GEOG1021Geographic Issues of

Polar Regions

Lecture
10

Lecturer: Prof. HO Kin-chung

BBS, JP
Recap of the last lecture:
We discussed the biology, physiology, ecology and other scientific interests of two major
animals in the polar regions, namely polar bears in the Arctic and penguins in the Antarctica.
With regard to conservation of biodiversity, it is important to take notes of the followings:
- Habitat
- Food and Prey – predator relation
- Breeding and nourishing (of young) ; diseases (pathogens)
- Pollution control
- Climate actions
- Restriction of human activities, such as housing and tourism impacts
- Restriction of unlawful trade
- Scientific research
- International collaboration
while protection of habitat is always the priority.
For effective implementation of biodiversity protection strategy, it is essential to do the
following jobs:
Conservation (management) of sensitive (endangered) species (1st level), and the
ecological process of relevant ecosystem (2nd level)
Pollution control, particularly heavy metals, POPs and micro-plastics
Restriction of human activities e.g. tourism, housing and transport development
Combat climate change (climate actions)
International collaboration
Scientific research
International agreements shall be signed and followed strictly.
Conservation of polar biodiversity helps to promote best practices which ensure
the sustainability of the Antarctic and Arctic’s resources.
It is important to protect species and habitats with good management practices
and, share information on management techniques and regulatory regimes.
It is necessary to develop a mechanism for developing common responses,
decision -making and issuing guidance for preserving/conserving g the polar
ecosystems.

https://www.facebook.com/CCFcheetah/po
sts/10155003340966082
 The work includes but not limited to:
to collaborate for more effective research, sustainable utilization and
conservation,
to cooperate to conserve polar flora and fauna, their diversity and their habitats,
to protect the polar ecosystem from human-caused threats,
to seek to develop more effective laws, regulations and practices for flora, fauna
and habitat management, utilization and conservation,
to work in cooperation with the indigenous peoples if for the Arctic,
to consult and cooperate with appropriate international organizations (e.g. IUCN,
WWF) and seek to develop other forms of cooperation,
to regularly compile and disseminate information (transparency) on
conservation, and
to contribute to environmental impact assessments (EIA) of proposed activities.

https://www.polarprem.com/list-item-title-
Video reference : 2
The Antarctic Treaty
https://www.nsf.gov/geo/opp/antarct/anttrty.jsp
12 nations (core members) signed the Antarctic Treaty on 1 December 1959 at Washington,
D.C.
The Treaty entered into force on 23 June 1961; then the 12 signatories became the original
12 consultative nations. They are:
o Argentina
o Australia
o Belgium
o Chile
o France
o Japan
o New Zealand
o Norway
o South Africa
o the Soviet Union (USSR)
o United Kingdom (The Great Britain) , and
o USA
https
As of April 2010, 17 additional nations (Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Czech Republic, Ecuador,
://www.activewild.com/w
Finland, Germany, India, Italy, Netherlands, Peru, Poland, Republic of Korea, Spain, Sweden,
Ukraine, and Uruguay) have achieved consultative status by hat-is-the-antarctic-treat
acceding to the Treaty.
Consultative nations are eligible for conducting substantialy/scientific research in Antarctica.
Remarks: Russia carries forward the signatory privileges and responsibilities established by the former
Soviet Union.
Another 21 nations have acceded to the Antarctic Treaty: Austria, Belarus, Canada,
Colombia, Cuba, Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, Denmark, Estonia, Greece,
Guatemala, Hungary, Malaysia, Monaco, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Portugal,
Romania, Slovak Republic, Switzerland, Turkey, and Venezuela. These nations agree to
abide by the treaty and may attend consultative meetings as observers.
The 50 Antarctic Treaty nations represent about two-thirds of the world's human
population.
Consultative meetings have been held approximately every other year since the treaty
entered into force, but since 1993 they have been held more frequently due to climate
issues and other conflicts.
Each meeting has generated recommendations regarding operation of the treaty that,
when ratified by the participating governments, become binding on the parties to the
treaty.
For detailed information, see: http://www.ats.aq/.
 Principles and objectives of the Treaty including
measures regarding:
a. use of Antarctica for peaceful purposes only;
b. facilitation of scientific research in Antarctica;
c. facilitation of international scientific cooperation in Antarctica;
d. facilitation of the exercise of the rights of inspection provided for in Article VII
of the Treaty;
e. questions relating to the exercise of jurisdiction in Antarctica;
f. preservation and conservation of living resources in Antarctica.

Interpretation: : it reserves the entire continent for peaceful purposes and

scientific research.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/articl
Research stations of the consultative nations in Antarctica
Article IV
[territorial claims]
1. Nothing contained in the present Treaty shall be interpreted as:
(a) a renunciation by any Contracting Party of previously asserted rights of or claims to
territorial sovereignty in Antarctica;
(b) a renunciation or diminution by any Contracting Party of any basis of claim to territorial
sovereignty in Antarctica which it may have whether as a result of its activities or those of
its nationals in Antarctica, or otherwise;
(c) prejudicing the position of any Contracting Party as regards its recognition or
nonrecognition of any other State's right of or claim or basis of claim to territorial
sovereignty in Antarctica.
2. No acts or activities taking place while the present Treaty is in force shall constitute a
basis for asserting, supporting or denying a claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica. No
new claim, or enlargement of an existing claim, to territorial sovereignty shall be asserted
while the present Treaty is in force.

Interpretation: The many territorial claims (territorial sovereignty in Antarctica) that

existed before the signing of the treaty are not abrogated by signatory nations –
the discussion of territorial sovereignty is temporarily adjoined). Periodic meetings
(30 years + 30 years) of representatives of signatory nations will be held to discuss
and resolve the issues).
Sovereignty claimed at Antarctica
Article V
[nuclear explosions prohibited]
1. Any nuclear explosions in Antarctica and the disposal there of radioactive
waste material shall be prohibited.
2. In the event of the conclusion of international agreements concerning the
use of nuclear energy, including nuclear explosions and the disposal of
radioactive waste material, to which all of the Contracting Parties whose
representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings provided for
under Article IX are parties, the rules established under such agreements
shall apply in Antarctica.

Interpretation: It declares the continent as the world’s first nuclear weapon-free

zone and deals with the issue of territorial claims in an innovative manner.

As at
1999
A summary of the Antarctic
Treaty:
The Antarctic Treaty was signed by 12 nations in 1959 and reauthorized
in 1991 to protect Antarctica and preserve its living resources.
The Treaty makes it illegal to harm, or in any way interfere with, the precious
species e.g. the penguin, on their habitats, food sources and eggs.
Every penguin specimen should be collected with a permit, that must be
approved and granted by the Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research
(SCAR).
The international laws relevant to the Arctic Regions:
- Three countries have already had their sovereignty over the arctic areas: Canada,
Russia, USA.
- The controversy is on:
The Greenland
Svalbard Isles

Basic: The Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement signed on 12 May 2011

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Search_and_Rescue_Agree
Greenland
Greenland is the largest island of the world.
It locates in the North Atlantic Ocean between Canada and the European
Continent.
Greenland is well-known with the vast tundra and immense glaciers.

Video resource:
https://youtu.be/xdO4uNnGWyc
Geographic Interest of Greenland
Greenland is the world's largest non-continental Island and the third largest
area in North America after Canada and the United States. It is between
latitudes 59° and 83°N, and longitudes 11° and 74°W.
Greenland is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Greenland Sea to
the east, the North Atlantic Ocean to the southeast, the Davis Strait to the
southwest, Baffin Bay to the west, the Nares Strait and Lincoln Sea to the
northwest.
The nearest countries are Canada, to the west and southwest across Nares
Strait and Baffin Bay; and Iceland, southeast of Greenland in the Atlantic
Ocean.
Greenland also contains the world's largest national park, and it is
the largest dependent territory by area in the world.
 Total area: 2,166,086 KM2 (836,330 MI2) - more than three times the size of Texas
About 1,660 miles (2,670 km) from north to south at its longest point,More than
650 miles (1,050 km) from east to west at its widest point.
Two-thirds of the island lies within the Arctic Circle.
The island’s northern part is less than 500 miles (800 km) away from the N. Pole.
Population: 56,100 at 2019

Four major kinds of culture:

The Thule (Inuit from Alaska and N. Canada) settlements,
Norse settlement
Icelanders
Immigrants from Denmark and Norway
Sovereignty:
Before 1814 - ruled by the Nordic’s crown government (mainly as a Norwegian
colony)
After 1814 - Treaty of Kiel - Norway's former colonial relation severed and left
the Greenland under the control of the Danish monarch. But Norway still occupied
then-uninhabited eastern Greenland (Erik the Red's Land) until July 1931.
Relevant dispute was submitted to the Permanent Court of International Justice,
which decided against Norway.
While Greenland‘s connection to Denmark was severed on 9 April 1940 because
Denmark was occupied by Nazi Germany. On 8 April 1941, the United States
suddenly occupied two pieces of land as military bases for US air force, claiming
for use to defend against a possible invasion by Nazi Germany. After World War II,
United States has occupied them under the agreement of the NATO ( 北大西洋公
約組織 ).
Now, the government of Greenland is having extensive trades with the United
States and Canada, by selling cryolite from the mine at Ivittuut. The two air bases
is named ”Bluie West-1” at Narsarsuaq and ”Bluie West-8” at Søndre
Strømfjord (Kangerlussuaq), both of which are used as Greenland’s major
international airports. (Remarks: Bluie was the military code name for Greenland.)
With the 1953 Danish constitution, Greenland's colonial status ended as the island was
incorporated into the Danish realm as an amt (county).
Danish citizenship was then extended to Greenlanders. During this period, the Danish
government promoted the exclusive use of the Danish language in official matters, and
required Greenlanders to go to Denmark for their post-secondary education.
While the policies "succeeded" in the sense of shifting Greenlanders from being primarily
subsistence hunters into being urbanized wage earners, the Greenlandic elite began to
reassert a Greenlandic cultural identity. A movement developed in favour of independence,
reaching its peak in the 1970s.
As a consequence of political complications in relation to Denmark's entry into the European
Common Market in 1972, Denmark began to seek a different status for Greenland, resulting
in the Home Rule Act of 1979. This gave Greenland limited autonomy with its own
legislature taking control of some internal policies, while the Parliament of
Denmark maintained full control of external policies, security, and natural resources. The law
came into effect on 1 May 1979. The Queen/King of Denmark, remains Greenland's head of
state.
In 1985, Greenland left the European Economic Community. On 21 June 2009, Greenland
gained self-rule with provisions for assuming responsibility for self-government of judicial
affairs, policing, and natural resources.
Biodiversity – general:
There are approximately 700 known species of insects
in Greenland, which is low compared with other
countries (over one million species have been
described worldwide).
The sea is rich in fish and invertebrates, especially in
the milder West Greenland Current.
A large part of the Greenland fauna is associated with
marine-based food chains, including large colonies of
seabirds.
The few native land mammals in Greenland include
the polar bear, reindeer (introduced by
Europeans), arctic fox, arctic hare, musk ox, collared
lemming, ermine, and arctic wolf. The last four are
found naturally only in East Greenland, having
immigrated from Ellesmere Island.
There are dozens of species of seals and whales along
the coast.
Also, Greenlanders were recognized as a separate people under international
law.
However, Denmark maintains control of foreign affairs and defense matters.
Denmark upholds the annual block grant of 3.2 billion Danish kroner, but as
Greenland begins to collect revenues of its natural resources, the grant will
gradually be diminished. This is generally considered to be a step toward
eventual full independence from Denmark.
Now, Greenlandic was declared the sole official language of Greenland.

Municipal
districts and
Government
Video resource: https:/
/youtu.be/xkxjyZmdJgg
Land fauna consists predominantly of animals which have spread from North America or,
in the case of many birds and insects, from Europe.
There are no native or free-living reptiles or amphibians on the island.
Greenland's flora consists of about 500 species of "higher" plants, i.e. flowering
plants, ferns, horsetails and lycopodiophyta.
Of the other groups, the lichens are the most diverse, with about 950 species;
There are 600-700 species of fungi; while mosses and bryophytes are also found.
Most of Greenland's higher plants have circumpolar or circumboreal distributions; only a
dozen species of saxifrage and hawkweed are endemic. A few plant species were
introduced by the Norsemen, such as cow vetch.
Biodiversity – specific:
Marine mammals include the hooded seal (Cystophora cristata) as well as the grey
seal (Halichoerus grypus).
Whales frequently pass very close to Greenland's shores in the late summer and early autumn.
Whale species include the beluga whale, blue whale, Greenland whale, fin whale, humpback
whale, minke whale, narwhal, pilot whale, sperm whale.
As of 2009, 269 species of fish from over 80 different families are known from the waters
surrounding Greenland. Almost all are marine species with only a few in freshwater,
notably Atlantic salmon and charr. The fishing industry is the primary industry of Greenland's
economy, accounting for the majority of the country's total exports.
Birds, particularly seabirds, are an important part of Greenland's animal life; breeding
populations of auks, puffins, skuas, and kittiwakes are found on steep mountainsides.
Greenland's ducks and geese include common eider, long-tailed duck, king eider, white-fronted
goose, pink-footed goose and barnacle goose. Breeding migratory birds include the snow
bunting, lapland bunting, ringed plover, red-throated loon and red-necked phalarope. Non-
migratory land birds include the arctic redpoll, ptarmigan, short-eared owl, snowy
owl, gyrfalcon and white-tailed eagle.

Arcti Musk
c ox
Arctic Owl
cotton
Nuclear policies in Greenland:
The Danish government had given tacit permission for nuclear weapons to be
located in Greenland, in contravention of Denmark's 1957 nuclear-free zone policy.
The United States built a secret nuclear powered base, called Camp Century, in the
Greenland ice sheet.
On 21 January 1968, a B-52G, with four nuclear bombs aboard as part
of ’Operation Chrome Dome’, crashed on the ice of the North Star Bay while
attempting an emergency landing at Thule Air Base.
The resulting fire caused extensive radioactive contamination. One of the H-bombs
remains lost.
 Scientists Map Movement of Greenland Ice During Past 9,000 Years

Scientists have created the first map that shows how the Greenland Ice Sheet has moved over time, revealing that ice in
the interior is moving more slowly toward the edges than it has, on average, during the past 9,000 years.
The findings, which researchers said don’t change the fact that the ice sheet is losing mass overall and contributing to
sea level rise, are published in the Feb. 5 issue of Science. Along Greenland’s periphery, many glaciers are rapidly
thinning. However, the vast interior of Greenland is slowly thickening, a process the new study clarifies.

Source: https://www.csr.utexas.edu/greenland-ice-movement/
Where is Svalbard
Isles ?
(Svalbard
Isles)

Video resource:
https://youtu.be/IC6J7
47uq-8
The Svalbard Treaty:
Video resource: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8drp0sSYWiQ

The Svalbard Treaty (originally the Spitsbergen Treaty) recognizes the

sovereignty of Norway over the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard, at the
time called Spitsbergen.
The treaty was signed on 9 February 1920 and submitted for registration in
the League of Nations Treaty Series on 21 October 1920.
There were 14 original High Contracting
Parties: Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden,
the United Kingdom (including the dominions of Australia, Canada, New
Zealand and South Africa, as well as India), and the United States.
China signed the treaty in Jul. 1925*.
The treaty came into force on 14 August 1925.
Uniquely, the archipelago is an entirely visa-free zone under the terms of
the Svalbard Treaty.
Remarks: In 1925, it was acceded as the Republic of China. Hence, both the People's Republic of China and
the current government of Taiwan claim to be the successor or continuing state, but as of 2018 all other parties to
the treaty recognize only the People's Republic of China.
Of The exercise of sovereignty is, however, subject to certain stipulations, and
not all Norwegian law applies (since Russia has also had strong investment on
and occupancy of the areas).
The treaty regulates the de-militarization of the archipelago.
The signatories were given equal rights to engage in commercial activities
(mainly coal mining) on the islands. As of 2012, Norway and Russia are making
use of this right.
Many additional nations acceded to the treaty after it was ratified by the
original signatories, including several before it came into force. As of 2018,
there are 46 parties to the treaty.
 Countries that joined the Svalbard
Country Date of ratification
Treaty. Afghanistan 23 November 1929
Albania 29 April 1930
Remarks: Yugoslavia also
acceded to the treaty on 6 July
Argentina 6 May 1927
1925, but, as of 2018, none of Australia 29 December 1923
its successor states have
declared to continue application Austria 12 March 1930
of the treaty.
Belgium 27 May 1925
Bulgaria 20 October 1925
Canada 29 December 1923
Chile 17 December 1928
China 1 July 1925
Czech Republic 21 June 2006
Denmark 24 January 1924
Dominican Republic 3 February 1927
Egypt 13 September 1925
Estonia 7 April 1930
Finland 12 August 1925
France 6 September 1924
Germany 16 November 1925
Greece 21 October 1925
Hungary 29 October 1927
Iceland 31 May 1994
India 29 December 1923
The geographic relevant countries and population of the Arctic
Region Ireland 29 December 1923
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_coo Italy 6 August 1924
Governing principles relating to Svalbard:
Svalbard is part of Norway: Svalbard is completely controlled by and forms part of
the Kingdom of Norway. However, Norway's power over Svalbard is restricted by the
limitations listed below:
Taxation: This allows taxes to be collected, but only enough to support Svalbard
and the Svalbard government. This results in lower taxes than mainland Norway and
the exclusion of any taxes on Svalbard supporting Norway directly. Also, Svalbard's
revenues and expenses are separately budgeted from mainland Norway.
Environmental conservation: Norway must respect and preserve the Svalbard
environment.
Non-discrimination: All citizens and all companies of every nation under the treaty
are allowed to become residents and to have access to Svalbard including the right
to fish, hunt or undertake any kind of maritime, industrial, mining or trade activity.
The residents of Svalbard must follow Norwegian law, though Norwegian authority
cannot discriminate against or favor any residents of any given nationality.
Military restrictions: Article 9 prohibits naval bases and fortifications and also the
use of Svalbard for war-like purposes. It is not, however, entirely demilitarized.
Disputes regarding natural resources:
200-nautical-mile (370 km) zone around Svalbard:
There has been a long-running dispute, primarily between Norway and Russia (and before it,
the Soviet Union) over fishing rights in the region.
In 1977, Norway established a regulated fishery in a 200-nautical-mile (370 km) zone around
Svalbard (though it did not close the zone to foreign access).
Norway argues that the treaty's provisions of equal economic access apply only to the
islands and their territorial waters (4 nautical miles at the time) but not to the
wider exclusive economic zone. In addition, it argues that the continental shelf is a part of
mainland Norway's continental shelf and should be governed by the 1958 Continental Shelf
Convention.
The Soviet Union/Russia disputed and continues to dispute this position and consider the
Spitsbergen Treaty to apply to the entire zone. Talks were held in 1978 in Moscow but did
not resolve the issue.
Finland and Canada support Norway's position, while most of the other treaty signatories
have expressed no official position.
The relevant parts of the treaty are as follows:
Ships and nationals of all the High Contracting Parties shall enjoy equally the rights of
fishing and hunting in the territories specified in Article 1 and in their territorial
waters. (from Article 2)
They shall be admitted under the same conditions of equality to the exercise and
practice of all maritime, industrial, mining or commercial enterprises both on land and
in the territorial waters, and no monopoly shall be established on any account or for
any enterprise whatever. (from Article 3)
Natural resources outside the 200-nautical-mile (370 km) zone
"Mainly the dispute is about whether the Svalbard Treaty also is in effect
outside the 12-nautical-mile territorial sea," according to Norway's largest
newspaper, Aftenposten.
If the treaty comes into effect outside the zone, then Norway will not be
able to claim the full 78% of profits of oil- and gas harvesting,
said Aftenposten in 2011.
The Bauhinia Station established by HK researchers:

We adopt the “Citizen Scientists” and “Enterprise Scientists”

approaches in providing research expedition and corporate trainings
to executives of different sectors.
We believe only wide and in-depth public participation in caring for
the Earth is able to allow us to achieve Sustainable Development.
Concluding Remaarks: Environmental Sustainability of Polar
Regions

The polar regions in a 2°C warmer world (according to the anticipated

scenarios of Paris Agreement)
(A) Annual mean anomalies of the combined Land-Ocean Temperature Index (L-OTI) for the Arctic (64°N to 90°N),
Antarctic (64°S to 90°S), and globe between 1880 and 2018 (zonal data bins defined by data acquired at
https://data.giss.nasa.gov relative to the mean period 1951–1980). Temperature anomalies for
the Arctic during each of the four IPYs, the first of which was based in the Arctic, are highlighted in purple.
(B) Annual [January to December (J-D)] mean temperature change (°C) in the Northern (left) and Southern (right)
hemispheres for 1986–2005 (upper) and 1986–2018 (lower) relative to the mean period of 1951–1980.
Generated from the NASA/Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) online plotting tool ( 2); the GISS analysis
is based on updated Global Historical Climatology Network v3/SCAR ( 2, 3) and updates to Analysis (v3).

Source:
https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/12/eaaw9883
Wrap Up of the Course
& Revision
 Introduction
The Heroic Age of Polar Exploration
 Fundament knowledge:
The 4 major “poles” on Earth
as generally comprehended by the general public and academic
communities:
The Geographic Interests:
Polar region vs. global water balance
Global carbon budget vs. Polar Regions
What is ‘ENSO’ and its importance to weather

Climat change is
highly relevant !
Impacts of development
Impacts of human activities especially the Permafrost in polar region

Protection of the Permafrost - Def. :Any ground that remains completely

frozen (below -32°F or 0°C) for at least two years straight.
 Pollution everywhere

Environmental pollution is worth concern !

“Arctic haze” in the 1970s and early 1980s (studies by Barrie et al, 1986) demonstrated that Arctic is not a pristine environment
isolated from human activity elsewhere. Rather, it is a region well connected to natural and anthropogenic activities in the
world.
 Impact of human activities particularly
tourism is recent years is worth
concerns!

Future extension of trade routes in the Arctic -

Good or Bad?
At least, it will result with: :
Environmental degradation
Human population increase - road, housing and tourisms
Potential impacts of oil release through accidental or illegal discharge
Increase in collision on marine mammals by marine vessels
Introduction of alien species (extruded species)
Disruption of migratory patterns of birds and marine mammals
Ecological damages of the permafrost
A critique to Global Climate Change with particular
reference to the polar regions:
Most of the monitoring data on global warming is land-based. Moreover, those
monitoring data are collected by weather stations in cities and towns.
Earth has ~72% of surface areas covered by ocean. The percentage of monitoring
data for ocean is relatively small which could not represent the overall situations
of global climate.
Most of the published monitoring data on global warming is only of the past 100-
150 years. Particularly, most of them are monitoring data after 1950. This cannot
reflect the overall history of the Earth particularly climate which is a very long-
term phenomenon.
Air pollution, and land degradation with huge amount of dust appeared in the
sky, would reflect big amount of sunlight and ‘warm’ energies. This compensates
to a certain extent the increase in global temperature due to carbon increase.
Monitoring data showed that warm temperature regularly happens in the
summer of polar regions, which support scientists’ hypothesis on climate change
due to the green house gases.
The global expansion in the distribution of PSP toxins
(spreading since the 1970s)

Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) toxin that marine scientists discovered in the polar
regions is:
Related to phytoplankton
Spread and transported by ballast water
Threat to the shellfish industry due to intoxication of contaminated
seafood
Exaggerated by global warming with particular reference to ice
melting
Enhanced by eutrophication which is believed to be closely
associated with the faeces of penguins and migrating birds
Understand more about Polar Bear:
Polar bear, Ursus maritimus , is the largest land-carnivore in the arctic region. They
are bigger than humans, weighing as much as 700 kg and up to 3.5m in length.
It is a mammal, the top predator in the arctic habitat. Believed to be evolved from
the grizzly bear during the Pleistocene.
Its white coat permits it to blend in with the ice and snow of the Arctic. This enables
the polar bear to remain undetected by its prey while it hunts.
While they are generally carnivore, they do not consider humans their prey. Polar
bears prefer to eat marine animals such as seals, beluga whales, walruses.
Sometime they also prey on birds.
Occasionally, they even eat other bears (the young)!
From late April until mid-July, polar bears experiences its largest annual caloric
intake. This period is critical to the polar bear’s survival.
Polar bears can be found swimming ~100 meters off shore.
The polar bear is well insulated by hairy skin and fat. It must move slowly as to avoid
overheating.
Yet, while they are fat, normally slow in movement, they are able to run at a speed
of 10 meters per second !
Penguins are a famous family of flightless* birds.
birds
They are highly adapted to living a life in the sea and are
found almost exclusively in the cooler waters of the Southern
Hemisphere.
Penguin rarely swim cross the equator into the Northern
Hemisphere, the most can it is at the Galapagos Islands.
Penguins spend up to 80% of their life in water.
Most species feed on fish, squid and crustaceans
(zooplankton).
So, many penguin species are impressive divers.
Although they spend most of their time at sea, they do
require land for breeding, rearing chicks and molting.
All birds must molt their feathers each year and grow a new
plumage. This is a process that can take several weeks.
Protection of polar bear and penguin, and biodiversity in general:
Principles:
Conservation – started from protection of habitat !
Others:
- Food and Prey – predator relation
- Breeding and nourishing (of young) ; diseases (pathogens)
- Pollution control
- Climate actions
- Restriction of human activities, such as housing and tourism impacts
- Restriction of unlawful trade
- Scientific research
- International collaboration

Protection of Habit is always the priority !

 Protection:
Antarctic Treaty and its significance to protection of geographic interest of the Antarctica

√
Svalbard Treaty and its significance to protection of the Arctic region
Important and innovative areas of geographic research to be conducted in polar
region in the coming decade:
 We have only one Earth –
We are one –
Save the polar regions !
Sustainability – our common future !
If we want, we can do…
Action now !

We are the world – good luck, good health, stay

strong !
 Examination – 1.5
hr

Part A - 10 MC questions, 3 marks each, Wrong answers

will be penalized by a mark of –-1 (Total 30%)
Part B: - Answer Two essay-type questions (out of 3), 35%
each (Total 70%)

Read the e-Examination guide carefully in advance !