CHAPTER FIVE

PROJECTION

Objective:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:

♦ Explain the purpose and theory of multi view projections

♦ Describe “Glass Box Method” of orthographic projection

♦ Mention the principal views and combination of views

♦ Convert pictorial drawings in to orthographic or multi

view projection

♦ Describe representation of circular surfaces, hidden

surfaces in orthographic projection

♦ List the precedence of lines in multi view projection

♦ Explain the necessity of pictorial projection

♦ Discuss the procedure to construct box for isometric

and oblique drawings

♦ Convert orthographic projection in to isometric

projection

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5.1 Introduction
All forms of engineering and technical work require that a two-
dimensional surface (paper) be used to communicate ideas
and the physical description of a variety of shapes. Here
projections have been divided in to two basic categories;
pictorial and multi view. This simple division separates single
view projections (oblique, perspective and isometric) from
multi view projections (orthographic). Theoretically,
projections can be classified as convergent and parallel, or
divided in to three systems of projection: perspective, oblique,
and orthographic. Division of types based on whether the
drawing is a one view or multi view projection sufficiently
separate projection types in to those used for engineering
working drawings (orthographic) and those used for display
(architectural rendering, technical illustrations etc)

In short, one of the best ways to communicate one's ideas is

through some form of picture or drawing. This is especially
true for the engineer. The purpose of this chapter is to give
you the basics of engineering sketching and drawing.

We will treat "sketching" and "drawing" as one. "Sketching"

generally, means freehand drawing. "Drawing" usually, means
using drawing instruments, from compasses to computers to
bring precision to the drawings.

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Before we get started on any technical drawings, let's get a
good look at this strange block (figure 5.1) from several
angles.

Figure 5.1 Machine block

5.1.1 Isometric Drawing

The representation of the object in figure 5.2 is called an
isometric drawing. This is one of a family of three-dimensional
views called pictorial drawings. In an isometric drawing, the
object's vertical lines are drawn vertically, and the horizontal
lines in the width and depth planes are shown at 30 degrees
to the horizontal. When drawn under these guidelines, the
lines parallel to these three axes are at their true (scale)
lengths. Lines that are not parallel to these axes will not be of
their true length.

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 Figure 5.2 Isometric drawing

Any engineering drawing should show everything: a complete

understanding of the object should be possible from the
drawing. If the isometric drawing can show all details and all
dimensions on one drawing, it is ideal.

One can pack a great deal of information into an isometric

drawing. Look, for instance, at the instructions for a home
woodworker in figure 5.2. Everything the designer needs to
convey to the craftsperson is in this one isometric drawing.

However, if the object in figure 5.2 had a hole on the back

side, it would not be visible using a single isometric drawing.
In order to get a more complete view of the object, an
orthographic projection may be used.

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5.1.2 Orthographic or Multi view Projection

Imagine that you have an object suspended by transparent

threads inside a glass box, as in figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3 Orthographic projection

Then draw the object on each of three faces as seen from that
direction. Unfold the box (figure 5.4) and you have the three
views. We call this an "orthographic" or "multi view" drawing.

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Figure 5.4 the creation of an orthographic multi view drawing
Figure 5.5 shows how the three views appear on a piece of
paper after unfolding the box.

Figure 5.5 a multi view drawing and its explanation

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Which views should one choose for a multi view drawing? The
views that reveal every detail about the object. Three views
are not always necessary; we need only as many views as
are required to describe the object fully. For example, some
objects need only two views, while others need four. The
circular object in figure 5.6 requires only two views.

Figure 5.6 an object needing only two orthogonal views

5.2 Theory of Multi view Projections

Multi view orthographic projection is the primary means of
graphic communication used in engineering work. Drawings
are used to convey ideas, dimensions, shapes, and
procedures for the manufacture of the object or construction
of a system. Orthographic projection is the basis of all
descriptive geometry procedures. Multi view projection is a
procedure that can be used to completely describe an object’s
shape and dimensions using two or more views that are
normally projected at 900 to each other, or at specified angles.
In general, engineering work is complete using this method of

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projection. The finished drawing is then reproduced and sent
to the shop or to the job site.

To design and communication every detail to manufacturing

groups (Engineers, technicians) descriptions must be
prepared. This description must show every aspect of the
shape and size of each part and of the complete structure.
Because of this necessity graphics is the fundamental method
of communication only as a supplement, for notes and
specifications, is the word language used.

Shape is described by projection that is by the process of

causing an image to be formed by rays of sight taken in a
particular direction from an object to a picture plane. Methods
of projection vary according to the direction in which the rays
of sight are taken to the plane. When the rays are
perpendicular to the plane, the projective method is
Orthographic. If the rays are at an angle to the plane, the
projective method is called oblique. Rays taken to a particular
station point result in perspective projection. By the methods
of perspective, the object is represented as it would appear to
the eye.

Theory of projection is the basis of background information

necessary to shape representation in graphics. Two
fundamental methods of shape representation are used.

1. Orthographic view consists of a set of two or more

separate views of an object taken from different

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 directions, generally at right angles to each other and
arranged relative to each other in a definite way. Each of
the views shows the shape of the object for a particular
view direction and collectively the views describe the
object completely.

2. Pictorial view, in which the object is oriented behind and

projected up on a single plane. Either oblique on
perspective projection is used.

5.2.1 Orthographic Projection

A. Definition

Basically, Orthographic projection could be defined as any

single projection made by dropping perpendiculars to a plane.
In short, orthographic projection is the method of representing
the exact shape of an object by dropping perpendiculars from
two or more sides of the object to planes, generally at right
angles to each other; collectively, the views on these planes
describe the object completely.

Descriptive geometry is basically the use of orthographic

projection in order to solve for advanced technical data
involving the spatial relation ship of points, lines, planes, and
solid shapes. The most common means of understanding
these types of orthographic projection is The Glass Box
method.

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The Glass Box method, used primarily for descriptive
geometry problems, requires that the user imagine that the
object, points, lines, planes etc are enclosed in a transparent
“box”. Each view of the object is established on its
corresponding glass box surface by means of perpendicular
projectors originating at each point of the object and extending
to the related box surface. The box is hinged so that it can be
unfolded on to one flat plane (the paper).

The lines of sight representing the direction from which the

object is viewed. In figure 5.7, the vertical lines of sight (A)
and horizontal lines of sight (B) are assumed to originate at
infinity. The line of sight is always perpendicular to the image
plane, represented by the surfaces of the glass box (top, front,
and right side). Projection lines(c) connect the same point on
the image plane from view to view, always at right angle.

A point is projected up on the image plane where its projector,

or line of sight, pierces that image plane. In the figure 5.8,
point 1, which represents a corner of the given object, has
been projected on to the three primary image planes. Where it
is intersects the horizontal plane (top image plane), it is
identified as 1H, when it intersects the frontal plane (front
image plane), it is identified as 1F, and where it intersects the
profile plane (right side image plane), it is labeled 1P.

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Figure 5.7 Glass box methods

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 Figure 5.8 Orthographic projection of objects

B. Orthographic views

It is the picture or view or thought of as being found by

extending perpendiculars to the plane from all points of the
object. This picture, or projection on a frontal plane, shows the
shape of the object when viewed from the front but it does not
tell the shape or distance from front to real. Accordingly, more
than one protection is required to describe the object.

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If transparent plane is placed horizontally above the object,
the projection on this plane found by extending perpendiculars
to it from the object, will give the appearance of the object as
if viewed from directly above and will show the distance from
frontal plane. Then the horizontal plane is now rotated into
coincidence with the frontal plane. Now again a third plane,
perpendicular to the first two called profile plane are used to
view an object from the side.

C. The Six Principal Views

Let us surround the object entirely by asset of six planes,

each at fight angles to each other. On these planes, views of
the object can be obtained as is seen from the top, front, and
right side, left side, bottom and rear.

Think now of the six sides, or the plane of the paper. The front
is already in the plane of the paper, and the other sides are,
as it were, hinged and rotated in position as shown. The
projection on the frontal plane is the front view vertical
projection, or front elevation, that on the horizontal plane, the
top view, horizontal projection, or plan, that on the side, profile
view, side view, profile projection, or side elevation. By
reversing the direction of sight, a bottom view is obtained
instead of a top view, or a rear view instead of a front view.

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Figure 5.9 Principal Picture Planes

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In actual work, there is rarely an occasion when all six
principal views are needed on one drawing. All these views
are principal views. Each of the six views shows two of the
three dimensions of height, width and depth.

In general, when the glass box is opened, its six sides are
revolved outward so that they lie in the plane of the paper.
And each image plane is perpendicular to its adjacent image
plane and parallel to the image plane across from it. Before it
is revolved around its hinged fold line (reference line). A fold
line is the line of intersection between any hinged (adjacent)
image planes.

The left side, front, right side, and back are all elevation views.
Each is vertical. The top and bottom planes are in the
horizontal plane. But in most cases the top, front, and right
sides are required.

D. COMBINATION OF VIEWS

The most usual combination selected from the six possible

views consists of the top, front, and right side views some
times the left- side view helps to describe an object more
clearly then the light side view.

N.B: The side view of the front face of the object is adjacent to
the front view and the side view of a point will be at the
same distance from the front surface as its distance from
the front surface on the top view.

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The six principal views of an object or the glass box have
previously been presented in the type of orthographic
projection known as Third Angle Orthographic Projection. This
form of projection is used throughout this lecture note and is
primary form of projection found in all American Industry with
the exception of some special cases in the architectural and
structural fields.

Figure 5.10 Third angle projections

The type of projection used in most foreign countries and on

many American Structural and architectural drawings is called
First Angle Orthographic Projections.

In this form of projection, the object is assumed to be in front

of the image plane. Each view is formed by projecting through
the object and on to the image plane.

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 Figure 5.11 First angle projections

5.2.2 Classification of surfaces and Lines in

Orthographic Projections

Any object, depending upon its shape and space position may
or may not have some surfaces parallel or perpendicular to
the planes of projection.

Surfaces are classified according to their space relation ship

with the planes of projection i.e. horizontal, frontal and profile
surfaces. When a surface is inclined to two of the planes of
projection (but perpendicular to the third, the surface is said to
be auxiliary or inclined .It the surface is at angle to all three
planes, the term oblique or skew is used

Although uniform in appearance, the lines on a drawing may

indicate three different types of directional change on the
object. An edge view is a line showing the edge of a
projection. An intersection is a line formed by the meeting of
two surfaces where either one surface is parallel and one at
an angle or both are at an angle to the plane of projection. A

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surface limit is a line that indicates the reversal of direction of
a curved surface.

A. Horizontal, Frontal and Profile Surfaces

The edges (represented by lines) bounding a surface may be

in a simple position or inclined to the planes of projection
depending up on the shape or position, the surface takes is
name from the plane of projection. Thus, a horizontal line is a
line in a horizontal plane; a frontal line is a line in a frontal
plane; and a profile line is a line in a profile plane. When a line
is parallel to two planes, the line takes the name of both
planes as horizontal frontal, horizontal- profile, or frontal –
profile.

Figure 5.12 Examples of objects having parallel surfaces to

the principal planes

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B. Inclined Surfaces
An edge appears in true length when it is parallel to the plane
of projection, as a point when it is perpendicular to the plane
and shorter than true length when it is inclined to the plane.
Similarly, a surface appears in trey shape when it is parallel to
the planes of projection, as alien when it is perpendicular to
the plane, and fore shortened when it inclined to the plane. An
object with its face parallel to the plans of projection as figure
5.12; a top, front, and right side surfaces are shown in true
shape and the object edges appear either in true length or as
points. The inclined surface of the object as figure 5.13 does
not show true shape in any of the views but appears as an
edge in front view. The front and rear edges of the inclined
surface are in true length in the front view and fore shortened
in the top and side views. The top and bottom edges of the
inclined surface appear in true length in top and side views
and as points in the front view.

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 Figure 5.13 Examples of objects having inclined surfaces

C. Oblique Surfaces
A line that is not parallel to any plane of projection is called an
oblique skew line and it does not show in true shape in any of
the views, but each of the bounding edges shows interval
length in one view and is fore shortened in the other two
views,

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 Figure 5.14 Examples of objects having oblique surfaces

D. Hidden Surfaces

To describe an object with complex internal features

completely, a drawing should contain lines representing all the
edges, intersections, and surface limits of the objects In any
view there will be some parts of the object that can not be
seen from the position of the observer, as they will be covered
by station of the object closer to the observer’s eye. The
edges, intersections, and surface limits of these hidden parts
are indicated by a discontinuous line called a dashed line. In

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figure 5.15, the drilled hole that is visible in the top-side view
is hidden in the front and right side views, and there fore it is
indicated in these views by a dashed line showing the hole
and the shape as left by the drill.

Figure 5.15 Examples of objects having hidden surfaces

Particular attention should be paid to the execution of these

dashed lines. It carelessly drawn, they ruin the appearance of
a drawing. Dashed lines are drawn lighten full lines, of short
dashes uniform in length with the space between there very
short, about ¼ of the length of the dash.

This view shows the shape of the object when viewed from
the side and the distance from bottom to top and front to rear.
The horizontal and profile planes are rotated in to the same
plane as the frontal plane. Thus, related in the same plane,
they give correctly the three dimensional shape of the object.

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E. Curved Surfaces

To represent curved surfaces in orthographic projections,

center lines are commonly utilized. All the center lines, which
are the axes of symmetry, for all symmetrical views are a part
of views.

1. Every part with an axis, such as a cylinder will have the

axis drawn as center line before the part is drawn.

2. Every circle will have its center at the intersection of two

mutually perpendicular center lines.

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The standard symbol for center lines on finished drawings is a
fine line made up of alternate long and short dashes.

Figure 5.16 Examples of objects having curved surfaces

5.2.3 Precedence of lines

In any view there is likely to be a coincidence of lines. Hidden

portions of the object may project to coincide with visible
portions Center lines may occur where there is a visible or
hidden out line of some part of the object.

Since the physical features of the object must be represented

full and dashed lines take precedence over all other lines
since visible out line is more prominent by space position, full
lines take precedence over dashed lines. A full line could
cover a dashed line, but a dashed line could not cover a full
line. It is evident that a dashed line could not occur as one of
the boundary lines of a view.

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When a centerline and cutting- plane line coincide, the one
that is more important to the readability of the drawing takes
precedent over the other.

Break lines should be placed so as not to coincide with other

lines of the drawing.

The following line gives the order of precedence of lines.

1. Full line
2. Dashed line
3. Careful line or cutting – plane line
4. Break lines
5. Dimension and extension lines.
6. Crosshatch lines.

5.3 Pictorial Projections

By means of multi view drawing, it is possible to represent
accurately the most complex forms by showing a series of
exterior views and sections. This type of representation has,
however, two limitations: its execution requires a through
understanding of the principles of multi view projection, and
it’s reading requires a definite exercise of the constructive
imagination.

Frequently it is necessary to prepare drawings that are

accurate and scientifically correct, and that can be easily
understood by persons with out technical training. Such
drawings show several faces of an object at once,

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approximately as they appear to the observer. This type of
drawing is called pictorial drawing. Since pictorial drawing
shows only the appearances of objects, it is not satisfactory
for completely describing complex or detailed forms.

As we have seen in the previous chapters, the four principal

types of projection are:
♦ Multi view projection
♦ Axonometric projection
♦ Oblique projection
♦ Perspective projection

All except the regular multi view projection are pictorial types
since they show several sides of the object in a single view. In
all cases the view or projections are formed by the piercing
points in the plane of projection of an infinite number of visual
rays or projectors. In this chapter, we will focus on the
common types of pictorial projection i.e. isometric projection.

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 Figure 5.17 types of projection

In both multi view projection and axonometric projection, the

observer is considered to be at infinity, and the visual rays are
perpendicular to the plane of projection. There fore, both are
classified as Orthographic Projections.

In Oblique projection, the observer is considered to be at

infinity, and the visual rays are parallel to each other but
oblique to the plane of projection.

In Perspective, the observer is considered to be at a finite

distance from the object, and the visual rays extend from the
observer’s eye, or the station point (SP), to all points of the
object to form a so-called “cone of rays.”

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The distinguishing feature of axonometric projection, as
compared to multi view projection, is the inclined position of
the object with respect to the plane of projection. Since the
principal edges and surfaces of the object are inclined to the
plane of projection, the lengths of the lines, the sizes of the
angle, and the general proportions of the object vary with the
infinite number of possible positions in which the object may
be placed with respect to the plane of projection. Three of
these are shown below.

In these cases the edges of the cube are inclined to the plane
of projection, and therefore foreshortened. The degree of
foreshortening of any line depends on its angle with the plane
of projection; the greater the angle the greater the
foreshortening. If the degree of the foreshortening is
determined for each of the three edges of the cube which
meet at one corner, scales can be easily constructed for
measuring along these edges or any other edges parallel to
them. It is customary to consider the three edges of the cube
which meet at the corner nearest to the observer as the
axonometric axes.

Axonometric projections are classified as

a) Isometric projection
b) Dimetric Projection
c) Trimetric Projection, depending up on the number of
scales of reduction required.

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 Figure 5.18 Axonometric projections

Since the most widely used method of axonometric projection

is Isometric, we will only see isometric projection in detail.

5.3.1 Isometric Projection

To produce an isometric projection (Isometric means “equal
measure”), it is necessary to place the object so that its
principal edges or axes, make equal angles with the plane of
projection, and are therefore foreshortened equally. In this
position the edges of a cube would be projected equally and
would make equal angles with each other (1200).

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 Figure 5.19 Isometric Projection

In the figure above, the projections of the axes OX, OY and

OZ make angles of 1200 with each other, and are called the
isometric axes. Any line parallel to one of these is called an
Isometric line; a line which is not parallel is called a non-
isometric line. It should be noted that the angles in the
isometric projection of the cube are either 1200 or 600 and that
all projections of 900 angles. In an isometric projection of a
cube, the faces of the cube or any planes parallel to them are
called Isometric planes.

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5.3.2 Isometric Drawing

When a drawing is prepared with an isometric scale or other

wise as the object is actually projected on a plane of
projection, it is an isometric projection. But when it is prepared
with an ordinary scale, it is an isometric drawing. The
isometric drawing is 22.5% larger than the isometric
projection, but the pictorial value is obviously the same in
both.

Since the isometric projection is foreshortened and an

isometric drawing is full size, it is customary to make an
isometric drawing rather than an isometric projection, because
it is so much easier to execute and, for all practical purposes,
is just as satisfactory as the isometric projection.

The steps in constructing an isometric drawing of an object

composed only of normal surfaces, as illustrated in figure 5.20
.Notice that all measurements are made parallel to the main
edges of enclosing box, that is, parallel to isometric axes. No
measurement along a diagonal (non-isometric line) on any
surface or through the object can be set off directly with the
scale. The object may be drawn in the same position by
beginning at the corner Y or any other corner, instead of at the
corner X.

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The method of constructing an isometric drawing of an object
composed partly of inclined surface (and oblique edges) is
shown in figure 5.20 .Notice that inclined surfaces are
located by offset measurements along isometric lines.

Figure 5.20 Isometric drawing of normal surfaces

For example, dimensions E and F are setoff to locate the

inclined surface M, and dimensions A and B are used to
locate surface N.

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Box Construction

Objects of rectangular shape may be more easily drawn by

means of box construction, which consists simply in imagining
the object to be enclosed in a rectangular box whose sides
coincide with the main faces of the object. For example, in fig
below, the object shown in two views is imagined to be
enclosed in a construction box.

This box is then drawn lightly with construction lines, I, the

irregular features are then constructed, II, and finally, III, the
required lines are made heavy.

Figure 5.21 isometric box constructions

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Lines in Isometric Drawing
♦ Hidden Lines

The use of hidden lines in isometric drawing is governed by

the same rules as in all other types of projection: Hidden lines
are omitted unless they are needed to make the drawing
clear. If a projecting part cannot be clearly shown with out the
use of hidden lines, then hidden lines are needed.

♦ Center Lines

The use of center lines in isometric drawing is governed by

the same rules as in multi view drawing: center lines are
drawn if they are needed to indicate symmetry, or if they are
needed for dimensioning. In general, center lines should be
used sparingly, and omitted in cases of doubt. The use of too
many center lines may produce a confusion of lines, which
diminishes the clearness of the drawing.

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Review question
1. Explain the purpose and theory of multi view projections

2. Construct a box for isometric and oblique drawings based

on the technical drawing procedure.

3. Describe “Glass box method“ of orthographic projections.

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