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Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

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Original Article

Correlation of eddy current signals obtained from

EDM notches and fatigue cracks

Cesar G. Camerini a,b , Lucas B. Campos b , Vitor M.A. Silva a,b , Daniel S.V. Castro a,b,∗ ,
Rafael W.F. Santos c , João M.A. Rebello b , Gabriela R. Pereira a,b
a Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering(COPPE-UFRJ), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
b Laboratory of Nondestructive Testing, Corrosion and Welding (LNDC), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ,
Brazil
c CENPES – PETROBRAS Research Center, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: For calibration of eddy current testing, artificial defects are commonly used by virtue of
Received 30 April 2019 its simple production and ease control of geometric parameters. However, such defects are
Accepted 20 August 2019 significantly different in terms of geometric aspects from real ones, even with a precise
Available online xxx control of the manufacturing process. To ensure reliable calibration results, it is mandatory
to establish a relationship between the signals from artificial (machined) and real defects.
Keywords: This work exposes a detailed study correlating eddy current signals from electrical discharge
Eddy current testing machine notch (EDM notch) and fatigue cracks. To perform the tests an absolute pencil probe
EDM notches was used. Although there is a significant difference between the signals of EDM notch and
Fatigue cracks fatigue cracks, the results show that it is possible to use artificial defects to represent fatigue
cracks reliably if a proper correction is implemented.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

racy of results, it is important that defects in the calibration

1. Introduction standards have physical, electrical, magnetic and morpholog-
ical properties similar to defects identified in field situations,
The non-destructive eddy current test is widely used to detect
producing theoretically a resembling and uniform response.
and characterize cracks and defects in metallic materials [1].
However, fabrication of standards with fatigue cracks with
This process requires a prior calibration procedure, in similar
exact size can be an arduous task due to the difficulty in
conditions to the real test, to obtain databases for comparing
controlling the dimensions. Meanwhile, the high cost, the
and interpreting the signals response seeing on the part being
requirement of a specific infrastructure and qualified personal
tested and assures the test system sensitivity is sufficient
greatly increases the costs involved. According to these obsta-
to detect the required crack size. In order to improve accu-
cles, the use of artificial defects is a prevalent practice to
represent real defects in calibration procedure and creation
of a database [2,3].
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail: [email protected] (D.S. Castro).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.08.031
2238-7854/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article in press as: Camerini CG, et al. Correlation of eddy current signals obtained from EDM notches and fatigue cracks. J Mater
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An alternative is the insertion of laser notches, which cor- tion, whereas the straight path of the EDM notch, although
relate geometrically well with real cracks. Although, some much wider, interrupts nearly the same amount of current.
issues such as the influence of heat input on material around Some crack characteristics also has the potential to change
the notch and the arduousness in removing all the material remarkably the signal obtained. The crack closure effect may
from the notch may produce inaccurate results. Thus, the use create electrical contacts inside the cracks as a result of flaw
of laser notches as simulations of real cracks should be further geometry and presence of oxides and asperities. It generates
investigated [5]. A popular and alternative approach is creating a short circuit of eddy current flow around the crack and may
notches by electrical discharge machining (EDM) method [6]. change the response considerably [3,13]. Some authors [4,20]
The low cost, the fast obtaining and the easy defects’ dimen- also highlighted that cracks have their interface affected by
sional control are some of its advantages. Nevertheless, it is compressive stresses, presenting a reduction in signal ampli-
difficult to insert deeper EDM notches with very small width, tude as the probability to create electrical contacts is higher.
analogous to ordinary fatigue cracks [7]. It can be a mean- Additional branches in cracks surface that may boost the eddy
ingful problem as long as the response signal depends on current indications were also pointed by Lahdenperä [8] as a
the distribution of the eddy currents in the inspected mate- possible reason of the underestimation in sizing of thermal
rial. Therefore, changes in factors that modify the currents fatigue cracks. Other authors warned about the possibility of
path such as crack dimensions, tilt and skew, orientation, response distortions due to the influence of deformations and
branching, roughness and surface quality, also modifies the of the resolidification region [4], for narrower defects, and also
response obtained. Hence, EDM notches are supposed not about the inspected surface roughness [21]. Finally, Esquivel
to be always a reasonable representation of a real fatigue and Kim [22] noticed that for wider cracks, the signal change
crack since some of these factors have different conditions is closer to the lift-off change, whereas for very narrow cracks
[8]. There is much discussion in the non-destructive testing the signal modification is analogous to conductivity variation
community about the accuracy of using signal responses on since the contact points induces a sparse variation in crack
EDM notches as references for eddy current test (ECT) inspec- conductivity.
tions and some relevant works addressing this topic were Summarizing the results of several researchers, a lack of
developed. Mostly, the literature reports a significant effect of consensus was verified, what keeps open the discussion to
defects width on increasing eddy current signal amplitude, understand more clearly the aspects about a possible simi-
either for fatigue cracks [14] or for EDM notches [7,15–17], larity of the signal provided different types of defects with
revealing an important relation of the amplitude to the vol- the same geometric characteristics. The present work is a
ume of absent material. However, a comparison between these detailed study on the differences between signals provided
behaviors for both defect types is mandatory to legitimate the by fatigue cracks and EDM notches. The effect of the dis-
use of a standard calibration block containing EDM notches continuities openings was analyzed exclusively, remaining
for inspections seeking fatigue cracks. all the other parameters fixed, and corrections to represent
Rummel et al. [9] reported the lack of reliability of EDM slot and detect fatigue cracks using calibration results based on
using it an as a tool for calibration for crack sizing. It was ver- EDM notches were discussed. The defects are through thick-
ified a growing linear relationship between signal amplitude ness cracks and through thickness notches and samples have
and EDM slots width, but different from the same analysis for enough thickness to not influence the behavior of the induced
fatigue cracks. An equivalent linear variation of EDM response currents. In this way, the signals are exclusively related to the
related to width was also found by Larson et al. [7]. The aperture and are not affected by the background geometry of
authors determined that the signals from the original fatigue the defects. The measurements details are explained in the
crack specimens correlate well to the predicted zero-width following sections of the paper.
notch signals calculated by extrapolating the trend observed
in experimental results for EDM notches with distinct widths.
Comparing directly induced fatigue cracks (around 10–20 ␮m 2. Methodology
width) and EDM notches having the same depth and length,
some investigations [3,8,11] noticed a considerable difference A real fatigue crack was fabricated by a fatigue test performed
in signal amplitude and, consequently, hampering the cracks using compact tension (CT) specimens of Inconel 625 [19],
detection and underestimating its dimensions. This discrep- propagating the crack without reaching the specimen rup-
ancy was found to be larger the higher the test frequency ture, as show in Fig. 1a. Inconel 625 is a paramagnetic material
[12,13]. Simultaneously, Ibrahim et al. [10] noticed the signal (relative magnetic permeability r = 1) and its electrical con-
phase difference in this situation is truly slight. ductivity is 0,775 MS/m. The specimen was subjected to a load
On the other hand, Kurokawa [18] found that the modifica- variation of 25 kN in a fatigue machine, oscillating at a fre-
tion in impedance due to the change in crack width was not quency of 4 Hz. After the preliminary crack was obtained, a
significant in plates of Inconel 600 [19] with inserted fatigue mechanical system was installed on the sample larger face
cracks, except for values below a certain threshold, from which to vary the crack opening for subsequent eddy current tests
there is a sudden signal decrease. A corresponding conclusion measurement. The system consists basically of two pins that
was found by Nakagawa et al. [13]. For flaws parallel to current are fixed in the same through-holes of the CT sample, which
propagation, Ross and Lord [4] noticed a similarity between fit into the fatigue machine grips. A hole with an internal
the fatigue crack and EDM notch signals. The complex and thread was machined in one of the pins whereas the other
jagged crack shape could cause significant current interrup- was mounted in the piece serving as a stop. A screw has been
inserted and adjusted until it connects to the stop, allowing

Please cite this article in press as: Camerini CG, et al. Correlation of eddy current signals obtained from EDM notches and fatigue cracks. J Mater
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Fig. 1 – Schematic of the mechanical system created for the variation of the fatigue crack.

Fig. 2 – CT specimen with system to control the fatigue crack width.

Fig. 3 – Illustration of the specimen with EDM notches with

different widths.
Fig. 4 – Specimen made of Inconel 625 containing 10 EDM
notches with width values from 0.16 to 0.40 mm.

the control of the accumulated torque applied to the screw.

According to the applied torque, a corresponding fatigue crack
width is obtained, where the larger the torque the greater the
tensile force to open the crack, as shown in Fig. 1b. The signal idation of the use of EDM notches to represent the behavior
acquisition was performed continuously on a path that passes of eddy currents in fatigue cracks zones, a comparative study
over the crack, as demonstrated by Fig. 1c. Fig. 2 shows an was performed utilizing the signals obtained in the inspection
image of the CT specimen with the fatigue crack and, to the of both types of discontinuities.
right, it is demonstrated the same specimen with the crack For each torque value applied, the corresponding crack
opening control system. width and morphological details were verified by optical
For a comparison purpose, a specimen of the same material microscopy. Ten crack width measurements were executed
containing electrical discharge machine (EDM) notches with for each torque (opening) condition and the mean value was
10 different widths was also fabricated, as represented in Fig. 3. considered for interrelationship with the eddy current signals.
Fig. 4 shows the real specimen containing 10 EDM notches with Torques were applied until the fatigue crack reached widths
several widths between 0,17 and 0,40 mm. The width values similar to the EDM notches so that it was possible to analyze
were measured with the support of the optical microscope. It the influence of flaws morphology on the eddy current sig-
should be noted that it is very difficult to achieve EDM notches nals. To ensure a data set acceptable for statistical analysis,
with widths smaller than 0,17 mm, especially for great depths. five inspections were carried out for each notch and for each
The eddy current inspections were executed in the same man- crack opening. All measurements were performed on a line
ner as the CT specimens. From the results obtained from both, perpendicular to the defect at half of its length. The inspec-
a correlation between the value of the impedance variation tion sweep velocity was 1 mm/s, the probe drive equal to 4 V
and the discontinuity width was made. Focusing on the val- and the data acquisition rate was 2 KHz, providing a plenti-

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Table 1 – Information about the probe and the inspection

procedure.
Resonance Coil Ferrite core Lift-off Gain
frequency diameter diameter (mm) (dB)
(MHz) (mm) (mm)

Plase, 3 1 0 45

Fig. 6 – Detailed view, obtained by optical microscopy, of

the fatigue crack produced in this work.

Fig. 5 – Penetration depth of eddy currents as a function of

the test frequency for Inconel 625.

ful amount of data. The absolute probe details and inspection

information are exposed in Table 1.
Fig. 5 exemplifies the relation between calculated standard
penetration depths of the induced currents and the test fre-
quency for Inconel 625 [23]. The used frequency was 260 kHz,
which results in eddy currents penetration depth of around
1,1 mm. Since the thickness of the specimens used for the
present test is 5 mm, almost five times greater than the pen-
etration depth, and considering that the reduction of the Fig. 7 – a) Variation of fatigue crack with the increase of the
current density follows an exponential function with respect accumulated torque in the screw of the mechanical system.
to depth, it is concluded that the specimens’ thickness does b) Different widths achieved with the electrical discharge
not influence the collected signals. The average sample ref- machine.
erence signal amplitude, without defect, is 11,563 V and its
standard deviation is 0,233 V.

3. Results and discussion

The mean widths values and their standards deviations (SD)

for cracks and EDM notches are exposed in Tables 2 and 3.
By the time the specimen is removed from the fatigue test,
the crack is remarkably narrow, around 10–20 ␮m width, as
exposed in Fig. 6. This characteristic, in accordance to the
difficulty in inserting EDM notches narrower than 0,17 mm,
establish a considerably large difference between the width
values of the EDM defects and the real crack. For this reason,
the mechanical system of Fig. 2 was developed and success-
fully generated flaws with intermediate widths, between the
actual crack and the smallest EDM notch.
Fig. 7a and b shows some images of the crack and EDM
notches with different openings, respectively. The number
presented below each image is the approximate value of mea-
sured widths mean. Fig. 8 represents the relationship between Fig. 8 – Signals amplitude as a function of the
the signal mean amplitude as a function of the discontinuities discontinuities width.
widths. All defects’ amplitude measurements take as starting
reference (balance point) the average sample reference signal

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Table 2 – Values for widths and signal amplitude for ECT measurements on fatigue crack.
Mean crack width (␮m) 22,13 29,10 38,44 46,42 64,46 81,56 96,10 109,54 130,59 149,24
Crack width SD (␮m) 8,48 3,09 4,94 3,85 6,83 8,81 6,31 9,77 7,14 8,17
Amp. (V) 3,568 4,130 4,300 4,380 4,412 4,466 4,514 4,520 4,570 4,668
Mean crack width (␮m) 168,28 185,90 196,44 228,20 260,09 270,51 288,29 310,41 359,44 -
Crack width SD (␮m) 7,96 8,68 8,46 11,47 12,79 14,93 14,15 15,39 18,27 –
Amp. (V) 4,698 4,754 4,792 4,902 4,888 4,912 4,922 4,986 5,124 –

Table 3 – Values for widths and signal amplitude for ECT measurements on EDM notches.
Mean EDM width (␮m) 178,74 184,60 197,58 212,36 258,13 261,82 278,09 319,74 320,39 403,90
EDM width SD (␮m) 11,07 7,12 9,26 5,46 5,01 4,35 8,42 12,70 5,42 6,12
Amp. (V) 4,605 4,731 4,802 4,800 4,974 4,965 4,848 4,988 5,038 5,384

Table 4 – Comparison between the amplitude of signals from original fatigue crack (0,02 mm) and EDM notches.
Mean EDM width (␮m) 178,74 184,60 197,58 212,36 258,13 261,82 278,09 319,74 320,39 403,90
Signal difference (V) 1,037 1,163 1,234 1,232 1,406 1,397 1,280 1,420 1,470 1,816
Signal difference (% EDM signal) 22,52 24,58 25,69 25,66 28,26 28,14 26,40 28,47 29,18 33,73

them representative for a real field situation, where the objec-

tive is the detection of tiny fatigue cracks. The percentage to
be corrected must be calculated through the calibration curve
plotted with inspection results from several discontinuities
openings. Taking into account the statistical aspects of the
data and the uncertainty of the measurements, it can be pre-
sumed that the general tendency is that the correction factor
to be applied is larger the wider the notch.
Moreover, it is also possible to identify some interesting
aspects such as, for example, the compatibility of width val-
ues. Signals from EDM notches and fatigue cracks having the
same width provided closely related signal amplitudes for a
Fig. 9 – Signal difference (dB) between measurements on large range of widths, demonstrating that the influence of flaw
EDM notches and on the original fatigue crack. morphology can be neglected. In this range, real cracks’ width
can be predicted roughly by corresponding EDM notch width.
However, in measurements related to the three smaller fatigue
amplitude, so the values exposed are the difference between crack widths, the amplitude variation is quite abrupt and has a
amplitude values on defects and the average amplitude value distinct decrease rate. From the fourth measure onwards, lin-
on the non-defected area. The red dots indicate the measure- ear trend with a different slope is assumed. Hence, to estimate
ments performed on the fatigue specimen, while the blue dots the flaw width in field inspections with same test conditions,
are related to EDM notches. The error bar has a range of ±1 the calibration linear rule to be applied will depend on the
standard deviation from the mean and indicates the data vari- signals amplitude value.
ability. The irregular crack path, distinctly from EDM notches The most likely reason for this rate change is the presence
with flat flaw faces, makes the width measure more impre- of electrical contacts between the faces of the crack for widths
cise, as demonstrated by the higher value for width standard smaller than a given threshold, changing the configuration of
deviation compared to mean value. current distribution around the crack and allowing the current
From the collected data it is possible to verify that flaw flow between crack faces. These contact points present in the
width has great influence on the inspection results, where, fatigue crack generated in this work are exemplified in Fig. 6.
as the aperture is increased, the signal amplitude is higher. It corroborates the conclusion of some previous studies [3,13]
Comparing signals from original fatigue crack (0,02 mm width) that also gave importance to the impact of this phenomenon
signal and all the EDM notches, the difference between ampli- on the acquired signals.
tude values are shown in Table 4. At the same time, amplitude In general, the obtained results are quite different from
values for defect signals between 3,56 V and 5,38V guarantee those reported by Nakagawa et al. [16] and Larson et al. [7].
amplitudes changes between 31% and 47% of the reference Signals related to the smaller notches manufactured by the
signal, highlighting the good sensitivity accomplished due to authors presented small differences for the fatigue cracks,
a satisfactory frequency selection and to the small radius of about 12% of the amplitude, while the larger ones presented
applied probe. variations of 35%. However, since they were all flat notches,
The signal difference between EDM notches and the orig- the depth and shape of the notch bottom influenced the sign
inal fatigue crack varies from 2,22 dB (22,52%) to 3,57 dB of inspection. The signal amplitude variation behavior was in
(33,73%) and are exposed in Fig. 9 for all notches. Therefore, agreement with results found by Kurokawa [18] for the same
it is essential correct the signals from EDM notches to make material.

Please cite this article in press as: Camerini CG, et al. Correlation of eddy current signals obtained from EDM notches and fatigue cracks. J Mater
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