due
ends, even if the negative moment is null, reinforcement is to the reinforcement being in compression or because of
provided, designed for a moment equal to the maximum minimum steel area requirements specified in the Options.
positive moment of the span (see Options).
The user can choose whether or not to show the base rein-
Minimum positive and negative moments can be defined
forcement in the drawings. This is an important option as it
for the whole job or one specific panel.
has repercussions in the way in which the reinforcement is
As the value of the positive moments is consulted, the displayed as well as how it is measured for the takeoff re-
check of whether compression reinforcement is required in ports. If the base reinforcement is shown, it will be dis-
the span is not carried out. Finally, the user is reminded played with the additional reinforcement, cutting off and
that the expressed shear value at the ends of the joists is overlapping where necessary as if it were one more rein-
the ultimate shear force i.e. has the applied safety factors forcing element. Its takeoff and cut-off lengths can be ob-
and per metre width. tained. If the base reinforcement is not shown, it will not be
drawn or measured; only its diameter and spacing will be
Regarding the deflection, this is checked in accordance indicated. Therefore, in this case, it should be complement-
with the code depending on whether it is a prestressed or ed with the opportune details, for floor layout drawings and
reinforced beam. in the takeoff schedule.
More information can be found in chapter 6. Joist floor
slabs of this Calculations manual. 1.12.8.2. Additional longitudinal reinforcement
The bending moments in the two directions and the torsion-
1.12.6. Composite slabs al moment are known for each node of the mesh. Generally,
the main directions of the slab do not coincide with the rein-
Please consult chapter 9. Composite slabs of this Calcu-
forcement directions. By applying the Wood method, inter-
lations manual.
nationally known and which considers the effect of torsion
to obtain the reinforcement moment in each specified di-
CYPE
rection, a transverse distribution is carried out at each node 1.12.8.4. Transverse reinforcement
with its adjacent nodes to the left and to the right, in a me-
tre wide strip. The forces of the node plus those of the dis- Punching shear
tribution are obtained at each node, and it is with these
forces that the required top and bottom reinforcement ar- The punching shear is checked, in accordance with the
eas are obtained in each direction. These reinforcement ar- code, at all surfaces parallel to support edges, such as
eas are specified per metre width which are then divided by columns, shear walls, walls, beams and external fixity sup-
the distance between the nodes or the size of the mesh, to ports, within a distance of half the effective depth of the
obtain a homogenous value at all the nodes. slab (0.5d). It must not be forgotten that the punching shear
check is a check of the tangential stresses. This is what the
It is checked that the minimum required steel areas are program carries out, and hence obtains the value of the
complied with in each direction and per metre width, and tangential stresses based on the shear forces of the closest
then the additional longitudinal reinforcement is calculated nodes, and linearly interpolating at the points of the punch-
in accordance with the defined reinforcement tables. The ing shear perimeter.
cut-off point of the bars is carried out by increasing this
length by the net reduced anchorage length, depending on This approach is correct, looking at it from a theoretical
its position (I or II) and the shifting of the envelope depend- point of view: a check of the tangential stresses, generally
ing on its effective depth and in accordance with the code. resolves the problem. This does not coincide with the for-
mulae provided by some codes which tend to apply formu-
Compliance of the maximum diameters and spacing is car- lae which depend on the acting axial force and moment,
ried out by means of the reinforcement table, in which the with simplified formulae which only resolve specific cases.
diameters and spacing values are specified for varying
depths. The program offers the option on whether to con- If failure occurs due to the punching shear, a red line will
sider torsion, however it is recommended it always be con- appear indicating the maximum punching shear stress has
sidered. been overcome. In this case, the depth or concrete resist-
ance should be increased.
1.12.8.3. Pre-established reinforcement If the limiting stress without transverse reinforcement is ex-
ceeded, additional transverse reinforcement must be pro-
This reinforcement corresponds to the reinforcement, be it vided. The program indicates the number of reinforcement
top or bottom reinforcement or in any direction, with any di- bars, with their corresponding diameter, which are to be
ameter or length which has been pre-established by the provided at the required intervals, which depend on the
user. This reinforcement will be deducted, in its influence number of bars placed in a specific length.
zone, from the additional reinforcement that is to be
placed. This is useful in zones where the forces are already The user should, in this case, place the bars vertically in
known, such as the top zone of supports, allowing for the the most convenient structural arrangement for the job (Fig
rest of the reinforcement to be more uniform. 1.30), in such a way that their spacing does not exceed
0.75 times the effective depth or the equivalent section, and
Mat foundations are treated in exactly the same way as placed between the top and bottom reinforcement.
normal flat slabs in regards to their reinforcement design.
CYPE
66 CYPECAD
zone. An option exists for the automatic matching of the

top reinforcement over columns in the areas adjacent to the
indicated columns.
Flexure lines can be defined, which should be used before

Fig. 1.30 the analysis and introduced in the directions of the sup-
ports.
In areas where beams are present, be they flat or dropped
These lines are taken as being maximum negative moment
beams, the tangential forces will be resisted by the stirrups
points, and therefore the ideal place for bottom reinforce-
of the beam. Therefore, the tangential stresses are only cal-
ment overlaps, if required. The additional top reinforcement
culated for the slab and for surfaces parallel to the sides of
lengths are calculated in accordance with minimum per-
the beams.
centage values of the distance between the lines (span)
and overlapping the bottom reinforcement, if possible at
these lines.
Shear
Finally, the diameter and separation of the additional rein-
A shear check is carried out on all the surface of the slab for forcement can always be modified by the user (up to
the same section used for the punching shear check (0.5d) his/her criteria) and also modify and place the top and bot-
and for parallel surfaces at a distance of 0.75d, until all the tom anchorage hooks.
radiated surfaces are found as of the edges of the support.
If reinforcement is required, the number and diameter of the
reinforcement to be provided is displayed in the same way Reinforcement anchorage at beams or supports
as is done for the punching shear reinforcement.
The anchorage lengths are measured as of the edge of the
Similarly, if the check fails, a red line will appear indicating support adjacent to the slab. Check the lengths when the
the maximum punching shear stress has been exceeded. edges are wide, as they may possibly not completely cross
In this case, the depth of the slab or the size of the support the beam and remain partially anchored. This is important,
or the resistance of the concrete should be increased. and the reinforcement must be extended when wide beams
are used.
Mat foundations are treated in exactly the same way as
normal flat slabs in regards to their reinforcement design. Mat foundations are treated in exactly the same way as nor-
mal flat slabs in regards to their reinforcement design.
An option is available whereby in the case of rectangular
Reinforcement matching flat slabs, supported by beams, the program provides uni-
formly distributed mean reinforcement in both directions.
Lines or rectangles may be defined in any direction, for the
top or bottom reinforcement, before or after the analysis
which allow for the reinforcement to be matched to the
maximum reinforcement (in steel area and length) in that
CYPE
1.12.9. Waffle slabs 1.12.9.2. Additional longitudinal reinforcement

The criteria used for the design of waffle slabs is the same as The same criteria is applied as in the case of flat slabs, on-
that used for flat slab design, with the following exceptions. ly the reinforcement is concentrated in the ribs. The en-
velopes of the adjacent elements must previously be
grouped for the concentrated calculation of the reinforce-
1.12.9.1. Base reinforcement ment at the position of the rib.
The user can choose whether or not to define a base rein-
forcement, with the further option of providing a different
1.12.9.3. Transverse reinforcement
base reinforcement for lightweight and drop panel zones.
An identical analysis to that of flat slabs for punching shear
Drop panel base reinforcement is undertaken for drop panel zones.
The program automatically places a default reinforcement For the ribs of the lightweight zone, a shear check is carried
mesh composed of 2 bars, in accordance with the tables, out every 0.75d. If additional reinforcement is required, ver-
which is extended between the two edges of the drop pan- tical bars with the required diameter and spacing are
el and distributed between the axes of the ribs. This rein- placed, which are then drawn on the drawings and are visi-
forcement always collaborates if it is considered. ble on screen.
This reinforcement is not measured or drawn in the current

CYPECAD version. Therefore, the user must provide a de- Please recall that local additional reinforcement is provided for
tail indicating the base reinforcement that is to be provided punching shear, which should be checked and modified where
appropriate to provide more uniform results with the aim to fa-
to complement the information indicated in the drawings.
cilitate work on site. It is recommended the construction details
of the CYPE library be consulted.
Rib base reinforcement
The default setting of the program is set so it does not au-

tomatically provide this reinforcement. Therefore, it must be 1.12.9.4. Reinforcement matching
chosen and established for each direction. Reinforcement The reinforcement may be matched in the same way as flat
tables are available so it may be defined, as well as how it slab reinforcement, concentrating the reinforcement in the
can be combined with additional reinforcement bars to be designated ribs.
placed at the ribs. Within the Options section of the pro-
gram, the user is to indicate if it is to be displayed, drawn
and/or measured. Otherwise, a general label will be pro- 1.13. Beam deflections
vided but will not be measured or drawn.
The following deflection limits may be optionally defined:
• Instantaneous deflection:
Self weight
CYPE
68 CYPECAD
Live load The first deflection that is obtained, the active deflection, is
Total the instantaneous deflection plus the differed deflection
• Total long term deflection due to the permanent loads and the variable loads (after
• Active deflection building the partitions). The coefficients that depend on the
construction process to be used (or factors of the instanta-
neous deflection) to calculate the beam deflections may be
The relative L/xxx or L/xxx + xx cm; or the absolute deflec-
consulted in the general options section of the program, as
tion in centimetres can be limited for each of these deflec-
well as the default values.
tions.
Each code can establish different limits, and the user can
fix these values to what he/she deems appropriate for each The deflection is calculated using the indicated method due
analysis. to the permanent loads (fg) and the variable loads (fq). The
total active deflection will be:
The most usual is the active and long term deflection.
To establish the active deflection and total long term de-

flection, the coefficients to apply, depending on the respec-
Where:
tive construction process, have been indicated in the op-
αg: Permanent load coefficient
tions, for permanent loads and live loads. These multiply αq: Variable load coefficient
the instantaneous deflections to obtain the differed deflec-
tions.
These values may be varied as a percentages of the loads
The total deflection is the sum of the instantaneous deflec- defined as permanent and variable loads within the Beam
tions plus the differed deflections for each case. options, as well as the coefficients used to define its in-
stantaneous or differed effect.
The maximum active and total deflections are established
The total long term deflection is equal to the active deflec-
for beams using the double integration method. Upon
tion plus that which occurs until the damaging element is
analysing a series of points, the gross, homogenised, fis-
built (usually a partition).
sured, inertia is found and the rotation for each loadcase,
obtained from the curvature variation diagram. It is recommended the respective code and project control
companies be consulted so these coefficients may be de-
The program calculates the forces and displacements for fined correctly as there are many factors such as the con-
each loadcase, based on the secant longitudinal elasticity struction process to be carried out, the level of humidity,
module of the concrete. If this module is to be reduced due the curing of the concrete, period of formwork removal, age
to environmental factors, the curing process, etc., it must at which the element becomes completely load bearing, af-
be modified by the user by changing the corresponding fect the value of the deflection. Therefore the values indicat-
construction process option coefficients to be applied to ed in the program are for guidance purposes and can be
the instantaneous and differed deflections. used for usual favourable construction conditions.
CYPE
1.14. Slab deflections If the column displacements are very small, the deflection
can be taken as being the sum of the displacements due to
1.14.1. One-way spanning slabs gravitational loads (dead loads + live loads) multiplied by a
The same principles can be applied to joist floor slabs and value between 1.5 and 4, depending on the construction
hollow core slabs as to beams even though their options process and type of deflection to establish. This way, ap-
can be accessed independently within the floor slab op- proximate values can be obtained for when designing a
tions. The stiffnesses considered for precast elements are building.
obtained from their properties sheet. For the remaining Once the absolute deflection has been found, the relative
cases, the equivalent inertias are calculated. deflection (L/xxx) can be determined, bearing in mind the
supports of the zones adjacent to the point with maximum
absolute deflection and taking the smallest span amongst
1.14.2. Composite slabs all those possible.
Please consult chapter 9. Composite slabs of this Calcula-
tions manual as well as that indicated in the previous point. 1.14.4. Deflection between 2 points
1.14.4.1. Introduction
1.14.3. Flat and waffle slabs
Upon marking an initial and final point on the plan view of a
The deflection values for each simple loadcase (those that flat or waffle slab, a continuous yellow line appears joining
have been defined in the job: permanent or self weight; the two points displaying the vertical displacements of all
variable, which include live loads; wind and seismic loads) the points creating an approximately sinuous curve below
are obtained for all the floors at any node of the mesh. The the line. The blue curve displays the deformed shape of the
maximum displacement for each loadcase can be ob- slab, for a simple loadcase, combination or worst case
tained for each slab. combination (G+Q) with amplified displacements.
It is left to the user’s judgement to estimate the active de-

flection, using the creep coefficients he/she deems ade-
quate, and based on a manual calculation of the known in-
stantaneous deflections, deduced from the vertical dis-
placements for each loadcase provided by the program.
Please recall that the vertical displacements of a flat slab

are absolute values, i.e. a node next to a column or support
is consulted, it will also have an associated displacement
(in the z-axis). To then establish the deflection between
supports, the displacements of the supports are to be sub-
tracted, as the deflection is a descent relative to the end
supports, or inflexion points in a given deflection direction.
This effect is greater for higher floors because of the elastic
Fig. 1.31
shortening of the concrete columns.
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70 CYPECAD
When the floor layout of the supports is visible on screen

and the two points to calculate the deflection are marked,
the user can observe that convex distributions are present
in the support zones whereas at span centres concave
distributions are visible.
Let us study what occurs in the case of displacements in

the Z direction (vertical) corresponding to the combina-
tion G+Q of the permanent load G loadcase (which
usually represents the greatest percentage) and live load
Q loadcase to observe where the maximum values are
produced. At a first glance, looking at the displacement
contour lines, the maximum values coincide with the
areas with greatest concave distributions.
In the case of a two-way spanning slab, we do not know

beforehand whether the area with greatest concave distri- Fig. 1.32
bution corresponds to that of themaximum absolute deflec-
tion. It is logical to think it should be, as the descent of the
It is recommended it generally be done in this manner.
supports is generally small, and we should concentrate on
those areas where these maximum values can be seen. To find the edges of the concave distribution perimeters, it
There is also the uncertainty as to in which direction (X, Y, may be useful to previously select points which lie further
diagonal) the points should be marked to obtain the maxi- away so to find their position.
mum relative deflection. However, one could say, from ob-
serving the layout of a floor, that it should be in the direction Let us carry out a few simple examples so to clarify what
of the smallest distance between two points of the concave has been explained. The data is as follows::
distribution perimeter.
• Mean span = 6.50 m
• External span
• Approximate moment distribution:
Negative moment internal support
Positive moment for span
Negative moment external support
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• Partitions = 1 kN/m2 built after 60 days (2 months) The values displayed are:
- Screed = 1 kN/m2 laid after 120 days (4 months) • Span L
- Live load = 2 kN/m2 • Absolute deflection
- Materials = HA-25 (fck=25 MPa) y B500
• Relative deflection with respect to: L (secant); 2L (tan-
(fyk=500 MPa), mean temperature and humidity
gent)
conditions during building process and use.
• Worst case combination G+Q obtained from the selec-
ted “Displacements” combinations in the general data
1.14.4.2. 1st case: Flat slab section of the job. Only gravitational loadcases G and Q
are considered (activated by default). It may also be se-
Let us estimate a depth of 26 cm, whose slenderness is lected by loadcase or combination loadcase.
L/h = 650/26 = 25. Its deflection has to be checked. Ac-
cording to table 50.2.2.1.a of the Spanish EHE-08 code, A “Displacement amplification factor” = 2.50 (default va-
the value for the slenderness is 23 (for weakly reinforced lue) is displayed. This does exactly as it says; multiplies the
elements) and so its verification must be justified. displacements due to that loadcase by that value and dis-
plays the result. This amplification factor should be incorpo-
Let us carry out an approximate analysis on a metre wide rated and all the parameters relative to the following be ta-
section, with the aforementioned properties and to obtain ken into account:
the forces acting on it. Even though the support distribution
is that of a flat slab with isolated supports, we shall assume • Period of formwork removal
there are uniform supports so to simplify the analysis. • Construction process
• Thermal phenomenon
The gross inertia of the section of the flat slab is ,
• Rheological phenomenon (creep, retraction)
therefore in our case.
The stiffness of the model can be calculated using this va- Once the instantaneous elastic deflection is known, the to-
lue and the instantaneous elastic displacements for each tal deflection or active deflection (after the damageable ele-
selected loadcase and combination are obtained. ments have been built, for example partitions or rigid pa-
ving without joints) can be found, by estimating the afore-
To establish the deflection between two points based on
mentioned parameters. By placing the adequate value, the
the displacements, the displacements of the initial and final
deflection sought will be obtained and so can be compared
points must be deducted.
with the limits stated in the code.
The graph shows a line which passes through those two
Assuming a usual construction process, with the corres-
points (secant) or a line at a tangent to the initial point (tan-
ponding building loads:
gential), depending on the section carried out. The deflec-
tion is measured with respect to that line. • Self weight of the slab (h=26 cm) = 6.5 kN/m2 unprop-
ped after 28 days (1 month)
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72
Using the laws applicable to an external span (as if virtual

frames were to be applied), the bending moment diagram
and the required reinforcement per metre width can be
found.
Hence an providing an approximate area,

An added safety factor is applied by considering the serv-
ice moments due to the total load:
Fig. 1.33
To determine the cracked inertia Icrack and Branson’s equiv-
Now to calculate the cracking moment: alent inertia Ie :
where:
Ie: equivalent inertia
Where fct,m,fl: mean tensile bending resistance of the con- Mcrack: cracking moment
crete Ma: moment acting on the section
fct,m: mean tensile resistance of the concrete Ig: gross inertia
Icrack: cracked inertia
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This shall be carried out on the 3 sections to be studied:
ξ: coefficient which depends on the time or duration

of the load
ρ: mean area of reinforcement in compression
Fig. 1.34
If a top and bottom mesh is provided which will cover, for
And the mean equivalent inertia of the span will be deter- example 1‰ (ρ = 0.001), ξ will take the following values:
mined:
t ξ
∞ ≥ 5 years 2.0
1 year 1.4
Where:
6 months 1.2
1 month 0.7
2 weeks 0.5
Let us now look at the construction process and the deflec-

tions that are produced.
To be on the safe side and by reducing the equivalent iner-
tia to I e ≈ 0.66·I g , a correction coefficient due to the First of all, assume the total deflection:
cracking of the sections is to be applied to the elastic de-
flection provided by the program. This coefficient Ke, has a Permanent Value t
ξ
value of: load kN/m2 days
ξ = ξ (∞) - ξ
Self weight 6.5 28 2-0.7 = 1.3
(t)
If the method described in the Spanish EHE-08 code (simi- Partitions 1.0 60 2-0.8 = 1.2 t: when load
lar to ACI-08), where the differed deflection is assumed to begins to act
be proportional to the instantaneous deflection by a factor Screed 1.0 120 2-1 = 1
λ whose value is:
Live loads 1.0 365 2-1.4 = 0.6
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74 CYPECAD
With the assumed live load, only the quasi-permanent part Similarly, to determine the active deflection, in this case,
produces differed deflection (for dwellings Ψ2=0.3). By ap- that which arises after the damageable element has been
plying it to the total: built, the deflection which occurs before it is built must be
subtracted. In this example, the instantaneous deflection
due to the self weight of the slab and the differed deflection
since removing the props until the partitions were built after
60 days have to be removed. Hence, ξs.weight = (2-0.8) =
1.2 and so:
Now,
To obtain the instantaneous deflection corrected by the re-

duction of the inertia due to cracking, the value of the ins-
tantaneous deflection δi is multiplied by Ke:
Therefore the differed deflection will be δdif = 0.93 δinst

On the other hand, for the total differed deflection a coeffi-
cient of λ = 1.00 has been obtained, hence Regarding the instantaneous deflection to be considered,
the corresponding part due to the self weight must be re-
moved. Hence by the proportion of the loads without the
self weight to the total loads:
and the total deflection is:
Therefore:
This value of 3.00 is precisely that coefficient which is pre-
sented as “Displacement amplification factor” (whose de-
fault value is set at 2.5)
CYPECAD’s user’s manual mentions that this value can lie

between 2.5 and 3.0, depending on the construction pro-
cess.
This would be the value to introduce in the “Displacement
For this example the value obtained has been 3.00, amount amplification factor” box to obtain the active deflection.
which is to be introduced in the dialogue box to consult the
total deflection and view the selected results between two Obviously, it can be seen that for the foreseen loads and
points. construction periods, by rounding off to whole values, a flat
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slab has an active deflection of approximately 2.0 times the In the CYPECAD model, the inertia applied to all the mesh
instantaneous elastic deflection established using the of a panel of any waffle slab, be it in the lightweight or solid
gross section and a total deflection of approximately 3.0 zone, is the same and is taken as half of that of the solid
times that instantaneous deflection. zone, which in this case is:
1.14.4.3. 2nd case: Waffle slab with lost forms

A similar estimate will now be undertaken for a waffle slab and it is with this inertia that the elastic displacements for
introduced in CYPECAD. each loadcase are found.
The lost form waffle slab for this example will have the follo- The next step would be to verify whether the sections crack
wing geometry: or not due to the forces acting on it and establish the equi-
valent inertia.
For the solid zone and taking a width = 0.82 m, the

cracking moment is:
and for the lightweight zone:

Fig. 1.35
Having found the centre of gravity of the section, the inertia

of the gross section with respect to this centre of gravity
Let us estimate the moments acting on the structure:
can be calculated:
Slab self weight: 4.6 kN/m2 (*)
Partitions: 1.0 kN/m2

By repeating the same process with the drop panel zone, it
Screed: 1.0 kN/m2
can be seen that it resembles a flat slab with a depth of 30
cm and a width of 82 cm: Live load: 2.0 kN/m2
8.6 kN/m2
(*) The lightweight zone has been considered, as the solid

The mean inertia of the section along its span could be es- zone has little influence on the acting moments.
timated to be:
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76 CYPECAD
The moments for hypothetically supported rib would be: By taking the average:
As the inertia considered in the analysis
no correction will be applied, however for greater safety the

equivalent inertia
will be taken and so amplifying by .
Regarding , we will assume (to be on the safe

side) that ρ = 0, hence λ = ξ, with and the same construc-
It can be seen that there is very little cracking in the nega- tion process and durations will be present. Therefore:
tive moment zones, however there is in the positive mo-
ment zone of the span.
The equivalent inertia of the span can be estimated as:
It can be said that the differed deflection is approximately

equal to the instantaneous deflection (δdif ≈ δinst = 1.25 δi);
and the total deflection is:
As δinst = 1.25 δi
Now to obtain the differed deflection after the partitions
For the right support, it shall be taken equal to the gross have been built:
section:
and for the left support:
and the instantaneous deflection must be left without the

self weight of the slab:
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SUMMARY TABLE
hence the active deflection will be:

Guarantee Deflection Amplification SLAB COMBINATION
2.00 FLAT SLAB

INTEGRITY: ACTIVE
1.75 WAFFLE SLAB
It can be said that the total long-term deflection for a waffle DL + LL
Worst case
slab must be obtained with a displacement amplification TOTAL LONG 3.00 FLAT SLAB
APPEARANCE:
factor of the order of 2.5 times the instantaneous elastic TERM 2.50 WAFFLE SLAB
deflection of the program, and for the active deflection, the
user would have to multiply the instantaneous elastic de- LIVE LOAD INS- 1.50 FLAT SLAB
CONFORT: Loadcase LL
flection by 1.75. TANTANEOUS 1.25 WAFFLE SLAB
It must be taken into account that the indicated coefficients

are those applied to usual building cases such as those
mentioned regarding, span lengths, depths, loads,
construction procedure, normal environment conditions,
unpropping periods, and entering into force of the loads in
1.14.5. Foundation elements
time.
Please consult the chapter corresponding to foundation
If these conditions are varied, then logically the pertinent pads, pile caps, strap and tie beams.
correction coefficients have to be applied.
If the deflection to be verified is that for comfort, it will be

sufficient if the deflection due to the live loads in loadcase
LL are analysed.
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78 CYPECAD
2. Mat foundations and foundation beams
2.1. Discretisation An edometric modulus Eo, is provided, established in the

laboratory, and if the width of the beam, mat foundation or
The discretisation carried out for mat foundations and foun- load test plate is known, the subgrade modulus K can be
dation beams is the same as for slabs: found, assuming the compressible layer of the soil is infinite
Mat foundations. Bar element mesh with a size of 0.25 x and homogenous:
0.25 m (mesh with springs at nodes).
Footings and foundation beams. Linear bar elements,
with nodes at intersections with other elements, divided in- Where:
to 14 spans with nodes, if no intersections are present with Eo: Edometric modulus
b: Foundation dimension
other elements. Springs are present at the nodes.
The foundations are taken as bearing on elastic soil (sub- In some cases, the subgrade modulus of a soil will be es-
grade modulus method), in accordance with the Winkler tablished by means of a load test plate of specific dimen-
model, based on a proportionality constant between forces sions.
and displacements, whose value is the subgrade modulus.
The user is reminded that this method cannot study the in-
teraction between foundation elements in close proximity. 2.2. Subgrade modulus for mat foundations
p=K·y and foundation beams
Where: The subgrade modulus is an element of data to be intro-
p: bearing pressure (kN/m2)
K: subgrade modulus (kN/m3) duced in the program. It is determined using empirical
y: vertical displacement (m) methods using a load test plate.
This hypothesis is valid when applied to homogenous soils. A soil study report is usually available for a job and it is here
It is a fact that the amount by which a small foundation set- where the exact value of the subgrade modulus should be
tles compared to a large foundation is different for the same displayed for the dimensions the mat foundation, footing or
bearing pressure transmitted to the soil and therefore foundation beam is to have.
should be applied with caution. It is also known that the be-
If the soil study has been carried out but the subgrade
haviour of granular soils is different to that of cohesive soils.
modulus value that is provided is that corresponding to a
Usually, laboratory results are obtained, which together with 30 x 30 cm load test plate (or other test plate size), and not
the soil study report and an estimate of the size of the foun- for the total size of the mat foundation, this will have to be
dation or foundation beam widths which are to be provided, adjusted. Bear in mind that:
the subgrade modulus to be applied can be established.
K1 · d1 = K2 · d2
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In other words, the subgrade modules K1 and K2 estab- The following formula can be used for footings and beams
lished with plates with diameters d1 and d2 comply with the bearing on clay soils:
previous ratio.
Therefore, in an approximate manner, it may be taken for

sandy soils that: where each variable has the same meaning as in the previ-
ous formulas.
If a soil study report is not available, the user may choose

between the following indicative subgrade modules:
Where: 5,000 kN/m3 for bad soil

K1: Subgrade modulus of the mat foundation or foundation 40,000 kN/m3 for medium soil
beam 120,000 kN/m3 for good soil
Kp: Subgrade modulus of the 30 x 30 plate
b: smaller side (width) of the foundation (in cm) taking these values as those obtained from a 30 x 30 cm
load test plate trial.
For rectangular footings, the following formula can be ap-
plied:
An example of bad soil is peat. Medium soil can be taken as
being similar to humid clay. Good soil can be understood as
natural gravel.
For clay soils:

Example: A medium soil is present composed of sandy-
clay, whose subgrade modulus is known = 40,000 kN/m3
from a load test plate trial. The mat foundation measures
2.00 m by 8.00 m. The subgrade modulus to be used in the
Where: analysis is obtained as follows:
K1: Subgrade modulus of the mat foundation or foundation
beam Sandy-clay soil is present, therefore two subgrade modulus
Kp: Subgrade modulus of the 30 x 30 plate
values will be obtained and then an average value will be
b: smaller side (width) of the mat foundation, foundation
beam or footing (in cm) found.
n: Ratio of the length to the width of the foundation element
• Sandy soil:
For mat foundations, it is recommended by Professor Ro-
dríguez Ortiz, that b be taken as the width of the mean
equivalent tributary area of the columns, which is approxi-
mately equal to 0.70L, where L is the mean quadratic span Where:
of the distances between columns in both directions of the Kp: Subgrade modulus of the 30 x 30 plate
mat foundation. b: smaller side (width) of the mat foundation (in cm)
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80 CYPECAD
Subgrade modulus
Soil types
× 104 (kN/m3)
Light peat and boggy soil 0.5 - 1.0
Heavy peat and boggy soil 1.0 - 1.5
• Clay soil:
Fine sand 1.0 - 1.5
Peat, sand and gravel layers 1.0 - 2.0
Wet clay soil 2.0 - 3.0
Where: Humid clay soil 4.0 - 5.0
Kp: Subgrade modulus of the 30 x 30 plate Dry clay soil 6.0 - 8.0
b: smaller side (width) of the mat foundation (in cm) Hard dray clay soil 10.0 -
n: Ratio of the length to the width of the mat foundation = 4 Finely layered humus with sand and few stones 8.0 - 10.0
Finely layered humus with sand and many stones 10.0 - 12.0
Fine gravel with a lot of fine sand 8.0 - 10.0
Medium gravel with fine sand 10.0 - 12.0
Logically, settling will be greater when clay soil is present Medium gravel with coarse sand 12.0 - 15.0
than in the case of sandy soil. The subgrade modulus is in-
Coarse gravel with coarse sand 15.0 - 20.0
versely proportional to the amount by which it settles.
Coarse gravel with little sand 15.0 - 20.0
In this case the proportion is not known and so a mean val- Coarse gravel with little sand, very fine layers 20.0 - 25.0
ue will be taken:
If the subgrade modulus, K and the width of the mat foun-

dation are known, the differential equation for an applied
system of loads can be solved as follows:
Below is a list providing guide values for the subgrade

modulus depending on the type of soil for a square
0.30 x 0.30 m plate:
Fig. 2.1
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the approximation due shear deformation is applied. The

obtained by differentiating the equation same occurs with foundation beams which support slabs.
Intermediate nodes are generated, and therefore, short
y(x) is the deformed shape of the element. bars. In the case of long foundation beams where φ < 0.1,
the exact formula will be applied.
Additionally,
Once the deformed shape has been obtained, the dis-
placements at the nodes are known, and so the forces for
each loadcase can be found.
By substitution:
2.3. Design options
All the design options, definable parameters, redistribution,
minimum moments, steel areas, reinforcement tables, etc.,
which can be defined for beams and slabs are also appli-
which is the general solution without shear deformation,
cable to floating foundations.
and when resolved the solution of the system is obtained.
The shear deformation factor is established:

2.4. Loads to consider
Regarding foundation beams and mat foundations, it must
be said that they form part of the complete structure and
hence interact with the rest of the structure as they too are
I: Inertia of the element
included in the global stiffness matrix of the structure.
ν: Poisson coefficient
Ashear: Shear area Therefore loads can be applied on these elements, as can
L: length of the element be done on any beam or slab of the structure.
If this factor, φ, is less than 0.1, shear deformation is not

considered and the general solution is valid, which, is also 2.5. Materials
exact. If it is greater than 0.1, an approximate solution is
obtained by decomposing the stiffness matrix into a stiff- The materials to be used: concrete and steel, are defined
ness matrix of the bar and another of the soil. separately from the rest of the materials of the job because
they are ground bearing materials.
To obtain a more approximate solution, third degree poly-
nomials are taken as shape functions to provide an approx-
imate solution of the integration, and establishing a final 2.6. Checks and combinations
stiffness matrix by combining both matrices. The limit states to check are those corresponding to the de-
sign of reinforced concrete elements (ultimate limit states),
Generally speaking, slabs are decomposed into short ele-
and to the bearing pressure, equilibrium and uplift checks
ments measuring 0.25 m in length, where φ > 0.1, and so
(serviceability limit states).
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82 CYPECAD
Uplift. When there is upward vertical displacement in a mat If columns with external fixity have been defined and hence
foundation or foundation beam, the program indicates up- their displacements are prevented or if external fixity beams
lift is present. This may occur in one or several displace- have been defined, which also have their displacement pre-
ment combinations. It may occur and it sometimes occurs vented, the user must be careful when these are used to-
in projects where strong horizontal actions are present. If gether with mat foundations and foundation beams.
this arises, the structure should be checked and have its
base stiffened, if possible, and increase the on plan size This is similar to when piles and pad footings are used, or
and/or thickness of the foundations. simply pad footings or pile caps which are designed with
supports with external fixity and coexist with mat founda-
Equilibrium. This is checked in the case of foundation tions and foundation beams in the same foundation.
beams. If, for the transverse section of the beam, the result-
ant of the stresses lies outside the width of the beam, there Example of the foundations of a small building:
is no equilibrium and an error message is emitted, included
within the beam errors. It is a message inherent to the
method, as tensile forces are not permitted along the width
of the beam.
Bearing pressures. Once the displacements of the nodes

for each combination is known, the stresses are calculated
Fig. 2.2
by multiplying by the subgrade modulus:
p=K·y
In the case of foundation beams, the bearing pressure at

the edges is calculated using the vertical displacement,
plus the product of the rotation of the section and the dis-
tance from the axis introduced to each edge. The points
and the bearing pressures of all the nodes exceeding the
allowable bearing pressure defined for the soil and those at
the edges that exceed the bearing pressure in 25 % are in-
cluded in a text file. Fig. 2.3
Observe how the columns with external fixity (pad footings)

2.7. Design of mat foundations and founda- have no vertical displacement, whilst the mat foundation and
tion beams the foundation beam do have vertical displacement, the
amount of the displacement depends on the loads acting on
As was mentioned earlier, mat foundations and foundation
them, their dimensions, the geometry of the structure and the
beams are designed as elements forming part of the com-
subgrade modulus. All this results in a deformed shape of
plete structure, and therefore, an integrated analysis of the
the structure which does not reflect what really occurs.
foundation with the structure is carried out.
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If good soil is present, with a high subgrade modulus val- Different results are obtained in each case.
ue, these differential displacements are not problematic as
these are very small. But when bad soil is present and the Having completed this procedure, reanalyse the job. An in-
number of floors is greater (and therefore more loads are tegrated analysis of the foundation with the whole structure
present), other preventive measures must be taken. is obtained for the second case. For the first case, as the tie
beam does not do anything, at least the task of represent-
First of all, the dimensions of the pad footings should be ing it in the drawings is made easier.
established. Once known, introduce them as small mat
foundations around the columns, having changed the fixity The reinforcement to be provided and the foreseen dis-
of the columns from With external fixity to Without external placements (with the considered subgrade modulus) for
fixity. each loadcase for the mat foundation, can be consulted by
clicking on Envelopes > Maximum displacements… as
This way, all the foundation elements are designed on an can be done with any flat or waffle slab, as well as clicking
elastic platform and there is compatibility amongst the dis- on the Contour Maps tab.
placements as all the elements are Without external fixity
and hence preventing these problematic displacement dif- In the same way as the user is warned to be careful when
ferences from arising. using columns and shear walls with starts with or without
external fixity, a similar problem arises when using external
Tie beams between the pad footings (small mat founda- fixity beams to represent basement walls or similar ele-
tions) have not been included. If the user really wishes to ments.
include them in the design, two options are available:
The care that has to be taken when using external fixity
Beam acting as a tie beam: in which case it does not con- beams has been mentioned in other sections. This can be
tribute or transmit pressures to the soil. This element simply illustrated with an example: In a building, the lift machinery
ties, and minimum steel areas for the bars are provided in roof is supported around its perimeter by a brick wall or
the beam. concrete wall.
The error that can arise if the external fixity beam is used
with a pinned support or roller support is important espe-
cially when horizontal loads are present.
Fig 2.4. Normal beam
In the case of vertical displacements, errors would arise if
the building is very tall (> 15 floors), where the elastic short-
Beam acting as a foundation beam: in which case collabo- ening of the concrete in the columns is significant, and
rates and transmits pressures to the soil. those areas of the structure supported by the external fixity
beam, logically do not shorten (vertical displacements =
0), and hence creating an unreal differential displacement
effect.
Fig. 2.5. Foundation beam
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84 CYPECAD
Fig 2.7. Section
Fig 2.8. Plan view
In this case, the program will not admit that a mat foun-
dation or foundation beam exists below the columns in-
Fig. 2.6
tersecting with an external fixity beam at a lower level,
and so will emit a message.
If this is used together with external beam supports at lower If foundation elements with external fixity have been
floors to simulate the presence of basement walls with mat used, the program does not emit a warning. However,
foundations and foundation beams, the following preventa- the final result will be incorrect as the axial force below
tive measures should be taken. There are two cases: the external fixity beam will be null (N = 0).
1. The external fixity beam intersects with columns • If the external fixity beam has been disconnected from
• If the external fixity beam has not been disconnected all the columns with which it intersects and no connec-
from the columns, the external fixity beam fixes the tion exists with the floor slab, for example:
columns and hence these cannot move vertically. Addi-
tionally, the load from the columns is transmitted to the
external fixity beam, which as its name indicates be-
haves as an external fixity . Therefore the loads
are absorbed and hence, none are transmitted to lower
levels of the structure.
Fig. 2.9
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The loads in the column descend to lower levels and a

mat foundation or foundation beam can be introduced.
Additionally, the floor slab which is in contact with the
external fixity beam should be assigned a fixity coeffi-
cient of zero i.e. pinned, so no force transmission can
occur or so the floor slab does not remain suspended
from the beam.
Fig. 2.11. Plan view
• In this case, as in the previous case, if the floor slab is a
waffle or flat slab, even if the external fixity beam is dis-
connected from the columns, the load from the column
can still be suspended from the slab and reach the
beam:
Fig. 2.12. Section
• The external fixity beam is very close to the columns.

In this case it is possible that part of the loads from the
Fig. 2.10
columns are absorbed by the external fixity beam and
not descend to the mat foundation or foundation beam.
It can be seen more clearly when the column is greater The shear force diagram can be consulted for the
than the thickness of the wall. nodes between the column and the external fixity beam
In this case, part of the load can descend to lower lev- to verify that there is no sudden change in sign of the
els and part of it can be absorbed by the external fixity shear force, or a sudden high value appearing, both be-
beam via the slab. In any case, the analysis would be ing clear signs of loads being absorbed by the external
incorrect if foundation beams or mat foundations are fixity beam.
introduced at the base of the columns. This also oc-
curs with foundation elements with external fixity.
2. The external fixity beam does not intersect with

columns or shear walls.
Generally speaking, this case does not present any
problems, however the following issues should be tak- Fig. 2.13. Plan view
en into account:
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Bear in mind all the explanations and indications provided

in this Calculations manual when using foundation systems
on elastic soil, columns with external fixity and external fixity
beams, as well as the program carrying out an integrated
analysis of the foundations.
2.8. Analysis results

Fig. 2.14. Section
These are consulted in the same way as normal beams and
slabs, and can be modified and obtain drawings in the
If this problem is encountered, it is recommended the same manner.
external fixity beam be eliminated and to represent it by
means of columns and a beam with a great depth be-
tween them. Provide the same type of foundation for 2.9. Element design and check
those columns as is provided for the parallel row of
columns of the structure and, if they really are very 2.9.1. Foundation beams
close, provide a combined foundation system for both The design is carried out in the same way as for a normal
rows. Later on carry out the required corrections due to beam, bearing in mind the parameters, steel areas and ta-
the stiffness of the wall not having been considered. bles defined in the foundation beam options.
• The external fixity beam is at a distance equal to ap-
In the specific case of ⊥ or L beams, the transverse bend-
proximately a span of the building.
ing of the flanges is calculated, obtaining a reinforcement
area due to bending Asb. The pass-through reinforcement
A sp is obtained, as is the thread reinforcement of the
flange-web joint Asa. The greater of the two plus the area
due to bending is placed.
As TOTAL = MAX (Asp, Asa) + Asb
This reinforcement is compared with that obtained due to

shear in the web and the greater of the two is provided, for
Fig. 2.15 both the web and the flanges, with the same diameter and
spacing.
If the shear force diagrams, as in this example, change
A shear and punching shear check can be carried out op-
sign for the joists perpendicular to the wall, no special pre-
tionally, for a section situated at a distance of half the effec-
cautions have to be taken, and hence mat foundations or
tive depth from the edge of the column, with a width equal
foundation beams can be provided below the columns.
to the width of the column plus the effective depth.
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The program checks the tangential stress for that section

does not overcome the limiting stress without the need of
punching shear reinforcement. If this stress is overcome, a
warning message is emitted. In this case the depth must
be increased to that proposed by the program so no
punching reinforcement has to be provided.
2.9.2. Mat foundations

Mat foundations are designed in the same way as flat
slabs, and have the same criteria applied to them. Special
options are available for foundation elements such as steel
areas, reinforcement arrangements, tables, etc.
2.10. General recommendations

2.10.1. Mat foundations
The election of the minimum depth to provide is important,
and should not be less than a tenth of the design span be-
tween supports plus 20 cm. It is best if a perimeter over-
hang can be provided as smaller bearing pressures will re-
sult at the edge, as well as helping to avoid any punching
shear problems.
2.10.2. Foundation beams

Choose transverse sections which possess minimum stiff-
ness, especially in the case of T or L sections and limit the
span/depth ratio to 2, so the flat deformation hypothesis is
valid.
Consult the beam errors upon concluding the analysis. Also

consult the uplift and bearing pressures of the points which fail.
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3. Walls
Masonry and concrete block walls, Reinforced con- arise are not real, and so these values should be consulted
crete walls, Reinforced concrete walls with lateral in the Envelopes > Forces in walls option and verify they
pressures are null or very small.
Two types of load bearing walls are available: This can be clarified using an example:
• Reinforced concrete wall
• Masonry wall
Discretisation: Six node triangular finite elements making
up a thick sheet are used in both cases.
The foundations can consist of elements with external fixity
or without external fixity. Fig. 3.1
The footing or beam, in regards to longitudinal and torsion-

The masonry wall is in tension, as if it were a bracing rod.
al effects is considered to lie on an elastic layer (Winkler),
This is not real, but it can be analysed and the user obtain
when it is defined as not having external fixity.
results. Therefore special attention must be paid to these
When external fixity is present, the foundation may consist results.
of a strip footing. The wall may rest on a foundation beam
or mat foundation when it is defined as without external fix-
ity or as consisting of another structural support. 3.1.1. Masonry wall properties
The specific cases of each type are detailed below. The values required to define the mechanical properties of
the masonry walls are the following:
3.1. Masonry walls • Modulus of elasticity E = 1 GPa (default value). The

value of E is usually estimated by:
These are walls built following traditional methods such as
brick walls or concrete block walls.
The behaviour of these walls is not linear, and so the dis-

where:
cretisation that is carried out and the modelling of the wall
σ: Design compressive stress of the masonry wall
as a linear element are not adequate, but these are the on-
ε: Unit deformation of the material
ly methods available with the program. As long as the
forces and stresses are not high, the analysis results are
acceptable. Bear in mind that the tensile forces that may
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The default value provided with the program can be esti- The overhangs and depths of the beams and footings are
mated assuming a design stress of 1MPa (1,000,000 Pa) to be defined and if these bear on soil, the subgrade modu-
and a unit deformation of 0.1%: lus and allowable bearing pressure are required.
It is not recommended lateral pressures be applied, even
though the program allows for them to be defined. If the
user opts to apply the lateral pressures, he/she must en-
• Shear modulus: 0.4 GPa
sure the masonry wall can resist these pressures.
• Unit weight: default value of 15 kN/m3
• Design compressive strength: 2 MPa
3.1.3. Correct use of masonry walls
• Design tensile stress: 0.2 MPa
Care should be taken when masonry walls are introduced
The transverse shear stiffness is taken as being null, how-
and the user should try and adjust the introduced model to
ever, an option is available so it may be considered.
what will be physically present.
The program checks the stress state of the masonry wall, It is recommended the instructions below be followed as
for all the defined concrete combinations. Assuming that these are applicable for the most common cases that may
the design tensile stress is 10% of the design compressive be encountered.
strength, if these values are exceeded in over 10% of the
area of the wall, a message will be emitted at the end of the
analysis warning there are excessive tensile and compres- 3.1.3.1. Raised floor slab
sion forces. These are built at a small distance above the foundation
plane (< 1 metre), leaving an air chamber which serves as
In the case of concrete block walls, the values taken are
insulation.
those provided by the user or manufacturer. Design options
are available to provide vertical or horizontal reinforcement. Usually a strip footing or foundation beam is built to sup-
port the small masonry wall, which in turn supports the
3.1.2. Masonry wall introduction joists of the raised floor slab. Usually the joist floor slab will
be a self supported slab, as it is not usually possible to pro-
The following data must be indicated: vide shoring due to the lack of space. Various different cas-
es are described below.
1. Initial and final group
2. Wall thickness (thicknesses to the left and right of the The direction of the masonry walls coincides with the struc-
axis) ture’s column alignments.
3. Lateral pressures
4. Type of support
• Foundation beam
• Strip footing
• With external fixity (with or without a footing)
• Without external fixity (foundation beam) Fig. 3.2
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1. If pad footings are provided below the columns having used the program, the job can be copied and
they will be designed jointly by CYPECAD. In this case, edited. In this copy, delete the raised floor slab and
the columns have been defined as having external fixity substitute the walls with line loads on the mat founda-
and so, for compatibility reasons, the support of the tion. Analyse this copied job and compare the results
masonry wall must also be defined as having external with the original job.
fixity by means of a strip footing. 3. The foundations of the building consist of founda-
This way the load from the columns does not spread tion beams, coinciding with the masonry walls
out to the masonry wall. This can be checked by con-
sulting the Envelopes > Forces in columns and
shear walls and ensure that the axial force in the first
span is greater than or equal to the axial force in the
span directly above it.
Fig. 3.4
The reactions of the raised floor should be calculated

Fig. 3.3. Strip footing so to obtain line loads, and then introduce these line
loads on the foundation beams of the building.
2. A mat foundation is provided Create a new job and only introduce the raised floor
The same is recommended as in the previous case, i.e. slab (and the columns), defining it as ‘with external
it is to be introduced only this case ‘without external fix- fixity’ as has been indicated in point 1.
ity ’ as the masonry wall bears on the mat foundation.
A masonry wall should never be defined with a foundation
However a foundation beam should be introduced be- beam or footing when using it jointly with columns defined
low the wall. ‘without external fixity’. Even though the stress analysis may be
The foundation beam will really remain contained within acceptable, the beam or footing reinforcement will be incorrect
and reinforcement areas less than what are really required will
the mat foundation. It is recommended it be introduced be provided. This is due to the coupling of the foundation beam
with its overhangs equal to zero (without overhangs) with the masonry wall and raised floor slab, which produces a
and with a depth equal to the depth of the mat founda- ‘Vierendeel’ effect of the combination. This causes part of the
tion. load from the column to be transmitted to the masonry wall and
relieving the column of the load at its base, obtaining results
In this case, a stiffening effect of the wall with the mat which are not adapted to what really physically occurs.
foundation may arise, especially if a high wall is used or
if the modulus of elasticity is increased. If this effect 4. A joint foundation is to be used composed of a mix
does occur, try reducing the modulus of elasticity to the of elements: pad footings, mat foundations and
minimum allowable value (E = 0.1 GPa) and reanalyse foundation beams.
the job to verify the results. To be able to detect this ef-
In this case the problem is more complex. Please check
fect, which is possible by observing the reinforcement
that indicated in sections 1 and 3, and the section on
that has been provided and with some experience of
Mat foundations and foundation beams.
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In any case, please recall that columns with external fix- In this case, the wall is always defined as not having exter-
ity and without external fixity should not be used togeth- nal fixity, and whereby the beam on which it rests is as-
er due to the different settlements that can arise. This signed the appropriate depth and overhangs.
provides an inadequate model and hence provides un-
Usually, the overhangs will be null and the depth will be that
suitable results.
of the floor slab on which it rests. When a masonry wall is
supported by a joist floor slab, perpendicular to the joists,
For these cases, an initial analysis can be carried out with all the
theoretically, the wall will distribute the load proportionally
columns with external fixity and then introduce mat foundations
and foundation beams in accordance with the magnitude of the amongst the joists.
forces reaching the foundations and the allowable bearing pres-
sure of the soil. Finally, check that the bearing pressures and
displacements are compatible and have reasonable values.
5. The direction of the masonry walls does not coin-

cide with the columns. In this case, there a no con- Fig. 3.5
nection problems between the masonry walls and the
columns. If the loads are correctly transmitted, the bending moment
diagram will be as shown below:
What was mentioned in the previous case is still valid and
insisting on the importance of not mixing elements with ex-
ternal fixity and elements without external fixity.
3.1.3.2. Masonry walls between floor slabs

If masonry walls are used to support part of a floor slab Fig. 3.6
bearing at the top of the wall on a floor slab below, which is
the usual case, the user must ensure that, due to the struc- If, on the contrary, the joists supporting the wall appear to
tural design of the building and the applied loads, that the be supported by the wall, tensile forces are present in the
wall is in compression and is not behaving as a tie (which masonry wall and hence bending moment diagrams such
would therefore make it unsuitable, as indicated in Fig. 3.1 as those below will be obtained:
of this section).
To ensure this is so, the force results should be checked
and the user should observe that the wall is indeed acting
in compression. Some tensile forces, due to imperfections
of the analysed model, may appear but these should be
negligible. Fig. 3.7
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In this case check what could be causing the wall to be- In regards to raised floor slabs, when the wind is blowing in
have in such a way. the direction of the masonry walls, the columns remain
practically fixed at the level of the raised floor slab.
It may also occur that the wall is acting as a ‘wall-beam’. If
beams cross it perpendicularly, the wall may be supported A different case would be that shown in the figure below:
by the beams and suspending the floor slab below:
Fig. 3.8 Fig. 3.9
If this is the case, the forces will not be transmitted correct- When the wind is blowing, the masonry wall has great stiff-
ly, as the longitudinal stiffness of the wall is not real. ness in the direction of the wind and will absorb nearly all
the horizontal force that is incident on it.
Therefore, care must be taken when using walls between
floor slabs, and once the job has been analysed, check the If the user does not wish for this to occur, repeat the analy-
results of the supporting and supported elements. sis, only this time eliminating the wall and the overhanging
floor slab, and instead introduce their reactions. In a sepa-
Due to the complexity of the structures and the diversity of rate copy of the job, the wall can be added with the over-
cases that may be entered in the program, it is recom- hanging slab so to then be able to design the slab.
mended masonry walls be used when necessary and al-
ways controlling the results. The presence of the stiffness of the walls must always be
considered by the user, as they produce bracing effects
Masonry walls can be applied in a large variety of cases; as which should not be accounted for.
load bearing walls in low rise buildings, as supports for lift
machinery slabs, load bearing walls due to the façade be-
ing set back a distance at attic level, and any other type of 3.2. Reinforced concrete walls
load bearing wall within the building structure.
There are two types of reinforced concrete walls, although,
Please recall that, when a masonry wall bears on the for the program they are identical and only one type exists
foundations, it will also contribute and absorb hori- and its design varies depending on the data introduced by
zontal forces. This is inevitable as they are stiff elements. the user. The two types are:
This must be taken into account, if the user does not wish
• Reinforced concrete basement walls (retaining)
for this to occur, such as in the case of raised floor slabs
and masonry walls located within the first floors of the • Reinforced concrete load bearing walls
building.
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3.2.1. Reinforced concrete basement walls A generic definition of a section of a reinforced concrete
wall can be that shown in Fig. 3.10. The following aspects
These are usually used to define a perimeter basement wall
are considered:
and have two main functions: to resist any lateral soil pres-
sures and support the loads transmitted by the structure to • Soil-wall friction is neglected, therefore the pressures
the foundations. act horizontally.
• The lateral pressures are calculated considering the
3.2.1.1. Data to introduce pressures at rest: λh= 1- sin φ, (φ: internal friction an-
gle)
The data that has to be introduced is identical to that indi-
• Below the elevation of the rock layer, the lateral pres-
cated for masonry walls. In this case the program estab-
sures are cancelled, except any hydrostatic pressures
lishes the mechanical properties internally by taking into
that may be present.
account the properties of the reinforced concrete to be
used for the job. • Evacuation due to drainage is taken into account at infill
level, either due to saturation or infiltration. Its effect is
For this type of walls, the user has to define the lateral pres- combined with the hydrostatic pressures acting on the
sures acting on it due to the soil. wall at the same elevation as the infill; the lateral pres-
sure is multiplied by the inverse of the evacuation per-
centage due to drainage.
In other words, when there is 100% evacuation due to

drainage, no additional lateral pressures are present, as
(100-100)/100 = 0, and when 0% evacuation:
(100-0)/100 =1, the water table is at the same elevation
as the infill.
Fig. 3.10 • Below the water table, the submerged density of the in-
fill is used for lateral pressure calculations as well as
The program allows for lateral pressures to be defined on any hydrostatic pressure that may be acting.
both sides of the wall and for these to belong to different • The weight of the soil over the overhangs of the footing
loadcases, which will later be used in the various load com- is not considered when calculating the soil bearing
binations of the complete structure. It is recommended pressures or when designing the footing.
they be treated as a live load and even better, as a sepa- • An infill possessing a slope angle can be defined.
rate type of live load, as these lateral pressures may or may
• Loads acting on the infill can be defined. These can
not be present regardless of the rest of the building.
consist of:
a) Uniformly distributed loads
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b) Strip load parallel to the crown of the wall

c) Line load parallel to the crown of the wall
d) Point load or concentrated load in reduced areas
(footings)
The formulas applied are indicated below:
a) Lateral pressures due to a uniformly distributed

load Fig. 3.12
The Coulomb method is applied. The horizontal pres-

sure that arises due to the uniformly distributed load
with a value of q per unit slope length is equal to:
Where
pq : horizontal pressure
q: strip load per unit area
β and ω: angles shown in Fig. 3.12
c) Lateral pressures due to a line load parallel to the

crown of the wall
A method based on the Elasticity theory is used. The
horizontal pressure due to a linear live load q acting on
a wall whose backfill side is vertical and the soil is level-
Fig. 3.11
led horizontally is:
b) Lateral pressures due to a strip load parallel to the

crown of the wall
The horizontal pressure due to a strip load in the case
of a wall whose backfill side is vertical and the soil is
levelled horizontally, and in accordance with the Elastic-
ity theory is:
Fig. 3.13
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Where • With external fixity: Adequate solution when the

pq : horizontal pressure columns of the structure are defined as also having this
q: line load per unit length
type of fixity. A strip footing can be defined below the
ω: angle shown in Fig 3.13
wall and obtain its design.
d) Lateral pressures due to a point load or concen- • If the foundation is to consist of a mat foundation, the
trated load in reduced areas (footings) wall can be introduced on the mat foundation without
external fixity, with a beam with no overhangs and with
A method based on the Elasticity theory is used. The
the same depth as that of the mat foundation. When
horizontal pressure due to a point load acting on a wall
defining the beam, the data to introduce is to be the
whose backfill side is vertical and the soil is levelled ho-
same as that defined for the mat foundation.
rizontally is:
• If all the columns of the structure rest on foundation
beams or a mat foundation, i.e. without external fixity, in-
troduce a strip footing below the wall. To do so, an initial
design of the footing has to be carried out in order to
estimate its width. To do so, estimate the value of the
line load transmitted by the structure, add this value to
the weight of the wall and divide the total by the allow-
able bearing pressure.
Fig. 3.14
The foundation of a wall can consist of a beam or footing
(recommended).
If (m < 0.4):
The whole structure can also be analysed ‘with external fixi-
ty’, and with a strip footing below the wall. This way, an ini-
tial design of the footing can be obtained.
If (m ≥ 0.4): 3.2.2. Load bearing walls

Reinforced concrete basement walls without lateral pres-
sures can also be defined, which causes it to behave as a
load bearing wall when it comes to resisting vertical and
horizontal loads. These may replace the shear walls de-
fined within the Column Definition tab with the added ad-
vantage that they are also more versatile as they can be
3.2.1.2. Correct use of reinforced concrete walls
used simultaneously with columns; start at columns and
Reinforced concrete walls may be classified based on their contain columns which may start at any elevation of the
type of support: wall, with dimensions greater or smaller than the thickness
of the wall; walls which start and end at different levels may
be joined to one another, etc.
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Below are some wall examples (Fig. 3.15) 3.2.3. Correct use of reinforced concrete walls
Please recall:
• If the reinforced concrete wall starts at a floor slab, the

beam on which it rests is to have the same depth as the
floor slab. The case may arise whereby the beam con-
tinues past the edge of the wall or is an extension of an
existing beam. In this case, assign the same dimen-
sions to the beam below the wall. Using the beam rein-
forcement editor, control the beam reinforcement and
join the required bars to provide continuity without over-
laps.
• A wall can never start from an existing beam or coincide
with others at other levels which it may go through, or
even at where it ends. A message will appear warning
the user of this circumstance and will not allow it to be
introduced.
Fig. 3.15
• If the wall starts at foundation level, the most adequate
solution as to what type of foundation to provide is that
of a strip footing. It may be defined as with or without
The user is reminded of the rigid diaphragm hypothesis at
external fixity and may start from a mat foundation. In
each floor level, so to bear in mind the free movement re-
this case, please recall that the beam is to be defined
strictions of the wall displacements. For more information
as having 0cm overhangs at either side, and its depth
please consult chapter 12. Rigid diaphragm.
equal to that of the mat foundation. The allowable bear-
The program considers the floor slabs to be fixed to the ing pressure and subgrade modulus are also to be the
walls at their intersections. The option to define a fixity coef- same as that of the mat foundation. A wall cannot start
ficient at panel edges is available. Hence, the fixity coeffi- on an existing foundation beam.
cient of the panel may be reduced to a value smaller than In any case, define the foundation beam of the wall and
1, until a hinged connection is obtained. In these cases, a then connect it to the foundation beam of other parts of
construction detail of the connection between the floor slab the structure.
and wall should be provided in the drawings to ensure it is
built correctly.
When a wall is defined as not having external fixity, the di-

mensions of the beam on which the wall rests are to be Fig. 3.16
provided.
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• Remember: do not mix elements bearing on elastic soil analysis is correct, as there is a foreseen deformation of
(without external fixity) with elements with external fixity. the wall in the opening in the design model, due to there
• The rigid diaphragm hypothesis at floor level always being 6 degrees of freedom per node in contact with the
exists, even if a floor slab is not introduced. Therefore opening. If the wall is in contact with a floor slab along any
reinforced concrete walls with lateral pressures cannot part of its length on a floor, the entire wall will b connected
be used as retaining walls, due to there, supposedly, al- to the rigid diaphragm of that floor, including those spans
ways being a slab at the top of the wall and at interme- where there is no floor slab. Nonetheless, the user can par-
diate levels. tially eliminate the rigid diaphragm hypothesis. Please
consult chapter 12. Rigid diaphragm to know for each
• The lateral pressures acting on the walls are transmitted
case if the exempt wall is disconnected or not from the rigid
to and absorbed by the floor slabs acting as rigid dia-
diaphragm.
phragms. However, neither the floor slabs nor the
beams are checked for compression or tension.
In this case, it is convenient the following be recalled:
Fig. 3.18
It is recommended all the indicated observations be taken

into account.
Fig. 3.17
3.2.4. Wall design
Joist floor slabs, for those cases where the joists are paral- When designing the horizontal wall reinforcement, the mini-
lel to the wall, offer a weak resistance and must be ab- mum steel area depends on whether the wall has:
sorbed by the beams which support them.
• Lateral pressures acting on it, in which case, the mini-
If, additionally, these beams are exempt, with openings ad-
mum steel ratios are those stated in the code
jacent to the wall, they will behave as an elbow joint and
these must be designed for compression. • No lateral pressures acting on it. These are designed in
the same way as shear walls
Normal beams are designed only for simple bending. Hence
these beams must be deleted and introduced as sloped Bearing pressure check. Upon concluding the analysis, a
beams which are designed for combined bending. As of the message appears indicating the foundation beams or foot-
2012.a version, exempt beams can be disconnected from ings whose bearing pressure exceeds the allowable bear-
the rigid diaphragm, and therefore, be designed for com- ing pressure of the soil or that the maximum bearing pres-
pression. Please consult chapter 12. Rigid diaphragm. sure at one of their edges exceeds the allowable bearing
pressure by 25%.
As of the 2012.a version, if a wall is exempt at floor level or
is only in contact with exempt beams or other walls, the If no checks fail, no messages are emitted.
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3.2.5. Foundation design slabs and pad footings with a perimeter reinforced concrete
wall (the most common type of building) will now be high-
The wall foundation can be defined in two different ways.
lighted.
• As a foundation beam The first problem which the user should always be aware
of:
A. If the internal columns have been introduced “with ex-

If it is defined as a foundation beam, it is designed in
ternal fixity” in order to calculate them with pad footings,
exactly the same way as other foundation beams (sim-
the reinforced concrete wall must be defined “with ex-
ple bending).
ternal fixity” so the perimeter does not settle with res-
The minimum steel areas are indicated in the Options for pect to the remaining supports. Define a strip footing
foundation beams. for the wall.
B. If the internal columns have been defined “without ex-
• As a strip footing ternal fixity, these will start on a foundation beam or mat
foundation., in which case the foundation of the wall
can be a strip footing or beam bearing on elastic soil
Please consult the section Strip footings below (without external fixity).
walls.
If all the columns and wall are to bear on a mat founda-
tion, a foundation beam without overhangs (left = right
= 0) and with the same depth, allowable bearing pres-
3.3. Practical advice for reinforced concrete sure and subgrade modulus as the mat foundation can
wall in buildings be used below the wall.
Once the analysis has concluded, drawings may be ob-
Read the contents of the message that appears when the
tained as follows:
option Define wall is selected, as in most cases, by follow-
ing the advice provided in that dialogue box the wall intro- • Obtain the drawing of the wall. In the wall elevation
duction can be quicker and more effective. change the ‘See beams drawing’ to ‘See mat foun-
dation drawing’.
Use the Pin/Disconnect option which allows for the ‘exter- The starter bars are valid. If the beams drawing for
nal fixity beams’ to be disconnected from the columns, Group 0 (foundation level where the mat foundation
without the need of having to introduce reinforced concrete is usually located) has been drawn, delete those
walls. In this case remember that the floor slab loads trans- beams below the wall or simply omit that drawing.
mitted to the external fixity beam will not be transmitted to • Obtain the drawings for the mat foundation, using
the columns. the usual drawing and reinforcement configuration
and add the construction detail corresponding to
Remember not to introduce structures whose model is in- the start of a wall on a mat foundation (detail
coherent with the real behaviour of the building. CCM013); as well as any others that may be consid-
The most important aspects for buildings with joist floor
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ered adequate for the real conditions of the project: • Place the main view of the screen at the indicated
intersections with floor slabs, wall crowns, etc. group, which will usually be at Group 0, if the founda-
C. It is common practice to provide strap beams perpen- tions were introduced at this level.
dicular to the reinforced concrete wall, and recommen- • Click on Beam alignments > Show alignments, and
ded, when all the foundations have been introduced type the number of the frame to revise. The frame will
“with external fixity”. This can be applied to the footing be displayed in bright red.
of the wall.
To obtain the foundation layout drawing, composed of This foundation beam will have to be modified for it to com-
the reinforced concrete walls, pad and strip footings ply with the allowable bearing pressure. For this, a simple
and strap beams, the following drawings will have to be rule can be applied:
obtained:
• Floor layout drawings of Group 0 in DXF format (or of If B is the current width of the beam, the new width B’ will
whichever group the foundation has been defined at). have to be equal to:
• Reinforced concrete and masonry wall elevations
Complete the drawings by complementing them with the E.g.: B = 0.60, σabp = 0.2 MPa, σ = 0.225 MPa
construction details available in the Construction detail li-
brary.
3.3.1. Revision of the analysis results of the wall To correct this value, the user has to decide whether to
Once the analysis has finished, the footing of the wall leave the depth of the beam untouched or to increase it as
should be checked as well as the elevation of the wall. It is well:
possible that within the analysis errors report, that one or
two messages may appear related to the bearing pres- • If the depth is not increased. Within the Results tab,
sures transmitted to the soil by the footing. One may ap- click on Beam errors and select the beam in question.
pear indicating that the allowable bearing pressure of the Within the dialogue box that appears, type the new va-
soil has been exceeded. Alternatively, a message may ap- lue of the width of the beam (70). Click on Correct.
pear informing the user that the allowable bearing pressure • If the depth is increased. Within the Beam Definition
of the soil has been exceeded by over 25% at an edge of tab, Click on Edit and then select the wall. Within the
the mat foundation. If either of (or both) these messages dialogue box containing the corresponding data of the
appear, the report will indicate the group, frame and beam beam, modify the values and increase the overhang by
at which it occurs, as well as the value of the bearing pres- 10cm and the assign the beam the desired depth.
sure transmitted to the soil.
The job should now be redesigned or reanalysed. To re-
The following steps may also be taken:
design, click on Analyse > Redesign frames with
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100 CYPECAD
changes. A new reinforcement arrangement will be ob- sis), at points where walls start or intersect with other walls. If
tained as well as new bearing pressures. If it fails, it will be the reinforcement to provide is to cover all these ‘peak
indicated in the analysis report and the process will have to forces’, the general reinforcement of the wall is most likely
be repeated. being penalised by providing more than what is really nec-
essary in the rest of the wall.
Once the bearing pressures are suitable, the reinforcement
of the foundation beam can be checked. Place the main For example, imagine a wall whose vertical reinforcement
view of the screen at the foundation group and click on turns out to be φ20 bars every 10 cm, when usually φ12
Beams/Walls > Edit beams within the Results tab and bars every 20 cm (from previous experience) for walls of
then on the beam in question. The reinforcement may also this type is sufficient. The reinforcement can be modified to
be edited using this option. the second value, which the program will automatically
check once it has been introduced.
Check the beam. The elevation of the wall should also be
checked. To do so, place the main view of the screen at a It is possible that it will fail at one or more points. The pro-
group where the wall is present (other than the foundation gram indicates this by displaying the reinforcement in red.
group). Click on Beams/Walls > Edit walls within the Re- Small rectangles hatched in red appear on the elevation of
sults tab. The Reinforcement edition window will appear the wall where it fails, and in the bottom area of the dia-
displaying the reinforcement of the wall. logue box, the program will display it fails and provides the
% compliance factor. This value indicates the % area of the
The thicknesses of the wall may be modified. If these
wall that does not fail.
changes are small, the job does not have to be reanalysed,
however this is not the case if the changes are noticeable. Imagine, for this example, the value provided is 87%. This
implies that 13% is the area represented as hatched in red
The reinforcement may also be modified. These will be
which fails.
highlighted in red if they fail.
The program contains an option which allows the user to
The Compliance factor button is located within the Rein-
pre-establish the value of the Compliance factor (consult
forcement edition dialogue box. A window will appear up-
Job data > By position > Column options). The provid-
on clicking the button where the user can modify the value
ed default value is set at 90%, as due to the discretisation
as well as receive useful information on this helpful tool:
of the wall, it is normal for small peak forces to be present,
When the reinforcement is designed, it is arranged in such a and so it is reasonable that if the reinforcement provided
way that the % compliance value of the reinforcement does covers at least 90% of the surface, logical and foreseeable
not fail for all the points (nodes of the finite element mesh) of results will be obtained.
the elevation of the wall. The forces acting on the wall are
Returning to the example, even though the value of 90%
not uniform and vary at different points, be it because of the
has not been reached (the value is 87%). It does not seem
lateral pressures, loads transmitted by floor slabs and
logical to provide φ12 bars every 10 cm, when by providing
columns, etc. Therefore, it is normal to observe areas where
φ12 bars every 20 cm, 87% of the wall is covered with that
forces act in a more concentrated manner in critical zones,
reinforcement. It seems more correct for, in any case, the
such as intersection points with floor slabs (which is a very
reason(s) for the presence of the peak forces to be
rigid connection, due to the horizontal diaphragm hypothe-
analysed. It may be that a column might start at the location
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of the red rectangle, and so it is normal for there to be a Another case which also arises frequently is when trans-
concentration of local stresses at that point. However this verse reinforcement has to be provided, which is not usual-
extra reinforcement that is required is covered by the starter ly the case for reinforcement smaller than φ12 bars. If this
bars of the column. value were to be greater, then it would be normal to have to
provide transverse reinforcement, which in reality are tie
The user can check to see what reinforcement is required
bars of the reinforcement of each face of the wall to restrict
at that point. By pressing the Show additional reinforce-
the buckling of the bars. This is convenient if the wall is
ment button, the red point will turn yellow and by clicking
strongly in compression.
on it, a window will appear displaying the additional rein-
forcement that is required at that point. If the user decides If, after the analysis, the program indicates transverse rein-
to include the additional reinforcement, a construction de- forcement is to be provided and is not of great significance,
tail will have to be provided and indicate its location on the it may be eliminated by introducing a value of 0 in the num-
wall elevation drawings. ber of transverse bars to be provided, then checking the
The case may arise when the additional reinforcement to compliance factor, the additional reinforcement, and at
provide is the minimum steel area available, i.e. φ6 bars which points it is required.
every 25 cm, in which case it is not worth placing. Each As indicated before, if it occurs at the critical zones, it is not
case has to be evaluated individually. reasonable to provide transverse tie bars. Even though the
Click on Finish showing add. reinf. To recover control of analysis may not indicate it is required, our experience rec-
the wall reinforcement. ommends it be provided as assembly reinforcement and
for safety against local buckling of the bars.
It may also be possible that the user wishes for a smaller
compliance factor to be used. To change this value (only Once a floor level has been modified, if more than one
for this wall elevation), click on Compliance F. and reduce basement level is present, check all the levels and try to
the value to 80%. Click on Accept, followed by Redesign. provide uniform diameters and bar spacing so overlaps
Observe that an improved reinforcement distribution is ob- and splices are carried out in a logical manner. Even
tained, e.g. φ10 bars every 20 cm, and a new compliance though it is not obligatory, it does make building it on site a
factor is displayed (for this example 81.3%). Additionally, a lot easier.
new point appears where the reinforcement fails.
Finally, if the reinforcement is modified and the user wishes
Carry out the procedure detailed above, checking the to recover the original reinforcement provided by the pro-
forces. Finally, adopt the most adequate reinforcement lay- gram, it may be restored by clicking on Redesign. The
out for the global elevation of the wall and, if necessary, modifications will be lost and the reinforcement provided
with the required local additional reinforcement. will be designed to meet the current Compliance factor for
that wall.
Our experience tells us that when the points lie on the edge
of the mesh, at intersections with floor slabs or columns
and at a point or very localised zone, a compliance factor
of approximately 90% (± 5%) is sufficient.
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4. Footings and pile caps
In this section, the general aspects that have been consid- tain the displacements and forces in all the elements,
ered for checking and design footings defined in hence allowing all their stiffnesses to intervene and interact
CYPECAD that lie below the vertical supports of the build- amongst each other.
ing which have been defined as ‘with external fixity’.
The design process is iterative and starts off using the initial
Remember they can be designed sequentially with the rest dimensions of each element. During the first iteration, the
of the structure or independently. As they are elements following considerations are established to determine the
‘with external fixity’, the foundation is calculated later on stiffness and fixity of each type of element:
based on the reactions on these supports. Given that they • Pad footing or pile cap
may be designed independently, do not forget that modifi-
It is taken as being a rigid solid with a central support,
cations can be carried out on the structure without them
whose fixity in each direction can consist of a hinged
implying that these will affect the foundations.
support if it is reached by a strap beam or a fixed support
The program may also be used as an editing tool, whereby if it is reached by a tie beam or if no beam reaches it.
the foundation elements can be introduced without designing • Strip footing below wall
them and obtain drawings and material take-off quantities.
It is defined as a rigid solid with a central support which,
in the transverse direction, is considered to be hinged if
4.1. Footings and pile caps strap beams and/or other walls reach it, and, fixed in
the longitudinal direction.
In the 2011 version of the program, changes were carried
• Tie beam
out regarding the force calculation of foundations “with ex-
ternal fixity”, for both footings and piles and their strap and It is taken as being a bar with the stated dimensions
tie beams. and with hinged ends reaching the axis that passes
through the centre of the element they are tying.
The design provided by this version can differ to that provi- • Strap beam
ded by previous versions: once the reactions at the structu-
It is taken as being a beam with the stated dimensions.
ral supports (columns, shear walls and walls) have been
Its ends are fixed to the edge of the element it is balan-
obtained, a model is created with all the foundation ele-
cing for the following cases:
ments “with exterior fixity” and their beams, represented by
its stiffness matrix. The stiffness matrix together with the - Edge and corner footings, and for one or two-pile
loadcases defined as loads acting on the foundation (ob- pile caps, in the directions that require balancing.
tained reactions), are resolved using frontal methods to ob- - When the user marks the balancing action manually.
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Strap beam ends are hinged for the following cases: To obtain a more precise analysis, the soil – structure in-
- Centred footings or pile caps with three or more piles. teraction should be considered as well as having an
- Edge and corner footings, and for one or two-pile adequate soil model. However, due to the complexity of
pile caps, in the directions that do not require ba- this analysis, it seems reasonable to use the aforemen-
lancing. tioned simplified analysis, as the footing is also consi-
- When the user deactivates the manual balancing dered to be rigid and does not receive torsional forces.
action.
The number of iterations carried out by the program de-
Therefore, the end fixity can be modified by the user pends on the option selected by the user:
and, in a similar way as what occurs with strap beams,
the ends reach the axis that passes through the centre • Minimum dimensions
of the element which it joins. Once the first iteration has been carried out, the foo-
tings and pile caps are designed with the forces that
• Perimeter walls and strap beams reaching a trans- have been obtained. A second iteration is undertaken
verse strip footing below a wall and the elements are redesigned, including the beams.
This element combination is a special case, although Using the geometry from this last iteration, a final des-
common. It may be seen in the figure below. ign is carried out and all the elements are checked to
see if any fail.
• Complete design
After the first iteration, the program continues iterating
and tries to provide results so that none of the elements
fail, which it will do unless the permitted maximum des-
ign limits for each element are reached, in which case,
some will fail.
Fig. 4.1
4.2. Advanced design of surface foundations
Besides all that has been mentioned previously, additional
Transverse walls (4) and (5) have a large stiffness com- features can be obtained using the Advanced design of
pared to beams (1), (2) and (3). Therefore their effect is surface foundations module:
much greater than that of the beams. Hence, a simplifi-
cation has been carried out, so the balancing effect is • Beams can be defined spanning between other beams.
shared equally amongst all the transverse elements • Line, point and surface loads can be applied on the
that reach the footing. This has been done by using the foundation elements, which are taken into account in
mean stiffness of all the strap beams and assigning this the design of all the elements.
stiffness to all the elements they balance, including the
• Loads defined for the foundation group, are applied on
walls, and so all the elements contribute in a balanced
the surface of the elements.
and equal way.
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104 CYPECAD
• The loads corresponding to stairs that start at founda- N: axial

tion level, both their start loads and those transmitted Mx: X moment
by the masonry walls supporting intermediate spans
My: Y moment
are applied on the foundation elements.
Qx: X shear
• Outline limits of the footings can be defined, and so
can be polygonal in shape. They are designed to have Qy: Y shear
that shape and reinforcement adapted to that shape is T: torsion
provided.
Fig. 4.2
Regarding the design procedure of the elements, the same The loadcases considered by the program include: Dead,
criteria as in previous versions is maintained. These are ex- live, wind, snow and seismic loads.
plained in the following sections.
The states to check include:
• Bearing pressures on the soil

4.3. Pad footings • Equilibrium
CYPECAD carries out the analysis and design of reinforced • Concrete (bending and shear)
concrete and mass concrete footings (consult section 4.9. A design can be carried out based on the default dimen-
Mass concrete footings of this manual). The following types sions defined in the program option, or dimensions provid-
of footings are designed: ed by the user.
• Footings with constant depth The reinforcement can also be obtained for a specific foot-
• Footings with variable depth or tapered ing geometry.
The check consists in verifying the code aspects of the

On plan, they are classified as:
geometry and reinforcement of the footings.
• Square
• Centred rectangular
4.3.1. Bearing pressures on the soil
• Eccentric rectangular (for special cases: edge or corner
A flat deformation diagram is taken for the footing, hence
footings)
depending on the forces, a trapezoidal bearing pressure
An unlimited number of supports (columns, shear walls diagram will be obtained. Tensile forces are not admitted,
and walls) can bear on each footing and at any position. and so, when the resultant force lies outside the central nu-
cleus, zones without pressure will be displayed.
The loads transmitted by the supports are transmitted to
the centre of the footing, obtaining its resultant. The trans- The resultant force must remain within the footing, other-
mitted forces may include: wise there is no equilibrium. The self weight of the footing is
taken into account.
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If it equals zero, the equilibrium is limited and if the value is

large, the footing has a large safety factor with respect to
the equilibrium.
4.3.3. Concrete states

Bending in the footing and the tangential forces are verified.
Fig. 4.3
4.3.3.1. Bending moments
The program checks that:
In the case of a single column, the check is carried out using
• The mean bearing pressure does not exceed the allow- a reference section situated at a distance of 0.15 times the
able bearing pressure of the soil dimension of the column towards the inside of the column.
• The maximum bearing pressure at the edge does not If there are several supports, the program sweeps across
exceed the mean pressure by the following percent- the footing and calculates the moments at many sections.
ages for the load combinations detailed below: This is carried out in both x and y directions, with steel
o Gravitational loads: 25% columns and baseplates, at the mid-point between the
o With wind loads: 25% baseplate and the steel section.
o With seismic loads: 25%
These values are optional and may be modified. Within

General data dialogue box, different bearing pressures can
be defined for persistent or accidental situations as well as
for seismic situations.
4.3.2. Equilibrium states Fig. 4.4

By applying the corresponding ultimate limit state combina-
tions, the program checks the resultant lies within the foot- 4.3.3.2. Shear forces
ing.
The reference section is situated at a distance equal to the
The excess with respect to the safety coefficient is ex- effective depth from the edges of the support. If there are
pressed as a percentage safety reserve: several edges, the reference sections could overlap due to
them being in close proximity, in which case a warning will
be emitted.
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106 CYPECAD
4.3.3.3. Reinforcement anchorage 4.3.3.9. Check for oblique compression

The anchorage of the reinforcement ends is checked, pro- This check is carried out at the edge of the support. The
viding the corresponding anchorage lengths for each case stress in the concrete is not permitted to exceed that re-
and position. quired for failure due to oblique compression. Depending
on the type of support, the axial force of the support will be
multiplied by:
4.3.3.4. Minimum depths
• Internal supports: 1.15
The minimum depth specified by the selected code is
checked. • Edge supports:1.4
• Corner support: 1.5
4.3.3.5. Reinforcement spacing This is done so to take into account the eccentricity of the
The minimum spacing between reinforcement bars stated loads.
in the selected code is checked. However when designing Footings are always designed as rigid footings, however
a minimum of 10cm is taken. the program only emits a warning if the overhang/depth ra-
tio is less than or equal to 2.
4.3.3.6. Minimum and maximum steel areas When designing a footing with several supports, the slen-
derness is limited to 8, where the slenderness is the ratio
The minimum mechanical and geometric steel areas speci-
between the span between supports divided by the depth
fied in the selected code are checked.
of the footing. Design options are available which the user
may edit so the growth direction of the footing can be cho-
4.3.3.7. Minimum diameters sen, or fix a specific length depending on the type of foot-
ing. The results will logically vary depending on the select-
The program checks the reinforcement diameters are at
ed options.
least those indicated in the selected code.
When the bearing pressure distribution does not occupy
the whole footing, tensile forces may arise at the top sur-
4.3.3.8. Design face due to the weight of the overhanging footing. The pro-
When designing for bending, the program provides con- gram will provide top reinforcement if required.
crete depths so compression reinforcement is not required.
Similarly, when designing for shear, the program places

concrete depths so transverse reinforcement need not be
applied.
Fig. 4.5
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4.4. Strip footings below walls the case of a wall, the loads are modelled as a distributed
load along the wall in a discrete manner. It is as if a result-
The program designs reinforced concrete strip footings be- ant force is converted into a pressure distribution along the
low walls. base of the wall, and is discretised internally in steps by the
program depending on its dimensions.
This type of footing can be provided below retaining, base-
ment or load bearing walls in buildings. To summarise, using images:
There are three types of strip footings:
• Overhang on both sides
• Overhang on the left
Fig. 4.6
• Overhang on the right

4.5. Strap beams
These footings can be used for reinforced concrete walls
and masonry walls.
Strap beams are using to balance the moments in footings
Their geometry is defined within the data entry dialogue and pile caps. Two types are available:
box of the wall.
• Negative moments: AT > AB
They are designed and checked in the same way as rec-
tangular footings (consult the section on Pad footings),
and therefore have the same possibilities available to them
(including containing columns in close proximity to each • Positive moments: Symmetrical reinforcement
other) and the same design conditions and limits.
The only difference consists in how the loads are applied. Definable and editable reinforcement tables are available
In the case of a column, the loads are applied at its geo- for each type of beam.
metrical centre axis, be it square or rectangular. However, in The forces acting on the strap beams are:
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108 CYPECAD
• Moments and shears required for their balancing ac- • Bottom reinforcement anchorage length
tion. • Check for bending (not have compression reinforce-
• Loads cannot be introduced on the beams, nor are ment)
their self weights considered. The program assumes • Check for shear (concrete + stirrups resist the shear)
their self weight is transmitted to the soil without it suf-
fering any forces.
A certain amount of deviation is permitted at the point
• When several strap beams reach a footing or pile cap, where the strap beam goes by the edge of the footing
the force each one receives is proportional to its stiff- (15º).
ness.
• They may receive forces at one or both ends. An option is available whereby the user can fix the mini-
mum tension reinforcement geometric area.
If their length is less than 25 cm, the program will warn of The program does follow some criteria when arranging the
there being a short beam present. beam with respect to the footing, depending on the relative
depth between both elements and is levelled at the top or
A reinforcement table exists for each type. The program
bottom face.
checks that the selected reinforcement does not fail for the
loads to which the beam is submitted to. The program uses the strap beam combinations, taken as
a reinforced concrete element, for all the designs and
The following checks are carried out:
checks, except for in the case of cracking, where the pro-
• Minimum longitudinal reinforcement diameter gram uses the bearing pressures on the soil.
• Minimum transverse reinforcement diameter
• Minimum steel area in tension
4.6. Tie beams
• Minimum mechanical steel area (reductions are accept-
ed) The program designs tie beams between reinforced con-
• Maximum longitudinal reinforcement steel area crete foundation elements.
• Minimum spacing between longitudinal reinforcement

• Minimum spacing between stirrups
• Maximum spacing between longitudinal reinforcement
• Maximum spacing between stirrups
• Minimum beam width (≥1/20 span)
• Minimum beam depth (≥1/12 span) Fig. 4.7
• Check for cracking (0.3 mm)
• Top reinforcement anchorage length Tie beams are used to brace/tie footings, absorbing any
• Skin reinforcement anchorage length horizontal forces due to seismic loads.
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The maximum axial force is multiplied by the design seis- • Top reinforcement anchorage length
mic acceleration ‘a’ (no less than 0.05) and these forces • Skin reinforcement anchorage length
are considered as tensile and compression forces (a·N).
• Bottom reinforcement anchorage length
The user can optionally choose to design these for bending • Check for bending (only with compacted soil sur-
due to a uniformly distributed surcharge of w = 10 kN/m, charge)
produced by compacted soil and the screed above. They • Check for shear (only with compacted soil surcharge)
are designed to support a positive and negative moment
• Axial load check
equal to wl2/12 and a shear force of wl/2, where l is the
span of the beam.
Options are available to extend the stirrups to the surface of
For their design, the combinations used for strap beams as the footing or up to the support.
reinforced concrete elements are used here.
The position of the beam; whether it be levelled with the top
Reinforcement tables containing symmetrical reinforce- or the bottom of the footing, depending on its relative
ment arrangements for both faces are used. depths.
The following checks are carried out:

4.7. Pile caps
• Minimum longitudinal reinforcement diameter
The program designs reinforced pile caps on square or cir-
• Minimum transverse reinforcement diameter
cular piles with the following arrangements:
• Minimum tension reinforcement geometric steel area (if
the compacted soil surcharge option has been activat- • Pile cap with 1 pile. (A)
ed) • Pile cap with 2 piles. (B)
• Minimum compression reinforcement geometric steel • Pile cap with 3 piles. (C)
area (if the compacted soil surcharge option has been
• Pile cap with 4 piles. (D)
activated)
• Linear pile cap. The user can choose the number of
• Minimum mechanical reinforcement
piles. The default value is set at 3. (B).
• Minimum spacing between longitudinal reinforcement
• Rectangular pile cap. The user can choose the number
• Maximum spacing between longitudinal reinforcement of piles. The default value is set at 9. (D)
• Minimum spacing between stirrups • Rectangular pile cap on 5 piles (one pile in the centre).
• Maximum spacing between stirrups (D)
• Minimum beam width (≥1/20 span) • Pentagonal pile cap with 5 piles. (C)
• Minimum beam depth (≥1/12 span) • Pentagonal pile cap with 6 piles. (C)
• Check for cracking (0.3 mm, not considering seismic • Hexagonal pile cap with 6 piles. (C)
loads) • Hexagonal pile with 7 piles (one pile in the centre). (C)
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110 CYPECAD
As the EHE Spanish code is the code which contains the

N.B.: Using CYPECAD, several supports can be defined on
one pile cap, but do not forget that the resultant force is obtai-
most information and analysis for pile cap design, it has
ned and it is with this force that the program checks the pile. been adopted as the basic design code. They are also de-
signed to be rigid and, where possible, principles of other
sources such as the ACI-318/98, CIRSOC, NB-1, EH-91,
technical bibliography such as the Marcelo da Cunha
Moraes’s book “Foundation structures” and criteria of
4.7.1. Design criteria CYPE; have been applied.
Type A pile caps are designed based on a model consist-

ing of concentrated loads. They are reinforced using verti- 4.7.2. Sign criteria
cal and horizontal stirrups with the option to include diago-
nal stirrups).
Type B pile caps are designed using the strut and tie
method. They are reinforced as beams, with bottom, top
and skin longitudinal reinforcement as well as vertical stir-
rups.
Type C pile caps are based on strut and tie models. They
may be reinforced with lateral and diagonal beams, top
and bottom meshes, and perimeter reinforcement. Fig. 4.8
Type D pile caps are based on strut and tie models. They
may be reinforced with lateral and diagonal beams (except 4.7.3. Design and geometry considerations
the rectangular model), top and bottom meshes. When defining a pile cap, the user also has to indicate the
type of pile, how many there are and their position. The car-
Any pile cap can be designed or checked.
rying capacity of the pile, i.e. the service load it can hold
The check consists in verifying the geometric and mechan- (without applying the safety factor) has to be defined.
ical aspects when the pile cap has been designed or intro-
The load the piles are going to receive has to be calculated
duced with a set of dimensions and reinforcement. Loads
first. This is obtained by considering the self weight of the pile,
may or may not be defined. The design does not require
the external loads and applying Navier’s classic formula:
loads, and as of a set of minimum dimensions, taken by
the program, (complete design) or initial dimensions pro-
vided by the user (minimum dimensions), the program pro-
vides (if possible) the geometric parameters and reinforce-
ment in accordance with the code and the defined options.
with the bearing pressure combinations on the soil.
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The most loaded pile is compared with its carrying capaci- With respect to the forces, the following checks are carried out:
ty and if it is exceeded the program emits a warning. • Warning of tensile forces in the piles: maximum tension
≥10% maximum compression
When a pile is defined, the minimum distance between
piles is required. This data must be provided by the user • Bending moment warning: strap beams must be pro-
(default value set at 1.00 m). The program checks this dis- vided
tance is greater than the minimum distance. • Excessive shear: if the shear force for any combination
exceeds 3% of the axial force with wind, or in other
The checking and design of piles is based on the maxi- combinations where inclined piles may be required
mum load of the most loaded pile after applying the se-
• Warning of torsional forces if these have been defined
lected concrete combinations to the loads for the loadcas-
in the loads
es that have been defined.
If the user wishes for all the piles of the same type to be of If strap beams are introduced, they will absorb the mo-
the same size and contain the same reinforcement ments in the direction in which they act. For pile caps with
arrangement, an option is available within the pile cap op- a single pile, strap beams are always required in both direc-
tions, Loads per pile, whereby the user may unify the pile tions. For linear pile caps with 2 piles, they are required in
caps, upon activating it, and so they can be designed for the direction perpendicular to the line of piles. In these cas-
the carrying capacity of the pile. es, the strap beam is designed for an additional moment of
10% of the axial force.
In this case, the user has to define a load factor (safety co-
efficient to consider it as one more loadcase) which shall Increase the moments by this value (0.10 × N) for the corre-
be taken as the Usage coefficient of the pile (default val- sponding loadcases if deemed necessary and if possible -
ue of 1.5). If not all of the carrying capacity of the pile is to only in the case of column starts-; or check the loads acting
be considered, only a percentage may be considered. This on the piles and their load reserve.
value is defined as the Fraction of load and may vary be-
If more than one strap beam were to act in the same direc-
tween 1 and 0 (default value of 1). In this case, the program
tion, the moment would be shared proportionally with re-
will determine the maximum value between the previous
spect to their stiffness. The following checks are undertaken:
value, which is a function of the carrying capacity of the
pile and the maximum of the piles due to the applied exter-
nal loads. • General checks:
This is common practice in some zones and countries as a o Shear wall warning
single pile cap is obtained for each pile diameter and num- o Warning supports are too separated (in CYPECAD)
ber of piles, hence simplifying its execution on site. The o Warning no supports have been defined
program has this option deactivated and must be activated o Minimum overhang as of the perimeter of the pile
by the user. o Minimum overhang as of the axis of the pile
o Minimum overhand as of the column
o Minimum width of the pile
o Carrying capacity of the pile
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112 CYPECAD
• Specific checks: mation which may arise is ignored and does not affect the
load distribution. For this to be fulfilled, the baseplate must
The geometric and mechanical checks specified in the be symmetrical (which the program always guarantees)
selected code are carried out for each type of pile. It is and sufficiently rigid (minimum thickness depending on its
recommended the user carry out an example of each length).
type and obtain their respective reports containing the
checks that have been undertaken as well as any war- The checks that are carried out to validate a baseplate can
nings which may have been emitted, references to arti- be divided into three groups, depending on the element be-
cles of the code or criteria used by the program. ing checked: foundation concrete, anchorage bolts and the
Reports containing the data that has been defined for baseplate itself, with stiffeners, if present.
the pile caps can be obtained, as well as their material
1. Concrete bearing check. This consists in verifying
take-offs, pile table and check list.
that the allowable bearing pressure of the concrete is
Regarding drawings, the geometry and reinforcement not exceeded below the most compressed point. The
arrangement of the piles is available graphically, with allowable bearing pressure method is used in this case,
additional material take-off and summary tables. whereby a triangular pressure distribution is assumed
to act on the concrete which can only act in compres-
sion. The concrete check is only carried out when the
As has been mentioned previously, various supports may be plate bears on it, and does not have a simple or com-
defined on the same pile, be it column or shear wall. Therefore posite tensile state. Any friction between the concrete
some geometric restrictions have been imposed which warn
and baseplate is ignored, i.e. shear and torsion resist-
the user when the distances between the supports and the ed-
ge of the pile caps or to the piles is limited. ance is provided exclusively by the anchorage bolts.
When several supports bear on a pile cap, their resultant force 2. Anchorage bolt check. Each bolt is, generally, sub-
is applied at the centre of the pile cap, using the strut and tie mitted to an axial force and a shear force. Each is eval-
method, and assuming the pile cap is rigid. Therefore the vali- uated independently. The program considers the bolts
dity of this method must be assumed, however, depending on
of plates bearing directly on foundation elements to on-
the specific case being analysed, the case may arise that this
method is not valid. Hence, the user must carry out the appro- ly work in tension. If the baseplate is at a distance from
priate manual corrections and complementary calculations. the top of the foundation element, the bolts may work in
compression, in which case the corresponding buck-
ling checks will be carried out on the bolts (the model of
a beam fixed at both ends is taken, with the possibility
of the supports being able to slide in a direction normal
to its longitudinal axis: b=1) and the forces transferred
4.8. Baseplates to the foundations (bending forces appear due to the
shear forces acting on the section).
When checking a baseplate, the program considers the
plate to be rigid in accordance with the Bernoulli hypothe- The program creates three check groups for each bolt:
sis. This implies that the plate is assumed to remain flat Stress in bolt stem. This consists in checking that the
when submitted to the applied forces, and so, any defor- stress does not exceed the design resistance of the bolt.
CYPE
Bolt anchorage in concrete. Apart from failure of the 3. Checks carried out on the plate.
bolt stem, another reason for failure may be due to fai- Calculation of global stresses. The program builds four
lure of the surrounding concrete. This may occur be- sections at the perimeter of the section, and checks
cause of the following reasons: each of them against the stresses. This check is only
- Slipping of the bolt due to lack of adherence undertaken for baseplates with overhangs (local buck-
- Failure due to concrete fracture cone ling of the stiffeners is not taken into account, and the
- Failure due to shear forces (stress concentration) user must check that their respective thicknesses do
To be able to calculate the fracture cone for each bolt, not make them excessively slender).
the program takes a set of lines with a common apex Calculation of local stresses: The section and stiffeners
that form an angle of 45º with the axis of rotational sym- divide the main plate into local plates which are then
metry. The program does take into account the reduc- checked. Using the pressure distribution of the con-
tion of the effective area within the fracture cone in crete and the axial forces in the bolts, the weighted
question, due to the presence of other bolts nearby. worst case bending moment of each local plate is ob-
The following effects are not taken into account by the tained. This is compared with the plastic failure bending
program and must be verified by the user: moment. This seems reasonable, as the worst case
- Bolts which are very close to the edge of the foun- point of each local plate is taken when it is being
dation element. No bolts should be at less than checked, as it is here where a local stress peak will be
their anchorage length from the edge of the founda- produced due to the appearance of plastic deforma-
tion element, as this reduces the effective area of tion, without reducing the safety factor of the baseplate.
the fracture cone. Additionally, another failure mech-
anism appears: lateral failure due to shear, which is
not contemplated by the program. 4.9. Mass concrete footings
- Reduced thickness of the foundation element. The
program does not contemplate the global fracture Mass concrete footings are those in which the ultimate limit
cone effect which appears when there are several state forces are resisted exclusively by the concrete.
bolts and the thickness of the concrete is small.
The program allows for reinforcement meshes to be placed
- The program does not contemplate the possibility
in the footings. However, the element as a whole shall be
of using pass-through bolts, as it does not carry out
taken as a weakly reinforced element in which the mission
the required checks for this case (stresses on the
of the reinforcement is really to control any fissures due to
other side of the concrete).
thermal retraction and contraction, but does not contribute
Crushing of the plate. The program also checks that, in increasing its force resistance.
at each bolt, the shear force that would produce crush-
At this point, it is worth highlighting that, against common
ing of the plate against the bolt is not exceeded.
belief, mass concrete structures require extra care in their
design and execution stages than reinforced or prestres-
sed concrete.
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114 CYPECAD
The main differences between mass concrete footings and

reinforced concrete footings will be dealt with in this Calcu-
lations manual. For options which are common to both
types, the user will be referred to the section on reinforced
concrete footings.
Where fck is in N/mm2 and h (depth) in mm.

4.9.1. Design of footings as rigid solids
The design of pad footings as rigid solids consists of two 4.9.2.2. Check for shear
checks:
The reference sections used for shear design are the same as
• Check for overturning those used for reinforced concrete footings and are explained
• Check of the allowable bearing pressures on the soil in the corresponding section of this Calculations manual.
All the sections have to verify that the maximum tangential

These two checks are identical to those carried out for rein-
stress produced by the shear force must not exceed fct,d
forced concrete footings and are explained in their respec-
given by:
tive chapter.
4.9.2. Design of footings as mass concrete struc-

tures 4.9.2.3. Check for oblique compression
It is in this section where the footings present the greatest The check for concrete failure due to oblique compression
differences with respect to reinforced concrete footings. is carried out at the edge of the support. The program
The three checks carried out for the structural design of checks the design tangential stress at the perimeter of the
mass concrete footings are detailed below. support is less than or equal to a maximum value.
This check shall be carried out in the same way, regardless

4.9.2.1. Check for bending of the concrete code being used; by applying article 46.4 of
the Spanish EHE-98 code. This article establishes the follo-
The reference sections of mass concrete footings used for
wing conditions:
bending design are the same as those used for reinforced
concrete footings and these are explained in the corres-
ponding section of this Calculations manual.
The program verifies for all the sections that the bending
stresses, for the flat deformation hypothesis, produced due
to the design bending moment, have to be smaller than the
tensile bending resistance, given by the following formula:
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Where 4.9.3. Design report

• fcd is the design compression resistance of the con-
crete In this section, the checks undertaken by the program for
• Fsd is the axial force the support transmits to the foot- mass concrete footings (constant depth, variable depth
ing and tapered) will be commented on.
• β is a coefficient which takes into account the eccen-
tricity of the load. When there is no moment transmis-
sion between the support and the footing, this coeffi-
cient is equal to one. If there is moment transmission, 4.9.3.1. Minimum depth check
depending on the position of the columns, the coeffi-
The program checks that the depth of the footings is grea-
cient will be equal to the values indicated in the table
below. ter than or equal to the minimum value indicated in the cor-
responding code for mass concrete footings.
β
In the case of tapered or variable depth footings, this check
Internal supports 1.15
is carried out at the edge.
Edge supports 1.4
Corner supports 1.5

4.9.3.2. Minimum depth check (for reinforcement an-
Load eccentricity coefficient values chorage lengths)
The program checks the depth of the footing is greater or
• u0 is the perimeter being checked. The values are as
follows: equal to the minimum value required to anchor the column
- For internal supports, it is equal to the perimeter of reinforcement or the baseplate bolts which are supported
the support. by the footing.
- For edge supports:
In the case of tapered footings, the depth that is checked is
- For corner supports: the depth at the pedestal.
Where c1 is the width of the side of the support par-
allel to the side of the footing in which the support is
an edge support and c2 is the width of the footing in 4.9.3.3. Maximum slope angle check
the direction perpendicular to the edge.
This check is similar to that carried out in the case of rein-
• d is the effective depth of the footing.
forced concrete footings.
This check is carried out for all the supports reaching the
footing and for all the combinations of the concrete combi- 4.9.3.4. Check for overturning
nation group.
The overturning check is similar to that carried out in the
The maximum tangential stress incurred after checking all case of reinforced concrete footings.
the supports and for all the combinations can be seen in
the analysis report.
This check is similar to that carried out for reinforced con-

crete footings.
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116 CYPECAD
4.9.3.5. Soil bearing pressures check • The resisting tangential stress of the same section
whose maximum design tangential stress is displayed.
The soil bearing pressures check is similar to that carried
out in the case of reinforced concrete footings. If a section (in one direction) fails the shear check, the data
shown in the check report is as follows:
4.9.3.6. Check for bending • The design tangential stress of the first section found
The check is carried out in accordance to that indicated in for which the shear check fails.
section 2.1. Displayed below is the data shown in the • The coordinate of the section which has been found to
check report for each direction: fail.
If all of the sections successfully pass the bending check in

one direction:
4.9.3.8. Check for oblique compression
• The worst case design moment acting at the section. This check is similar to that carried out in the case of rein-
• Within the additional information section, the maximum forced concrete footings and is explained in the correspon-
usage coefficient, which is the ratio of the maximum ding section of this Calculations manual.
acting moment to the resisting moment.
If a section fails, the data displayed in the check list for
4.9.3.9. Minimum reinforcement spacing check
each direction are as follows:
This is the only check carried out on the reinforcement a
• The first bending moment which has been found which user may place in a footing, as these are not taken into ac-
the section cannot resist. count in the analysis.
• The coordinate of the section at which this bending mo-
ment acts. In this check, the program verifies the separation between
the reinforcement axes is equal to or greater than 10cm.
This value is imposed regardless of the selected code as
4.9.3.7. Check for shear criteria of CYPE.
The shear check is carried out in accordance to what has This check is undertaken only in the case of when the user
been explained in section 4.7.2. of this Calculations manual. decides to place a mesh, and what the program intends to
The data displayed in the check reports is shown below: avoid is for the bars to be placed so close to one another
that pouring of the concrete of the footing may be hindered.
If all of the sections successfully pass the shear check in
one direction:
• The design tangential stress which produces the great-

est acting tangential stress to resisted tangential stress
ratio.
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4.10. Specific checks due to the code that has

been considered (footings, beams and pile
caps)
All the general checks that have been indicated can or can-
not be undertaken depending on the selected code. It is re-
commended a checklist be created of the results contai-
ning all the design code and calculated values that have
been applied to each foundation element.
4.11. Footings with non-rectangular limits

All that has been exposed previously is valid for non-rec-
tangular footings, bearing in mind that the same method is
applied as when there is more than one support on a foo-
ting.
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118 CYPECAD
5. Corbels
CYPECAD allows for corbels to be defined at column

faces. Only reinforced concrete or steel beams may be in-
troduced to rest on the corbel, and transmit the vertical
load to the centre of the support at a distance ‘a’ from the
face of the column.
The corbel transmits, with its eccentricity, the forces to the

column as an eccentric rigid bar.
The corbels have been brought about to be used, for ex-

ample, instead of a double column at a joint, or if, for what- Fig. 5.1. Corbel diagram
ever reason, it may not be convenient to fix the beam to the
column in that particular direction.
Corbels should not be used as column start points, as the

program does not allow for the column to be introduced on
the beam on which it starts, and the beam be supported at
both ends. In other words, columns cannot start at corbel
ends.
To develop the analysis and design of reinforced concrete,

the methods described in each concrete code that has
been selected are followed, in all aspects and with the cor-
responding checks. In the case of codes not containing Fig. 5.2. Simplified model of the
intersection zone of the corbel
any specifications, the criteria of other codes, which are
most similar and follow the same criteria of the program,
are used and these are stated in the check report.
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6. Joist floor slabs
6.1. Concrete joists 6.1.3. Estimating the deflection

6.1.1. Geometry The same method used for beams is applied here (Bran-
son method), whereby the equivalent stiffness is calculat-
This is defined in the data sheet of the floor slab. ed along the joist at 15 points.
6.1.2. Stiffness considered The gross stiffness is that estimated for the analysis and
the cracked stiffness is obtained depending on how the
The gross stiffness, when obtaining the stiffness matrix of user has defined the check for deflection in the floor slab
the bars of the structure, is that corresponding to a T sec- dialogue box options:
tion with haunches.
As reinforced joist. The top reinforcement is designed
The secant modulus of elasticity defined for the concrete of and known. This is not the case for the bottom reinforce-
the floor slabs will be taken here. ment, and so the program obtains the required reinforce-
ment based on the positive bending moment, and hence
this way estimates the cracked stiffness.
As prestressed joist. In this case the cracked stiffness

has to be indicated as a %age of the gross stiffness. This
depends on the type of joist and how much it has been
prestressed. It may be convenient to consult manufacturers
to introduce an adequate value.
Check for shear. The value of the shear force at the supports
is provided. The user is then responsible for the shear check.
Fig. 6.1
Where:
d: rib width = rib width + rib width increment 6.2. Reinforced/Prestressed joists
a: compression layer thickness
c: rib spacing These joists are prefabricated joists at specific factories
b: height of the form which are then transported onto site to be placed in the
building structure.
A specific properties sheet for the different types of joists is

provided displaying their moments, stiffnesses, etc. The da-
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120 CYPECAD
ta introduced in the program is that contained in the data 6.3.2. Stiffnesses

sheets provided by the manufacturers. These may not be
These are obtained based on the gross section of the con-
edited, nor can the user create his/her own user data
crete variable width T rib depending on the form, compres-
sheets. The user is to contact our Technical Department,
sion layer and rib spacing.
and send the required documents so their technical data
sheets may be included in future editions of the program,
which shall be implemented as soon a the data provided 6.3.3. Estimating the deflection
has been validated.
The Branson method is applied, as both the top and bot-
Users can also create their own properties sheet (Library) tom reinforcement are known, which are designed and the
using an independent program (Floor slab file editor) whe- deflection lengths obtained.
reby a file with all the properties can be created, imported
to the Library and then used in any job.
6.3.4. Design for bending
The deflection is estimated and a shear check is carried
The same criteria is applicable for the top reinforcement as
out. When designing the joist for bending, the program ver-
is for the previous types of concrete joists. The bottom rein-
ifies if there are any joist types which do not fail due to pos-
forcement is designed in accordance with the general
itive bending and have their top reinforcement defined for
concrete code selected for the design of all the concrete
negative bending within their data sheets. Please recall that
elements. Joist top reinforcement tables are available which
the top reinforcement is defined in the data sheets de-
are also used for generic concrete joists, and a specific ta-
signed to resist a specific moment with a specific cover,
ble for bottom reinforcement of in-situ joists. Its structure is
which should be taken into account to accept the validity of
similar to that of waffle slab ribs.
these manufacturer sheets.
When data is present in the sheets, the cracked limit state

can be checked depending on the environment or permis-
6.3.5. Design for shear
sible cracked width, forcing the design. As the rib is known and its longitudinal reinforcement, as
well as the shear forces acting on the joist, the program
The property sheets can only be created for the Spanish, checks if vertical reinforcement is required. If it is, the pro-
Portuguese and Brazilian codes. This feature is not availa- gram places vertical reinforcement legs in accordance with
ble for other codes. a diameter/spacing table.
Bottom reinforcement anchorage. In accordance with

that indicated in the various codes, the anchorage lengths
6.3. In-situ joist floor slabs are obtained at the end supports (beams or supports) di-
mensioning the bar end lengths, and necessary hooks.
6.3.1. Geometry
The basic parameters are defined, introducing them in the
sheet and selecting the type of form.
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6.4. Steel joists tubes, or double or quadruple angles. The diagonals will be
of the same section, only simple, and of the same series.
6.4.1. Geometry
The following data is defined: total external depth (nominal
The following data is defined: type of form, compression
depth) of the truss, rib spacing and the thickness of the
layer thickness, rib spacing, type of section (from the pro-
slab above the truss. The slab does not collaborate with
gram’s section library).
the truss, it simply resists and supports the applied loads.
They are designed using the same criteria applied to steel
beams, with the exception that, as all the spans are consid- 6.5.2. Considered stiffness
ered to be simply supported, i.e. pinned at their supports,
lateral buckling is not considered, as the top flange is con- The stiffness considered by the program is that of the steel
sidered to be braced by the compression layer when de- truss made up by the two chords with the defined separa-
signing the joists for positive moments. The program does tion, and taking the first section defined in the sections of
not design the joists to resist negative moments. Hence if the job, or whichever has been assigned in a later analysis.
the case arises, the program will emit this as an error, such In a similar way as with steel joists, these are designed as
as in the case of overhanging joists. This is because the simply supported spans, pinned at their ends, and hence
program does not detail the fixed or continuous connection they are not designed to resist negative moments.
with other panels made up of these joists which are submit-
ted to negative moments, even though the program de- 6.5.3. Joist design
signs it in this manner when this fixity is required when cal-
culating the forces to obtain equilibrium in these bars. They are designed as trusses, the moments are decom-
posed into a compressive force applied at the top chord,
If a solution has not been provided for these connections, which is assumed to not buckle due to the bracing effect of
the user will have to design the steel joists in areas where the concrete slab, and a tensile force at the bottom chord.
negative moments are present. The diagonals are designed for tension or compression,
assuming the loads are applied at the nodes, whereby their
The user is reminded that the sections are designed for
resultants are found depending on the geometry, height
simple bending, with moments and shear, ignoring axial
and spacing of the truss. When designing for buckling, they
forces and forces in the plane of the floor slab, due to the
are considered as being bars pinned at their ends, with an
rigid diaphragm hypothesis.
effective length equal to the real length of the diagonal bar.
The deflections are obtained as a beam with the aforemen-

6.5. Open-web joists tioned stiffness.
6.5.1. Geometry
These ribs are made up of trusses composed of steel sec-
tions containing a top and bottom chord and diagonals
6.6. Comments on the use of joist floor slabs
spanning between them. The chords may consist of single, The previously mentioned joist floor slabs are discretised in
double or quadruple circular or square hollow sections/ the analysis of the structure as bars in the integrated analy-
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122 CYPECAD
sis of the whole structure, coinciding with the axis of each For this reason, as of the 2002 version, whenever positive
rib that has been defined. The compression layer and form moments appear at the support, the program shows this sit-
produce a ‘load distributing’ effect, which in reality, occurs uation by displaying all the joists where this occurs in red.
due to deflection compatibility. Nonetheless, it is always
more approximate than the assumption of the floor slab be- This is particularly important in the case of generic joist floor
having as a continuous bseam supported by rigid pinned slabs (even if the user already knows beforehand which
supports, which only really occurs when the beams are type of joist is going to be used, prefabricated reinforced
rigid and torsional stiffness can be ignored even when the concrete joists and prestressed joists, where the user can-
spans vary greatly. not assure the anchorage at the supporting edge of the
beam.
In practice, flat beams and dropped beams are present
which, with the spans used, deflect more than they should, When faced with these circumstances, the user’s choice of
and present a certain amount of flexibility which the analy- action can differ depending on each case:
sis detects.
• Vary the structural design, shortening the span and in-
The deformation compatibility which must always be com- creasing the stiffness of the beam.
plied with, unless the section fractures or becomes exces- • Pinning the edges of the panels, so the joist floor slabs
sively plastic, makes it obligatory for both beams and joists become simply supported.
to displace in a joint manner. This may cause the joist floor
• Using in-situ joists in which the bottom reinforcement
slabs to behave in a non-foreseeable or anomalous way,
can pass through and so anchoring and overlapping.
whereby structural schizophrenia phenomena can arise,
usually caused by forcing the design of the structure in
such a way that the joists support the beams. Whichever the case, an unavoidable step consists in con-
sulting the force envelopes of the joist alignments. The user
This does not imply that the analysis is incorrect, simply can then opt to ignore the warning if the positive moment is
that the design, due to it being inadequate, exhibits unusu- negligible.
al behaviour.
The user should also consult the shear force envelopes, as
by using these, the user can deduce the force transmission
of the joists to the beams, and the case may occur, when
this transmission is scarce or negative, as has already been
mentioned.
If the user adopts the habit of checking the force en-

velopes, the consequences of introducing horizontal loads,
i.e. wind and earthquake loads, can be ‘seen’.
If the structural design is based on a roughly orthogonal

grid composed of beams spanning across supports, the
joists will usually limit themselves to transmitting vertical
Fig. 6.2 loads to the beams.
CYPE
If, however, within the structural design and dominant direc- On the other hand, the user must also recall that the results
tion adopted by the joists, there are no beams present that of the analysis should be checked and analysed using the
tie the supports, a virtual beam-frame is created using the available tools.
joist or joists that run in close proximity to the support. This
implies that they also support the horizontal loads in the
same way as the other frames of the structure in that same
direction. The user will have to be careful with this model,
especially when the alternating of the moments in those
joists leads to the appearance of large positive moments at
the supports. Therefore, a solution will have to be provided
be it conveniently reinforcing the joists (in-situ, infilling and
providing positive moment reinforcement, etc.), placing
beams or, if the user wishes to ‘trick’ the model and vary
the position of the joists so none of them pass through the
support, introducing equivalent non-structural beams,
which transmit the vertical loads but do not collaborate in
resisting the bending moments due to frame-effect.
If the user still wishes for the joists to not collaborate, or

may collaborate due to torsion of the beams, the adequate
model would consist of not introducing the floor slab and
substitute its reactions on the beams with line loads, calcu-
lated manually. Alternatively, an analysis using continuous
slabs can be carried out only for vertical loads. This can
then be copied and the user modify the fixity coefficients at
the support edges so they equal zero, i.e. pinned, hence
the floor slabs will behave as if they were simply supported.
The position of the joists can also be modified, so none co-
incide with the support and a very small torsional stiffness
coefficient (0.001) in the case of short bars can be intro-
duced.
Having explained the matter, the user must recall that an

expected solution cannot always be obtained using ap-
proximate methods. The alternative methods ‘work’, how-
ever in many cases, it is the absence of the service loads
and the use of partial safety coefficients which allow the
structure to ‘work’.
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124 CYPECAD
7. Sloped floor slabs
Sloped floor slabs may be introduced in CYPECAD, as is • It is recommended that at the intersecting edges of the
explained in the User’s manual, with the indicated possibili- sloped slabs, where beams have been defined, that
ties and limitations. supports be present to hold the beams (Fig. 7.2b),
(ridge and valley beams) and not defining structural sys-
It should be known that sloped floor slabs have the same tems whereby planes are supported by other planes.
properties as horizontal floor slabs, and in the structural
This is important as all the elements that belong to hori-
model that is generated upon inclining a plane, logically,
zontal or sloped planes, beams, joists, hollow core
the dimensions of the bars within that plane will vary and
plates, flat and waffle slabs are designed for simple
the lengths of the supports reaching the slab will differ. All
bending and shear, ignoring any effects due to axial
this may be visualised and consulted by activating the op-
force, be it a compressive or tensile force. Hence, struc-
tion Envelopes > 3D Model, for the last job that has been
tural designs which inevitably produce these forces
analysed.
should be avoided.
To ‘view’ the structure, use the 3D view of the building or It is convenient the user recall that axial forces appear
floor, to be able to see a particular floor. even with horizontal planes. A simple test can be car-
ried out by analysing a basic frame or lintel spanning
It is very important that the following information on sloped over two columns and axial forces will arise in the lintel,
slabs be taken into account: which varies depending on the stiffness of the supports.
• The rigid diaphragm hypothesis is maintained, this im- This is usually taken as a second order effect and is ig-
plies there is no relative displacement at 2 points of the nored. Therefore, sloped floor slabs have to be used
floor, even if they are sloped slabs. wisely, so these effects and possible non-compensated
lateral forces do not arise. By carrying out normal struc-
tural designs and based on general practice, problems
will rarely be incurred.
Use ‘sloped beams’ (Fig. 7.2d) with 6 degrees of free-
dom, which are designed for axial forces, when cases
that do not follow the previous recommendations arise.
Fig. 7.1 Exempt beams disconnected from the rigid diaphragm
can also be used. Consult chapter 12. Rigid diaphragm.
In other words, the group of horizontal and sloped • When the user wishes to eliminate columns at ridges or
planes are displaced in a joint manner, in accordance valleys, a horizontal slab can be introduced which acts
with the rigid diaphragm hypothesis. as a tie. If normal inclinations and spans are employed,
this floor slab, with its corresponding mesh, will be able
to absorb the tensile forces (Fig. 7.2e).
CYPE
ferentiated from other beams. They are always des-

igned with rectangular sections even thought they may
be trapezium shaped due to the intersection of both
planes.
Ridge and valley beams possess the same condition;
they are designed as rectangular beams, even if they
are flat and drawn V-shaped.
Fig. 7.3
Fig. 7.2
• Sloped slab reinforcement (joist floor, flat and waffle
• Sloped slabs are not to be supported by external fixity slabs) are drawn projected on plan, however its real
beams, unless they are very small, as the external fixity design length is provided.
beam will absorb the horizontal forces without transmit- When the beam bends, an optional symbol is indicated:
ting them to the rest of the structure. , , , so the user may know the shape
They are not to be supported by masonry walls either, of the bars at the points.
unless other structural elements are present which are • The design mesh and reinforcement arrangement in flat
capable of absorbing the horizontal forces. and waffle slabs is always orthogonal, in which one of
Masonry walls are elements which work well when the reinforcement directions is always placed in the di-
confronted with vertical loads, however they do not rection of the maximum slope and the other perpendi-
when exposed to bending in a direction normal to their cular to it.
plane. • Regarding applied loads:
• Common beam. This option is used to define beams - The self-weight of the structural elements (beams
which belong simultaneously to two groups, where one and floor slabs within inclined planes) and the dead
of them is a sloped slab which reaches the beam. loads included in the floor groups (Column Definition
In diagrams (a) and (e) of Fig. 7.2, common beams tab > Introduction > Floors/Groups > New floors or
would be used for the end beams perpendicular to the Edit groups) are obtained directly and calculated au-
plane of the drawing. tomatically, as their real magnitude is known.
The beams receive the loads from both slabs and are - Any additional loads associated to any other per-
visible at both groups. They are drawn differently (with a manent load loadcases (self-weight and dead
discontinuous line along their axis) so they may be dif- loads), must be increased proportionally due to the
inclination of the plane.
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126 CYPECAD
For example, in the case of a 100% slope (45º), Neither components projected vertically nor components
which is a large slope: normal to the sloped slabs (perpendicular to the panels)
are considered, as these are usually not determinant in a
building, even though the pressures may vary between 0.1
and 1 kN/m 2
and if minimum
values (always
greater than
that wind pres-
sure) have
been consid-
ered when
defining the live
loads, there is
Fig. 7.4
no need to
worry. Logically, this is for the case of sloping roofs ex-
• There is no need to modify the live load as it is consid- posed to wind loads where the dead load and cover materi-
ered to be projected horizontally, therefore, if the live al represent approximately 80% of the total load for normal
load is 1kN/m2, 1 is the value which is to be introduced buildings. It is not the case for a warehouse with lightweight
as the live load of the floor, or as the surface load as a roofing. If this were the case, the load introduced would
special load within a zone with a polygonal outline. have to be the envelope of the snow and wind loads.
Regarding line loads, for example due to partitions on

sloped panels whose vertical height is constant and
known, these can be obtained by multiplying the height by 7.1. Element design
the weight per square metre of the partition.
As has been mentioned earlier, the program designs all
• Snow should be introduced as a live load.
sloped elements for simple bending and shear, ignoring
• Regarding horizontal loads, the following should be tak- any axial forces.
en into account:
- Wind. This load is found for each floor level, whose The reinforcement details of beam alignments belonging to
value is obtained by multiplying the defined band sloped panels are presented as beam elevation drawings
width by the sum of the half-heights of the floor, and with their real magnitude and shape.
then applying it at the geometric centre of the floor Top reinforcement of joist floor slabs and bottom reinforce-
as a horizontal load. Therefore the user is to bear in ment of in-situ joists, waffle slabs and flat slabs are drawn pro-
mind that if the roof contains any sloped slabs, the jected horizontally and dimensioned with their real magnitude.
height (h) of the floor is to be that of its highest
point, which will always provide a wind load with a
larger applied safety factor.
CYPE
8. Composite beams
The analysis and design of composite beams is carried out To design the selected steel section and concrete slab, the
in accordance with Eurocode 4 (Design of composite program uses the concrete and steel codes selected in the
steel and concrete structures). General data dialogue box.
Steel sections (I beams) can be introduced below flat slabs

whereby the concrete above it collaborates by means of
shear studs.
A partial fixity coefficient of 0.05 is applied at edges con-

nected to composite beams (in the same way as the top
end of the last span of columns), so to reduce the negative
moment at the support by increasing the positive moment.
Composite beams are designed in such a way that the

steel section resists all the forces in the area with negative
moments, whilst the area of positive moments is resisted
by the composite section.
When designing for bending, the width of the contributing

concrete is not required; the program calculates this value
automatically:
• In the case of flat slabs, the effective width defined in

Eurocode 4 is taken.
• For sloped, waffle, hollow core and joist floor slabs, the
value will be the smallest amongst the effective width
and the width of the flange plus 10cm at either side (if
not at an edge, if it is, the program calculates the width
of the flange plus 10cm).
To check the sections in positive moment areas, the effec-

tive width is different to that considered when designing for
bending. Therefore the effective width for the negative mo-
ment area appears within the beam reinforcement editor, in
case reinforcement is added at the supports.
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128 CYPECAD
9. Composite slabs
Composite slabs are composed of a reinforced concrete The deck may be supported by steel, composite or con-
slab and steel deck, which also serves as formwork for the crete beams, walls, etc. where a minimum support length
concrete. The deck can be used to work in the following is required.
ways:
The analysis and design process is carried out in two phases:
• As a form deck. During the construction phase, the
deck alone resists its self weight, the weight of the fresh a) During the construction phase
concrete and the construction live loads. During the
• When analysing the resistance of the deck, the program
service phase, it is only the reinforced concrete slab
takes into account the weight of the concrete, the steel
that has a resisting function.
deck and construction loads. The construction loads
• As a composite deck. During the construction phase, represent the weight of the workers and concreting
the deck works as lost formwork (as in the previous equipment and any impact or vibrations which may
case). During the service phase, the deck is considered arise during its construction.
to combine structurally with the hardened concrete, act-
• When calculating the deflection, the construction loads
ing as reinforcement in tension, resisting the positive
are not taken into account.
moments in the finished floor slab. The deck is capable
of transmitting shear stresses at its interface with the • A fixity coefficient of 0 between the panel and any
concrete as long as a mechanical connection is pro- perimeter beams is considered internally by the pro-
vided by the deformations in the deck (embossments). gram (simply supported ribs).
• The option is available to design the deck if an ultimate
The analysis and design of the decks is carried out in ac- limit state or deflection limit state is not complied with,
cordance with Eurocode 4 (Design of composite steel and or calculate the separation between shoring without de-
concrete structures). signing the deck. If, in the first case, a valid result is not
obtained, the program calculates the distance between
Composite slabs are applicable to structural building proj- shoring.
ects when the loads imposed are predominantly static
loads, including the case of industrial buildings whose floor b) During the service phase
slabs may be submitted to mobile loads.
• For the service phase, the design continues as of the
The following parameters are limited: total depth of the deck obtained in the previous phase.
composite slab, thickness of the concrete above the deck • The program automatically assigns the panels a fixity
ribs and minimum height of the shear studs above the deck coefficient of 0, so the load distribution to the steel
ribs (in the case of composite beams). beams supporting the floor slab, is carried out in accor-
CYPE
dance with the theoretical band width and avoids the user has opted for the deck to be designed and no
appearance of positive moments at intermediate sup- suitable deck has been found, or whether it has not
ports. This can only be achieved by assigning a fixity been designed. In either case, if bottom reinforce-
coefficient of 0, regardless of the stiffness of the ment is provided, any contribution on behalf of the
beams, or by correctly pre-designing the beams. By deck is neglected.
carrying out an initial analysis and designing the When reinforcement has to be placed within the
beams, the user can change the value of the fixity coef- depth of the concrete, at least one bar per rib will be
ficient (between 0 and 1) and repeat the analysis. If the placed.
user assigns a fixity coefficient other that 0, two out-
comes may be obtained: The resistance of a composite slab will be sufficient to sup-
1. In the previous phase, a slab was obtained without port the design loads and to ensure that no failure limit
requiring shoring (self supported), if a suitable deck state is reached. The failure modes include:
was found. In this case, the slab must only be de-
• Critical section I. Bending: ultimate design bending
signed with the additional load after the slab has
moment value at mid-span. This section may be critical
been executed, composed of the respective dead
if there is complete connection at the interface between
and live loads, as the deck has supported the self
the deck and concrete.
weight of the slab. The way in which the program
can approximately take into account these loads is • Critical section II. Longitudinal shear force: the resist-
by applying fixity coefficients, which the program ance of the connection is decisive. The design value of
calculates and applies internally to continuous pan- the ultimate bending moment in Section 1 cannot be
els. As a guide, the value of the fixity coefficient to reached. This situation is defined as partial connection.
assign to panels depends on the ratio between the • Critical section III. Vertical shear and punching shear:
self weight of the slab and the total load, assuming design value of the ultimate shear force next to the sup-
a uniform load distribution. The value of the fixity co- port. This section will be critical only in special cases,
efficient would be: Fixity coeff. = User’s fixity coeff × for example in slabs with great depths and small spans
(1 – (self weight slab/total load)). with relatively large loads.
2. In the previous phase, a slab requiring shoring was
obtained. In this case the program considers the to- The design value of the bending moment resistance of any
tal load to be in the service phase, as well as the section is determined using the plastic moment theory of a
analysis the program undertakes when continuity is section with complete connection.
considered, using the value of the fixity coefficient at
the edges assigned by the user. In an elastic analy- To obtain the effective area of the steel deck, any emboss-
sis the total load = permanent load + live load, ments are ignored. This piece of data is to be supplied by
which is equivalent to building the slab using the user.
shoring, then removing it, and so the slab is left
The program calculates the design value of the positive
submitted to this total load.
moment resistance of the composite slab depending on
The deck may be optionally designed. The bottom
whether the neutral axis is located above or within the deck.
reinforcement may also be designed, whether the
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130 CYPECAD
To calculate the longitudinal shear, the design value of the

ultimate shear force is determined, which is, a function of
the ‘m-k’ coefficients, provided by the manufacturer of the
deck. This analysis corresponds to slabs without end an-
chorage; any end anchorage, e.g. bolts on a composite
beams is ignored.
The design value of the shear resistance of the composite

slab is determined.
Cracking in areas of negative moments is not analysed.
The Branson method is applied to calculate the deflec-

tion, as both the top and bottom (deck or bars) reinforce-
ment is known.
The deflection coefficients for the construction and service

phases are defined within the analysis options of the pro-
gram.
As has been mentioned, the program checks and designs

the elements in such a way so not to exceed the deflection
limits established for the construction phase. This is
achieved by increasing the thickness of the deck or provid-
ing shoring. Even though only the deflection is checked in
the service phase, CYPECAD does not design the deck,
and so, in this way, the deflection limits defined for the serv-
ice phase are verified, as what avoids exceeding the limits
is an increase in the total depth of the slab.
CYPE
10. Stairs
The stairs module analyses and designs the reinforcement • Intermediate landing
of stair slabs as separate elements of the job. Depending • Quarter turn landing
on the geometry, type, support arrangement and applied
• Half turn landing
gravitational loads, the program established the reactions
on the main structure. These are transferred to the structure
Straight flights can be defined as having straight landing at
as line loads and surface loads (for steps built on the floor)
their start and end. The user defines the length of each slab
as dead and live loads.
which will have the same width as the stair.
A staircase is a group of stair spans defining the vertical
Any initial steps that are built on the floor can be defined in
circulation of a specific zone of a building. A flight is the in-
the following way:
clined part of a stair slab spanning between two horizontal
planes and containing a series of steps. • Straight
• Intermediate landing with a turn, unsplit
The landing is an intermediate horizontal plane between
• Intermediate landing with a turn, split.
two consecutive flights.
The program resolves staircases whose spans between The width of half turn landings can be different to the width
floors are composed of flights (parallel or perpendicular to of the staircase.
one another) of the following types:
• Straight flight
10.1. Common data of the staircase
• Two straight flights with half turn landing
• Three straight flights with quarter turn landings The geometrical properties and loads of the staircase are
defined in the Staircase data tab.
• Two straight flights with full turn landing
• Two consecutive flights with intermediate landing These properties are common for all the stair spans of the
• ‘n’ straight flights with half turn landings same staircase. If there is a specific case whereby different
values have to be applied for the same staircase, e.g. dif-
• ‘n’ straight flights with quarter turn landings
ferent loads, then two staircases must be defined.
Other types can be defined whereby each span belonging

to the same staircase can be defined using any type of 10.1.1. Geometrical properties
stair containing any of the following elements: • Width. This is the width of the stair or length of the
steps
• Straight flight
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132 CYPECAD
• Tread and riser. The tread is the mean step width on The type of flight can be chosen from the range of predefi-
plan and the riser is the vertical distance between two ned types included in the program.
consecutive treads (step height).
The range of predefined types forms part of the job library,
• Rotation. The user can choose between left or right,
hence, one or more types can be used for one or several
depending on the direction followed by the person
stair spans and, therefore, in one or several staircases of
when going up the stair.
the job.
• Last step format. The last step of an ascending flight
can be designed in two ways: In the Flight > Create dialogue box, the following data is
- The intermediate landing or landing form the last specified:
step
• Reference. Identifies the type of span.
- Last step on the inclined span
• Slab depth. The program can propose the slab depth
10.1.2. Loads or it can be indicated by the user. The program will au-
tomatically design the slab depth if the Slab depth box
• Steps. The program allows the user to select whether is left deactivated; and so assign a value equal to 1/30
the steps are poured with the concrete slab, or if these of the maximum real span between supports.
are built on using bricks, which are the two most usual
If the Slab depth box is activated, the user manually
ways of creating the steps of a stair.
specifies the depth of the stair slab.
This data affects the load results of the analysis and the
• Start level difference. An elevation difference can be
concrete take-off of the job.
indicated for the start of each stair span (greater or
• Handrail, floor and live loads. The weight of the equal to 10cm) to represent a possible infill of the floor
handrails corresponds to the total weight of the of the slab.
handrails. Therefore, the user has to introduce this val-
This is usually applied in cases such as when stairs
ue bearing in mind whether there is one handrail or two.
start at foundation level and go past a high raised floor
or the screed of a basement, or when stairs start at ele-
vated slabs with respect to the corresponding floor.
10.2. Staircase flight data • Initial steps built on floor. If steps have been built on
the start of a stair span, the number of steps has to be
The stair flights are fractions of the staircase that span from indicated. Once the stair has been designed, the pro-
one floor to another and can consist of one or several gram applies a surface dead load reaction correspon-
flights. The flight properties can be different for each flight ding to the mean weight of the steps built on the floor.
(slab depth, initial steps built on floor, flight arrangement The program does not generate the live loads of the
and landings, number of step of each flight, stairwell width, zone taken up by the steps as the surface lies on a
steps build on landings, landing supports, etc.) structural elements (for example a floor slab) which al-
ready has an applied live load.
CYPE
• Flight and landing arrangement. One of the indica- such as a beam or wall, to which the end reaction is
ted types is selected. transmitted.
• Number of steps. Depending on the selected stair
type, the user has to indicate the number of steps for Once the staircase has been inserted, the program allows
each flight. for new staircases, identical to the one before, to be intro-
duced, whose references are numbered consecutively.
• Stairwell width. This is only required if there are half
turn landings. Click on the right mouse button to finish introducing the
• Steps built on intermediate landing. If there are any, staircases.
the number of steps is to be indicated.
If there is a geometrical problem with the staircase intro-
• Landing supports. The program allows for landings to duction, the program will indicate this by means of an error
be supported or free spanning (overhanging). message on screen.
In the case of supported landings, front supports or lat-
eral supports or both can be provided.
• Support type and width. The program allows for the 10.3. Results, reports and drawings of the
following types of supports to be provided at landing
Stairs module
edges:
- Hanging bar: These are bars that hold the edge of 10.3.1. View staircase reinforcement details
the landing by means of a structural element (usual- Click on the button from the Stairs floating menu, fol-
ly a beam) situated on the floor above the landing. lowed by a click with the left mouse button on the staircase
The program requires the width to be able to con- to view its reinforcement. If it is the first time the staircase
sider the weight of the brick wall situated between has been selected or modifications have been carried out
the landing and the floor above. since the last analysis, the program will proceed to design
- Masonry wall (*) and reinforce it. Once the staircase has been designed, a
- Concrete wall (*) window will be appear displaying the reinforcement of each
(*) Its load is applied on the structural element situated
under the supported edge of the landing on the floor flight making up the staircase.
below. The self weight is taken as the load of a wall of a
given width and of height equal to the level difference To view the reinforcement of other flights of the staircase,
between the intermediate landing and the floor below. A click on the drop down menu situated at the top left hand
specific weight of 15.70 kN/m3 is taken for the case of a corner of the window.
masonry wall and of 24.53 kN/m3 for the case of a con-
crete wall. If there were to be a wall spanning between
the intermediate landing and the floor above, or any
other type of partition or external wall, the user must 10.3.2. View forces and displacements using
apply the line load on the floor below corresponding to contour maps
the load of the aforementioned element.
The program designs the stairs individually and by finite
- With connectors: these are shear connectors join- element method, generating a thick shelled triangular
ing the intermediate landings to a structural element mesh, taking into account the usual loadcases in the des-
ign of staircases: dead and live loads.
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134 CYPECAD
The start and end supports are simulated by means of an 10.3.3. Staircase design
elastic beam with an assigned stiffness that simulates a
Staircases can be designed using any of the following me-
floor slab support, in a similar way as to what occurs with
thods: Complete analysis with CYPECAD and Individual
intermediate supports with their hanging bars, masonry
design.
walls or connectors. The reactions are obtained and are in-
tegrated resulting in a line load which is applied to the When the job is being analysed, all the staircases are also
structure. designed, so that their reactions can be applied to the main
structure. Therefore, the first thing the program analyses
To view the forces and displacements of a staircase click
are the stairs.
on the button from the Stairs floating menu, followed
by a click with the left mouse button on the staircase whose If the job has not been analysed, each staircase can be
results you wish to consult. If it is the first time the staircase designed individually upon selecting the or buttons
is selected or if changes have been carried out since the and clicking on the staircase for the first time or after the
last analysis, the program will design it. Once the staircase staircase has been modified.
has been designed, a window displaying a three dimensio-
nal view of the stair flight will open. The displacements and If the user modifies the staircase once the job has been
forces of the selected flight can then be consulted. analysed and these changes affect the reactions of the
staircase on the structure, a new analysis should be laun-
ched so that these modifications are taken into account.
The program warns of this situation.
10.3.4. Reports
Added to the list of job reports, is the option to generate a
report of all the staircases introduced in the job.
The stair reports contain the general data of all the stair-
cases of the job (materials and code used), common data
(geometry, loading, etc.) and specific data (reactions on the
main structure, reinforcement, resultant forces in each span
section) of each flight.
10.3.5. Stair drawings

The drawings display all the required information to define
the stair layout: longitudinal and transverse sections, pro-
perty tables of each span with its geometric data, loads
Fig. 10.1 and materials. The reinforcement takeoff tables are also in-
cluded (per staircase, flight and total steel summaries).
CYPE
11. Integrated 3D structures
As of the 2007 version of the program, and for those users 4. Any Integrated 3D structure can be analysed, des-
who have acquired Metal 3D with the same license as CY- igned and checked independently. The supporting
PECAD, a connection between both programs is available. nodes are considered to have external fixity and coin-
Its presentation is almost identical to that of Metal 3D, so cide with the connections defined in CYPECAD.
users can define one or several independent zones as In- 5. When the main structure of CYPECAD is analysed, both
tegrated 3D structures and connected to the general models are integrated in a combined matrix which is re-
structure, made up of groups and floors, of CYPECAD. solved with the current sections of each Integrated 3D
structure and applying the loadcases, which are com-
A possible example for this use could be: A shopping cen-
mon to both parts, a completely integrated analysis is
tre with flat slabs (CYPECAD) and steel roof (Metal 3D), with
provided.
a terrace partially covered by timber beams (Metal 3D).
6. Import Metal 3D jobs is an option within the program
There are many other examples for which the Integrated 3D which imports a Metal 3D job and transforms it into an
structures can be used. Below are their main properties: Integrated 3D structure. The materials and steel section
series must be the same as those in CYPECAD, other-
1. Connection between structures: wise, they will be lost when the job is imported.
(CYPECAD-Integrated 3D structure)
The dead loads are placed in the dead loadcase, whe-
• It has to be at existing columns or previously crea-
reas the live loads (such as wind, snow or accidental
ted starts (in the Column Definition tab).
loads) are created within additional loadcases. The
• They can also be connected to beams, walls, flat or
combination groups are those defined in the General
waffle slabs.
data of CYPECAD. For the wind loads, if the job that
• The connecting bar can be adjusted to the centre,
has been imported from Metal 3D has loadcases its
side or vertices; generally, at any point.
loadcases defined, it is recommended their compatibi-
• Elevation differences can be defined for the
lity with the automatic loadcases generated by CYPE-
connection, so it can connect at the middle zone of
CAD be studied.
any column or start.
2. The analysis method is the same as that described in

We recommend that the calculation manual of Metal 3D be
the Calculations manual of Metal 3D, with the same studied as a complement to fully understand how integrated
graphical interface and features. 3D structures behave, as these are basically, the same as an
3. All the loadcases and combinations that are generated isolated Metal 3D job, with the additional advantage of being
integrated in CYPECAD.
are shared, and are defined in the General data dia-
logue box of CYPECAD.
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136 CYPECAD
12. Rigid Diaphragm
12.1 Rigid diaphragm in exempt beams red to comply with the rigid diaphragm hypothesis at that
floor level. As of the 2012.a version, the rigid diaphragm
As of the 2012.a version, the possibility has been included consideration at floor level is only maintained if the wall is in
of eliminating the consideration of the rigid diaphragm in contact with a floor slab. Therefore, if the wall is exempt at
exempt beams, i.e., those beams that have been introdu- floor level or is only in contact with exempt beams or other
ced in the floor distribution using the types of beams avai- walls, all the nodes of the bar that are generated at the in-
lable in the Current beam dialogue box and do not have tersection of that floor and the nodes of the triangular finite
any floor slab contacting them (except the external fixity elements of the wall have 6 degrees of freedom.
and limit beams types).The program, by default, considers
all the beams to be “connected” to the rigid diaphragm If the wall is in contact with a floor slab along any part of its
and hence possess 3 degrees of freedom and the rigid length on a floor, all the wall will remain connected to the ri-
diaphragm hypothesis is maintained. For example, a conti- gid diaphragm of that floor, including those spans where
nuous beam supported by several columns, even though it there are no floor slabs. Nonetheless, the rigid diaphragm
does not have a floor slab, conserves the rigid diaphragm hypothesis can be partially eliminated using the option Di-
hypothesis.As of the 2012.a version, exempt beams can be vide beam (Beam Definition tab > Beams/Walls menu), so
disconnected from the rigid diaphragm using the option Ri- that by applying this division at the transition points bet-
gid diaphragm in unconnected beams (Beam Definition ween the part with the applied rigid diaphragm hypothesis
tab > Beams/Walls menu). Beams that are disconnected and the exempt part, will leave these last parts free or
using this option go on to possess six degrees of freedom exempt with 6 degrees of freedom.
at either end with the corresponding forces: axial force, mo-
ment in the vertical and transverse plane, and torsional mo- If the option to reinforce wall crown beams is activated (Job
ment; and hence their reinforcement will be designed to re- > General data > By position button > Beam reinforce-
sist all these forces. Regarding buckling in exempt horizon- ment within walls and crown beams), the crown beam
tal steel or concrete beams, the free length of the beam, re- spans that are located on wall spans without floor slabs (if
gardless of whether it is in the vertical plane or horizontal the user has applied the Divide beam option to disconnect
plane, is taken as the buckling length. that span), and crown beams of walls without floor slabs
along all their length, are designed for the six acting forces.
12.2 Rigid diaphragm in reinforced concrete Similarly, beams coinciding with intermediate floor and
walls, masonry walls and reinforced concrete crowns of masonry and concrete block walls are also des-
block walls igned in the same way if the option is activated for these
types with the advantage that it also designs at interme-
In previous versions to the 2012.a version, any wall in diate floor level.
contact with a floor slab, beam or other wall was conside-
CYPE
13. Code implementation
12.1. Load codes

CYPECAD allows its users to analyse and design their struc-
tures in accordance to a wide variety of codes which have
been implemented in the program. New codes are constant-
ly being added to the existing list and so users are recom-
mended to consult the program updates website
(www.codes.en.cype.com) for these new implementations.
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138 CYPECAD
12.2. Material codes
CYPE
12.3. Combinations codes
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140 CYPECAD
14. Interaction of the structure with the construction elements
The analysis of the effects earthquakes have on buildings A more general analysis approach, contemplated by cur-
confirms the need to encourage the development of tools rent design standards, is to carry out an analysis using
to analyse structures exposed to seismic action in a more maximum response spectrums. Based on a three-dimen-
realistic way. sional model of the structure, which considers the most re-
presentative degrees of freedom, and the response spec-
Seismic Risk comprises two fundamental concepts: seis- trums defined by each design standard, adapted to speci-
mic danger and the dynamic behaviour of structures expo- fic variables (seismic zone, type of soil, etc.), the maximum
sed to accidental external loads. Current knowledge of requirements are obtained for each vibration mode of the
these two concepts is still limited due to the uncertainty that structure.
exists with the information and methods to study them.
The modal spectral analysis is a dynamic analysis process
For example, in the case of seismic danger, there is uncer- which consists in establishing the maximum response of
tainty regarding the prediction, location and quantification the structure based on its vibration modes (deformed
of the strength of an earthquake, whilst in the case of the shape – eigenvectors) and their respective natural vibration
dynamic behaviour of the structures, the uncertainty lies in frequencies (eigenvalues). The final response of the struc-
knowing the behaviour of the structure itself, the quality of ture is given by an adequate combination of these modal
the construction materials, the construction processes that contributions. This analysis method is applied based on the
have been undertaken, etc. following general conditions:
The work undertaken for this module has been aimed at • The vibration modes of the system must be obtained
studying the dynamic behaviour of structures and how they using methods established in structural dynamics.
interact with the non-structural elements the buildings are
• All the modes of the structure which may contribute in a
composed of, as well as establishing the worst-case des-
significant manner to its dynamic response must be
ign forces obtained from combining seismic action with
considered.
other static loads acting simultaneously.
• The maximum response of each mode is obtained
Nowadays, the structural analysis of buildings can be car- using the defined design spectrum ordinates in accor-
ried out using different analysis methods with different de- dance with the corresponding design code, for the vi-
grees of complexity. A simple procedure consists in using a bration period of the mode.
simplified static method based on obtaining equivalent sta- • The maximum modal responses for each variable that
tic forces, which avoids having to carry out a dynamic be- intervenes in the analysis (displacements, distortions,
haviour analysis of the building. Further to the application forces, etc.) are combined to obtain the total maximum
restrictions, any possible inaccuracies of the method are resultant response to the seismic action.
counteracted with oversized elements which reduce the
competiveness of the resulting designs.
CYPE
Fig. 14.1. Summary of the dynamic modal spectra analysis process
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142 CYPECAD
Fig. 14.2. Deformed shapes of a structure associated to the vibration modes calculated by the program
The ground floor of many residential buildings in urban The façades and partitions of the building are considered to
zones is destined to be used as retail precinct, whereas be “non-structural” elements, however, they do provide stiff-
the upper floors contain dwellings. The floor slab is usually ness to the structure and modify the distribution and mag-
designed as having a flat bottom surfaces, consisting of a nitude of the forces that arise due to seismic action. For
joist floor slab with flat beams, waffle or flat slab, although it example, when the stiffness associated with the partitions is
is also possible they may have dropped beams with res- not uniform on all floors, the horizontal forces have greater
pect to the bottom plane of the floor slab. impact on the columns belonging to the floors with less
stiffness, producing shear forces of a high magnitude in the
When there are no additional earthquake-resistant ele- columns. If these have not been designed accordingly, the
ments, such as shear walls, the horizontal forces due to forces can cause a fragile fracture, endangering the stabi-
seismic action are resisted by the stiffness of the connec- lity of the building, even leading to its collapse.
tions between the columns and floor slab (rigid node).
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Fig. 14.3. The non-uniform stiffness distribution between floors causes there to be greater forces acting on the columns of the less rigid floors,
giving rise to fragile fractures if the elements have not been designed accordingly
Many design standards on today’s market establish the need to have to consider how the non-structural elements affect the
overall stiffness of the building.
Fig. 14.4. The actual design is based on models which only contemplate the structurally resistant elements. However, a more thorough analysis
should take into account the stiffness and resistance provided by the façades and partitions
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Hence, several linear analysis models should be defined

and solved to cover the different situations that could occur
in reality. Initially, it is not possible to know which is the
worst-case situation as, in many cases, a change in the lo-
cation of the partitions causes abrupt changes in the stiff-
ness and, consequently, unfavourable effects on the struc-
tural elements.
Fig. 14.5. This new tool allows for the behaviour of the structure to be verified for different situations so to guarantee the correct response is ob-
tained for all the possible behaviour loadcases during an earthquake
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This way, the analysis method that has been developed is The program generates the equivalent masonry bars to
capable of estimating, in a sufficiently precise way, the be- consider the effect of each construction element. It is im-
haviour of the building during an earthquake, considering portant to note that this stiffness is only developed if the
the structural elements and taking into account how they construction element is laterally confined between columns,
may be influenced by the remaining construction elements. shear walls or walls.
An example is analysed further on in this chapter, which
displays how important it is to verify the possible states or
situations of the structure due to its interaction with the
non-structural elements.
14.1. Model used to analyse the effect of the

non-structural elements
The analysis model, which includes the influence of the
non-structural elements on the building in the presence of
an earthquake, and how the façades and partitions behave
bearing in mind they do not have a structural role, has been
developed by the investigation team of CIMNE (Centro In-
ternacional de Métodos Numéricos en Ingeniería) of the
UPC (Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña), together with
the company PRISMA, S.L. and the technical team of CYPE
SOFT, S.L. Fig. 14.7
14.2. Cracked or fractured states

The analysis method that has been developed allows for
the modal spectral analysis to be carried out of successive
dynamic models that are generated automatically, which in-
clude the stiffness of the non-structural elements (façades
and partitions) and their situation or state.
Users have the possibility to only consider two extreme

analysis states: that corresponding to the structure without
taking into account the effect of any construction elements,
and that which considers all the construction elements that
are laterally confined, assuming they are not cracked or
Fig. 14.6. Representation of the model that has been considered to fractured.
include the effect of the non-structural elements in the analysis:
“equivalent masonry bar contained in a frame”.
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146 CYPECAD
It is also possible to consider the automatic generation of vel, for each construction element, which provides the rela-
states based on a fracture criterion which relates the da- tive displacements and associated damage level for each
mage suffered by an element with the relative displacement state that is generated for each seismic loadcase.
of its ends. These are intermediate states, in which each la-
terally confined element provides a percentage of its stiff-
ness depending on the level of damage it has reached.
The intermediate states are generated automatically based

on the model in which all the construction elements are
considered to be effective. A modal spectral analysis of the
model produces a relative displacement between the ends
of each construction element which, upon applying the
fracture criterion, is interpreted as being a specific level of
damage. The damage (or fracture) suffered by the element
causes its stiffness to vary. The new stiffness obtained for
each construction element is included in the new dynamic
model which is used for the next modal analysis. New rela-
tive displacements are obtained and each element reaches
a new damage level, with their change in stiffness, and so
the next model is generated. This process is repeated suc-
cessively for each seismic loadcase that is considered. Fig. 14.8
This iterative process stops when the damage level stabi-

lises between two states (which occurs when the difference
between the level of damage of the last analysed state and
the previous state is less than 5% for each element) or
when the maximum number of iterations established by
users is reached. This will be the last state of Final state.
If all the intermediate states that are generated are conside-

red in the design of the structure, the time required to carry
out the analysis can be substantially increased. Hence, the
process can be configured so that only the final state is
considered in the design, without taking into account the
intermediate states. If the option to obtain intermediate
states is considered, users can consult the Damage level
Fig. 14.9
option: Result tab > Construction elements > Damage le-
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14.3. Analysis example

Using this analysis example, the states or situations of the
structure due to its interaction with the non-structural ele-
ments will be verified. For this case, an open floor (Soft Sto-
rey) building will be used.
Fig. 14.9
In addition to the structurally resistant system (columns-

beams-slabs), partitions and façades are also introduced
(non-structural elements). These consist of 25 cm and 10
cm thick masonry walls. However, until now, only one case
or the other could be analysed.
Fig. 14.8
In this example, it is interesting to compare the behaviour of

the structure with and without the influence of the construc-
tion elements being introduced.
14.3.1. Description of the structure

The structure consists of a reinforced concrete building with
6 floors (5 + lift machinery room), made up of frames with
spans ranging between 4,5 and 5,6 m and with 15 cm thick
flat slabs. The frames are composed of columns which start
at foundation level and measure 45x45 cm, and are redu-
ced to 30x30 cm at the higher floors; the beams are 30x30
cm dropped beams. The height of each floor is 3 m. Fig. 14.10
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148 CYPECAD
The stiffness of the elements in the analysis is taken ap-

plying the method proposed by CIMNE. The construction
element will only develop its stiffness if it is confined other-
wise the program will generate the corresponding line load
but will not be assigned a stiffness.
The program generates an “equivalent masonry bar” for

each confined element. Depending on its properties, it will
be assigned an area, a length and a homogenised modu-
lus of elasticity which define the stiffness of the element to
be included in the dynamic analysis model of the structure.
Fig. 14.11
14.3.2. Construction elements

Using this analysis method, the mechanical and elastic pro-
perties are assigned to each construction element, and so
not only are the loads associated to these elements genera-
ted and considered in the analysis method, but also their stiff-
ness, using a data entry interface similar to that of line loads.
Fig. 14.13. Properties of the equivalent masonry bars that are gene-
rated
14.3.3. Seismic action

A modal spectral analysis shall be considered for the seis-
mic action, applying the NCSE-02 Spanish code. The loca-
tion, type of soil, properties of the structure and other para-
meters shall be selected; the program then generates the
corresponding spectrum with which the analysis is carried
Fig. 14.12. Properties of the types of masonry considered. Assistant out.
to help users with the most frequently used values
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causes abrupt changes in the stiffness and, therefore, an ir-

regularity similar to that described previously. Therefore, the
stiffness provided by the various non-structural elements
can change during an earthquake, due to the cracks and
fissures that appear successively.
A uniform distribution of partitions and façades has been

introduced along the building’s height, except for the
ground floor. The program automatically analyses two mo-
dels or states: the model in which only the structural ele-
ments are considered and the model that includes the
structural elements and their interaction with the non-struc-
tural elements, contemplating the stiffness of the latter ele-
ments in the stiffness analysis.
Fig. 14.14. Seismic action definition dialogue box for the NCSE-02
Spanish code
The aim of this example is to demonstrate how important it

is to consider how the stiffness differs along the height of
the building, as it causes greater forces to arise in the resis-
tant elements of the floors with less stiffness.
As has been indicated previously, it is those buildings

whose ground floor is for retail use that, generally, have a
stiffness irregularity, making them weaker at that floor. The
difference in stiffness is due to their height usually being
greater than that of the floor above and, that due to their
use, is a much more open floor. Even if the stiffness of the
ground floor were to be similar to that of the floors above it,
during the first instants of an earthquake, the partitions of
the lower zones of the building are the first to fail, which Fig. 14.15. Analysis models or states that are generated
automatically
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150 CYPECAD
The dynamic modal spectral analysis provides two mode Depending on the stiffness of the models, the intervals and,
groups corresponding to the states that have been consi- therefore, their associated accelerations will vary. Additio-
dered. For each state, the modal responses (forces, displa- nally, the vibration modes are different for each state, affec-
cements, distortions, etc.) are combined using the CQC ting the resistant elements in a different manner. This ex-
method to obtain the response for each seismic loadcase plains why a state can be the worst case state for a specific
(Earthquake X and Earthquake Y) and for each state, in resistant element, but not for another. Hence, the new im-
such a way that the following dynamic loadcases are plemented tool will analyse the elements considering both
considered: states.
• Earthquake X (state 1)
• Earthquake X (state 2)
• Earthquake Y (state 1)
• Earthquake Y (state 2)
Both states are considered in the combinations of the seismic

action with the other static actions, designing each structural
element for the worst case situation it is exposed to.
Displayed below are some sections of the “Justification of

seismic action” report provided by the program. The two
calculated mode sets are displayed for the two states of
the structure that have been considered with their participa-
tion coefficients, percentage of displaced mass in each di-
rection and associated spectral acceleration. The informa-
tion contained in the tables on the design spectrums used
in the analysis is then displayed on a graph, and the period
intervals that have been studied for each state are repre-
sented.
If the results are observed, it can be seen that the periods

of state 2, in which the effect of the non-structural elements
is considered, are smaller than those obtained for state 1,
Fig. 14.16. Participation coefficients for state 1
i.e. state 2 takes into account a model with greater stiffness
than that in state 1.
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Fig. 14.17. Participation coefficients for state 2
Fig. 14.19. Deformed shape associated to

the mode that displaces the most mass in
the X direction for each state
The forces for each mode and

state, for each seismic loadcase are
displayed in the “Forces and rein-
forcement of columns, shear walls
and walls” report.
Fig. 14.18. Graphical representation of the period intervals for each

state. Superposition of the states
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152 CYPECAD
Fig. 14.20. Forces and reinforcement of columns, shear walls and

walls
The element check reports display that the static load

and dynamic load combinations of both the states have
been taken into account in the analysis. This way, diffe-
rent seismic behaviour loadcases are considered; the
worst case being taken to design the element. For exam-
ple, below is the check of “Failure due to shear (seismic
combinations)” for a column span between floor 4 and
roof, and a span between foundation and floor 1. It can
be seen that the worst case situation for the first example
is for state 1, and for the second example is for state 2.
Fig. 14.21. Check on “Failure due to shear (seismic combinations)

for column P9
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To conclude, a comparison is carried out of the total shear The new tool allows users to place the partitions and fa-
per floor, in each analysis direction, produced by the seis- çades on the various floors, taking into account their stiff-
mic loadcase for each stiffness state that is considered. By ness If they have not been distributed in the same way on
considering the effect or interaction of the non-structural each floor, a stiffness irregularity will automatically be gene-
elements, the irregularity of the structure can be automati- rated, which is considered directly in the analysis. In this
cally taken into account in the analysis. When there is a example, it can be seen with the ground floor, which is an
non-uniform distribution between floors of the stiffness as- open floor and therefore has less stiffness. The following
sociated with the partitions, the horizontal forces have a graph displays the total shear per floor produced by the
greater impact on the columns belonging to the floors with seismic loadcase for each stiffness state that has been
less stiffness, producing shear forces of a high magnitude considered. It can be seen that, for the case in which the
in the columns. If these have not been designed accordin- stiffness irregularity is considered, the forces at the ground
gly, the forces can cause a fragile fracture, endangering the floor are much greater (approximately twice as large) than
stability of the building, even leading to its collapse. those obtained if this irregularity is not considered. Hence
the analysis results generated before applying this new me-
thod (only state 1 was provided) provided smaller forces
that those which could arise.
Fig. 14.22. Total X shear by floor and state. (Modal combination = CQC; Combination of directions = SRSS)
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154 CYPECAD
Fig. 14.23. Total Y shear by floor and state. (Modal combination = CQC; Combination of directions = SRSS)
This unfavourable effect was not taken into account in the is no longer left to the designer’s judgement, nor is it ap-
analysis until now and many design codes offer the possi- plied in a deterministic manner based on a design code;
bility to simulate it by amplifying the forces of a floor that is the analysis itself provides us with the value of the amplifi-
considered as a soft-storey, by a specific factor. The shears cation factor. As can be seen in the example, the factor ob-
and moments resulting from the analysis in which only the tained from the analysis is 2.3 for Earthquake X and 2.25 for
structural elements have been considered, are amplified by Earthquake Y. These values are within the range of values
a factor that varies depending on the seismic design code provided by design codes for which shear forces are to be
that has been considered. The improvement provided by amplified due to “soft-storey” effects, which range between
this new tool is that the analysis itself tells us directly which 1.5 and 2.5. Therefore, the analysis itself, upon including
floor is soft, without the designer having to establish it be- the stiffness irregularity, provides greater forces in the least
fore the analysis. Additionally, the force amplification factor rigid floor, without the need of having to consider the effect
indirectly by amplifying specific forces later on.
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Fig. 14.24. Total X shear by floor and state, considering an amplification factor of 2.5 for the forces of the ground floor. (Modal combination =
CQC; Combination of directions = SRSS)
Fig. 14.25: Total Y shear by floor and state, considering an amplification factor of 2.5 for the forces of the ground floor. (Modal combination =
CQC; Combination of directions = SRSS)
CYPE

CYPECAD Calculations Manual

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alculations manual

YPECA Software for

CYPE Ingenieros, S.A.

IMPORTANT: PLEASE READ THE FOLLOWING TEXT CAREFULLY.

Windows is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation.

Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 1.7.3. Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

1.12.5. Joist floor slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 3. Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88

2.1. Discretisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 4. Footings and pile caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102

2.9.1. Foundation beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86 4.6. Tie beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108

2.9.2. Mat foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 4.7. Pile caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109

6.5.3. Joist design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121 13. Code implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137

14. Interaction of the structure with

• Joist floor slabs

grated at the supports and represented as line loads,

1.3.1. Node sizing

As an example, the discretisation would be carried out as

The bars defined between the axis of column 1 and its

In the overall analysis of frames, when lef is less than the

Generally, the reaction at the support is eccentric due to

1.3.2. Force envelopes at supports

“Usually, the span l has to be introduced as the distance

x=1 Q = Q2 = 3al2 + 2bl + c

Within the support, the depth of the beams is considered to

By considering a moment redistribution, the resulting rein-

column and shear wall contact edges where the connection

Pinned connections can also be defined at beam ends.

Joists G.S. ∞ G.S. · x ∞

Hollow core plates It is recommended that reinforcement capable of resisting a

Consult Job > General options > Torsional stiffness

• Symmetrical top reinforcement in single span beams

• General and specific options

1.5. Loads to consider Additional loadcases (special loads)

1.5.1. Vertical loads As indicated, CYPECAD generates automatic loadcases,

Dead loads Additional loadcases associated to Lateral soil pressures

Columns or starts with the applied loads can be introduced

When there are independent areas on the same floor, the

B is the tributary width defined when the wind acts in the Y

Having defined the directions in which the wind acts, the

It is possible to apply both general methods or the specific

As a general method, the seismic loads can be applied by

The following step consists in condensing (simultaneous

The condensed vibration modes that are obtained (also

The program uses de CQC method (complete quadratic

Once the natural vibration frequencies have been found,

where: ω: Angular frequency = 2π/T

The method is based on the P-delta effect of the displace-

A horizontal load Hi acts at each floor i. The structure de-

γfgi: Safety coefficient for permanent loads of loadcase i

It must be recalled when calculating the displacements due

Floor beams and foundation beams

Floor slabs and mat foundations 1.7. Weighting factors

• U.L.S. for failure. Concrete. Section design. • Without combination coefficients

• U.L.S. for failure. Foundation concrete. Section design.

Seismic situations 2. Job description (2 lines).

1.9. Data entry

Waffle slab, drop panel and joist floor slab top

12. Additional loadcases (special loads)

Likewise, the weighting factors are validated depending on

1.9.4. Seismic loading