How To Download The European Reformations 2Nd Edition Ebook PDF Ebook PDF Docx Kindle Full Chapter
How To Download The European Reformations 2Nd Edition Ebook PDF Ebook PDF Docx Kindle Full Chapter
How To Download The European Reformations 2Nd Edition Ebook PDF Ebook PDF Docx Kindle Full Chapter
“Carter Lindberg has written a compelling narrative regarding the emergence and
development of the various ‘Reformations’ of the sixteenth century. Lindberg gives
a fascinating view of the Reformations primarily from a theological and religious
perspective, in concert with others like Heiko Oberman and Brad Gregory, even as
he enriches this perspective with the contributions of social historians. Lindberg
does especially well in focusing on the reform of the liturgy from “the cult of the
living in the service of the dead” designed to free departed loved ones from Purgatory,
to a form of worship that led directly to the service of the living, especially the sick,
the poor, and the needy. He also shows how the reform movements were strength-
ened and spread by the singing of hymns and psalms by the women and men who
joined these movements. This is an insightful and cogent analysis of the complex of
movements we call the ‘Reformations’ of the sixteenth century.”
Randall Zachman at University of Notre Dame
Chronology 380
Genealogies 387
The House of Valois and Bourbon, to 1610 388
The family of Charles V 389
The English crown, 1485–1603 390
Ottoman sultans, 1451–1648 391
Popes, 1492–1605 392
viii
Maps 393
Europe about 1500 394
Germany at the time of the Reformations 395
The Empire of Charles V 396
The Ottoman Empire 397
The Portuguese and Spanish overseas empires 398
Religious divisions in Europe about 1600 399
Glossary 400
Appendix: Aids to Reformation Studies 403
Bibliography 407
Index 443
ix
modest, for the field of Reformation studies has exploded in the decade and a half
since the first edition. Merry Wiesner-Hanks (2008: 397) notes that just in the field
of women and the Reformation: “It is now nearly impossible to even know about all
the new scholarship, to say nothing of reading it.” Add in the resources available on
the World Wide Web and there is more than enough material for a lifetime let alone
a semester course! The massive growth in scholarship on the Reformations is a cause
for excitement, but at the same time the growing concentration on microstudies
threatens to replace the forest with detailed studies of every tree in it. “How is one to
teach a subject that finds itself in that condition? If Reformation Studies are to enjoy
any continuing vitality, there must be more to them than the ever-closer scrutiny of
the religious entrails and financial dealings of the weighty parishioners of Much-
Binding-in-the-Marsh” (Collinson 1997: 354). Yet, as noted above, there are a
number of texts to guide us through this forest of new growth, as well as summaries
of the state of the field such as the splendid volume edited by David M. Whitford,
Reformation and Early Modern Europe: A Guide to Research (2008) that includes web
resources along with bibliography. Additional material that follows and supplements
the narrative of my text is available in my edited volumes The European Reformations
Sourcebook (primary sources, 2000a) and The Reformation Theologians (chapters on
Humanist, Lutheran, Reformed, Roman Catholic, and “Radical” theologians, 2002).
The title of this text again speaks of “Reformations.” As far as I know, my use of
the plural “Reformations” was unique when my text first appeared. Some recent
texts continue this usage (Ryrie, 2006a; Matheson, 2007: 7 (subtitle: “Reformations,
Not Reformation”)) while others take sharp issue with it. Hillerbrand (2003: 547)
judges it “quite wrong;” but in his later volume (2007: 407) states: “Neither histori-
cally nor theologically was there ever a single Reformation movement; rather, there
were several, prompting recent scholars to speak pointedly of plural ‘Reformations.’”
Hendrix (2000: 558; 2004a: xv, xviii, 1) also thinks my title is less than helpful for it
obscures the coherent Reformation movement “to Christianize Europe.” While this
discussion may seem like so much antics with semantics, it has occupied a number
of historians in recent years. For example, in the mid-1990s, the leading church his-
torians, Berndt Hamm, Bernd Moeller, and Dorothea Wendebourg debated the
issue. Wendebourg (Hamm, et al., 1995: 31–2; Lindberg 2002a: 4–9) referred to an
early seventeenth-century engraving titled “The Light of the Gospel Rekindled by
the Reformers” (see figure 15.4). She commented that while it is a beautiful image of
unity and harmony, the reality was conflict, especially in light of the so-called “Left
Wing” reformers who are not included in the engraving. Wendebourg’s point is
echoed more recently by Brian Cummings. His summary of Reformation scholar-
ship (2002: 13) merits extensive quotation: “[I]t is significant that one of the main
efforts in such scholarship in recent years has been to argue the ‘Reformation’ out of
existence. Some historians have attempted to avoid historical determinism by
xii
xiii
I hope that this textbook will contribute to the perennial discovery of who we are
and how we got this way. The “we” here is meant globally. Such a goal of course
smacks of delusions of grandeur or at least an overestimation of the influence of the
Reformations of the sixteenth century. But no historian of whatever persuasion
thinks he or she is an antiquarian studying the past “for its own sake” as if under-
standing it did not contribute to understanding ourselves. This is illustrated by citing
just two major Reformation historians. Steven Ozment (1992: 217) concludes one of
his books on the Reformation: “To people of all nationalities the first Protestants
bequeathed in spite of themselves a heritage of spiritual freedom and equality, the
consequences of which are still working themselves out in the world today.” And
William Bouwsma (1988: 1) begins his study of Calvin with a litany of his influences:
“Calvinism has been widely credited – or blamed – for much that is thought to char-
acterize the modern world: for capitalism and modern science, for the discipline and
rationalization of the complex societies of the West, for the revolutionary spirit and
democracy, for secularization and social activism, for individualism, utilitarianism,
and empiricism.” If Ozment and Bouwsma are anywhere near the mark, it behooves
us to reflect on our roots.
The influence of the Reformations has extended beyond Euro-American cultures
to the wider world. Scholars have pursued the influences of Calvinism on social
conditions in the Republic of South Africa and of Lutheranism on modern develop-
ments in Germany and the course of Judaism; the once Eurocentric International
Congress for Luther Research now includes participants from the so-called “Third
World” who are concerned not only about the ecclesial applicability of Luther’s
theology but its relevance to liberation and human rights. The global nature of
Reformation research is evident in the translation of writings of the Reformers into
various Asian languages and the existence of scholarly endeavors everywhere, includ-
ing the People’s Republic of China; not to mention the impact on ecumenical
dialogues among Christians and with disciples of other world religions. The
Reformations continue to be seen as too important to contemporary life to be left to
antiquarians and those whom Carlyle termed “dryasdust” historians.
Why one more textbook on the Reformations? There is of course the personal
factor: I suspect that nearly every teacher wishes to tell the story his or her own way.
I am no different; and have been stimulated in this endeavor by the occasional stu-
dent question, “Why don’t you write your own text?” Such obviously brilliant and
insightful students wise to the utilitarian value of such a question should not how-
ever be blamed for this project. Rather, the rationale for sacrificing more trees to the
textbook trade is to incorporate aspects of the burgeoning field of Reformation
studies into a text that interprets these contributions from a historical–theological
perspective. Hence major attention will be directed to what the Reformers and those
who received their messages believed to be at stake – literally as well as figuratively –
for their salvation. The thread – with all its kinks and knots – running throughout
this story is their struggle to understand and to apply to society the freedom and
authority of the gospel.
What will this orientation bring to this text? I have already suggested the global
impact of the Reformations on contemporary identities. Scholarly fascination with
the influences of the Reformations has grown to the point where major historio-
graphical studies are devoted to it. The initial chapter on history and historiography
will illustrate that it is not only church historians and theologians who have com-
mitments. All historians are also interpreters; thus any and all suggestions that if you
can only shed theological (or political, or Marxist, et al.) convictions you will be
scientifically “objective” or “value free” are suspect.
I view the Reformation era as a time of plural reform movements. This approach
has significance for interpretation and definition that will be explored throughout
the text. For now, the use of the plural reminds us that even commonly used terms
such as “Reformation” carry within them subtle or not so subtle value judgments.
I will also attempt to incorporate into this text the research that has mushroomed
so recently under the general rubric of social history. Here there is specific attention
to the marginalized (the poor, women), minorities, popular culture in terms of con-
text and reception, the development of modern traits (individualism, rationality, the
secular), and the modern state-building process called confessionalization. Every
work of synthesis inevitably carries within it seeds (and sometimes full-grown
weeds!) of misunderstandings and all too many omissions. I hope the chronology,
xv
maps, genealogical tables, bibliography, and suggestions for further reading will
ameliorate to some extent the disjointedness of this synthetic narrative and its lack
of discussion of the Reformations in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia. Textbook
authors have the temerity angels eschew. This being the case, I take heart from
Luther’s dictum to “sin boldly” as well as from the words of a great English
Reformation scholar, A. G. Dickens (1974: 210): “In short, synthesis must involve
writing books which form challenges to write better ones, books which will inevitably
be replaced, attacked and patronized by others which climb upon their shoulders.”
I am pleased to dedicate these efforts to our new sons and daughter who, even
after marrying our children, still listen patiently to dinner discourses on the
Reformations and provide wry comments. I wish to thank the many students of my
“Reformations” course whose lively questions and arguments over the years have
frequently redeemed what began as “dryasdust” lectures. My “thorn-in-the-flesh”
colleague, J. Paul Sampley, has rendered a similar service in and out of the classroom.
Finally, my thanks to Alison Mudditt, Senior Commissioning Editor of Blackwell
Publishers, who initiated and shepherded this project to conclusion, to Gillian
Bromley, Desk Editor, whose sharp eye caught many an error, and to Sarah McKean,
Picture Researcher at Blackwell, for obtaining the illustrations.
xvi
xviii
We are like dwarfs standing on the shoulders of giants; thanks to them, we see
farther than they. Busying ourselves with the treatises written by the ancients,
we take their choice thoughts, buried by age and human neglect, and we raise
them, as it were from death to renewed life.
Peter of Blois (d. 1212)
Peter of Blois penned this famous aphorism almost exactly three centuries before
Luther’s “Ninety-Five Theses” rocked Europe. A major study of the historiography
of the Reformation (Dickens and Tonkin 1985: 323) concludes that it is “a window
on the West, a major point of access to the developing Western mind through the last
five centuries. … By any reckoning, the Reformation has proved a giant among the
great international movements of modern times.” On its shoulders we can look far-
ther and deeper in both directions; that is, we can peer into both the medieval and
contemporary worlds.
History provides a horizon for viewing not only the past but also the present and
the future. The philosopher Hans-Georg Gadamer (1975: 269, 272) argued that a
person without a horizon will overvalue what is immediately present, whereas the
horizon enables us to sense the relative significance of what is near or far, great or
small. “A horizon means that one learns to look beyond what is close at hand – not
in order to look away from it, but to see it better within a larger whole and in truer
proportion.” In other words, “far away facts – in history as in navigation – are more
effective than near ones in giving us true bearings” (Murray 1974: 285). Even novice
sailors know it is foolish to navigate by sighting your prow rather than by sighting
the stars or land.
Historical distance, by providing a focus beyond what we take for granted, can
be a surprising component of contemporary comprehension. The analogy of living
in a foreign city illustrates this. If you live in a foreign city for a year, you will not
learn a great deal about that city. But when you return home you will be surprised
by your increasing comprehension of some of the most profound and individual
characteristics of your homeland. You did not previously “see” these characteristics
because you were too close to them; you knew them too well. Likewise, a visit to
the past provides distance and a vantage point from which to comprehend the
present (Braudel 1972; Nygren 1948). So, L. P. Hartley began his novel The
Go-Between with the memorable sentence: “The past is another country; they do
things differently there.”
Memory also illustrates perspective. “Memory is the thread of personal identity,
history of public identity” (Hofstadter 1968: 3; Leff 1971: 115). Memory and his-
torical identity are inseparable. Have you ever been asked to introduce someone and
suddenly forgotten his or her name? At worst this common human experience is a
temporary embarrassment. But think what life would be like if you had no memory
at all. We all have heard how terribly difficult life is for amnesiacs, and about the
tragic effects of Alzheimer’s disease upon its victims and their families. The loss of
memory is not just the absence of “facts;” it is the loss of personal identity, family,
friends, indeed, the whole complex of life’s meaning. It is very difficult if not impos-
sible to function in society if we do not know who we are and how we got this way.
Our memory is the thread of our personal identity; our memory liberates us from
what Melanchthon, Luther’s colleague, called perpetual childhood. Without our
past we have no present and no future.
What about our national and religious community identities? Are we amnesiacs,
are we children, when it comes to identifying who we are in relation to our commu-
nities? What if we had to identify ourselves as an American or a Christian? Suppose
someone asked why we are Protestant or Roman Catholic. Beyond referring to our
parents or a move to a new neighborhood, could we explain why we belong to Grace
Lutheran by the gas station instead of St Mary’s by the grocery store?
I once asked a French friend to explain German–French relations. He began by
referring to the ninth-century division of Charlemagne’s empire! Most of us do not
go that far back to answer contemporary questions, but his response illustrates that
if memory is the thread of personal identity, history is the thread of community
identity. These tenacious threads of community identity also have a dark side when
they are not critically examined. This is painfully evident in the eruption of histori-
cal ethnic conflicts such as those in the former Yugoslavia and Soviet Union as well
as in the Middle East. If we do not know our personal and community histories we
REFERENCES.
[1], [2] S. King Alcock, B. M. Bond, A. Scott, and others, in discussion on
the Value of Systematic Examination of Workers in Dangerous Trades. Brit.
Med. Journ., vol. ii., pp. 741-749, 1902.
[3] King Alcock: The Early Diagnosis of Industrial Lead Poisoning. Paper
contributed to the Second International Congress for the Study of Industrial
Diseases held at Brussels, 1910.
CHAPTER XIV
PREVENTIVE MEASURES AGAINST LEAD
POISONING—Continued
REFERENCES.
[1] George Reid: Memorandum on Mess-room Accommodation: Appendix
XXV. of the Potteries Committee’s Report, vol. ii., 1910. Cd. 5278.
[2] Th. Sommerfeld: Die Bekämpfung der Bleigefahr, edited by Leymann,
p. 76.
CHAPTER XV
DESCRIPTION OF PROCESSES
Lead smelting—Red and orange lead and litharge—Letterpress printing—File-cutting—File-hardening—
Tinning of metals—Plumbing and soldering—Brass.
Lead Smelting and Silver Refining.—Lead poisoning very rarely occurs in lead
mining in Europe, as galena (sulphide of lead), the principal ore in which the metal is
found, is insoluble. Galena always, and other lead ores very often, contain a small
proportion of silver, ranging from 0·001 to 1 per cent., and at times traces of gold.
Owing to the great affinity of lead for silver, lead smelting is necessarily a process
preliminary to the extraction of silver and gold from it[1].
Lead ores, drosses, etc., on arrival at the factory, are, after sampling, deposited in
bins or heaps (often in the open air), and watered to prevent dust. All ores may, and
refractory ores (containing over 4 per cent. silica) and dross must, be smelted in a blast
furnace by aid of coke. The bulk of the charge in a blast furnace may consist of more
or less complex ores of the precious metals, especially silver.
When galena is treated in a blast furnace, preliminary roasting is indispensable, and
in many smelting works its treatment takes place in a reverberatory or open-hearth
furnace, and not in a blast furnace.
The three principal methods applicable to extraction of lead from ores are—(1) The
roast and reaction method; (2) the roast and reduction method; and (3) the
precipitation process.
By the roast and reaction method a part of the galena is first converted into oxide
and sulphate of lead with access of air. Subsequently, on shutting off the air-supply and
increasing the temperature, a reaction takes place. The sulphur in the unchanged
sulphide combines with the oxygen of the oxide and sulphate to form sulphur dioxide,
which is carried away by the draught into the bricked flue, leaving metallic lead behind.
The process is carried on in a reverberatory or open-hearth furnace.
In the roast and reduction method the first portion of the process is carried out in a
reverberatory furnace, the galena being roasted pretty completely to lead oxide and
sulphate, which are then—usually in a blast furnace—reduced to the metallic state with
coke and other reducing agents, such as iron.
By the precipitation process galena was decomposed at a high temperature by
means of metallic iron, forming a mixture of iron and lead sulphide. This method was
only applicable to rich lead ores, and is now given up.
The three methods are hardly ever independent of one another, as the rich slag or
residues, for instance, which are obtained by the first method are retreated by the
second, and the second is, as has been stated, almost always combined with the first.
On tapping the blast or reverberatory furnace, the lead is drawn off into a lead well or
sump, from which, when cool, it is ladled into moulds, while the slag is run into
movable metal pots or along specially-prepared channels. The slag run off from the
reverberatory furnace contains much lead locked up as silicate, which requires to be
retreated, usually in the blast furnace. During the roasting process much raking of the
material is necessary. The slag from the blast furnace should contain less than 1 per
cent. of lead.
On the Continent and in America, the Huntingdon-Heberlein process has been
extensively adopted, with lessened incidence of poisoning, the result of mechanical
methods of working, obviating hand labour, and the low temperature (diminishing risk
from lead fume) at which the roasting is carried on. In this process the crushed ore is
desulphurized by first mixing with lime and heating in presence of air in a revolving
furnace, provided with automatic rabble, at moderate temperature (about 700° C.).
Subsequently the roasted material is conveyed from closed bins, into which it falls
automatically, by dust-proof elevators to a converter, in which atmospheric air at slight
pressure is forced through it. The agglomerated mass so formed, when tipped out of
the converter (in doing which there is risk from dust), is well damped, broken by hand,
and charged with coke in the usual way into the blast furnace.
In some lead-smelting works the material arrives on the premises in the form of
ingots of base bullion—i.e., impure lead rich in silver—the product of previous smelting
of the ore where it is mined in Australia or Spain. And one of the main objects of the
blast-furnace smelting of galena in the factory is to produce a base bullion rich in
precious metals. The lead so obtained requires further softening or refining to get rid of
copper, antimony, arsenic, and tin. This is effected in a reverberatory furnace, first at a
low temperature to allow of formation of furnace dross, which is removed through the
working doors, and secondly with increase of heat and access of air to oxidize, in the
order named, the tin, arsenic, and antimony. Finally the lead is tapped into kettles or
pots. If free from silver, such lead, when poured into moulds, is ready for the market;
but if rich in silver, it is treated for the recovery of that metal either by (a) Pattinson’s
process, depending on the higher temperature of crystallization of lead than of an alloy
of lead and silver, which enables a separation of one from the other to be made by a
process of ladling the crystalline from the liquid portion; or, much more commonly, by
(b) Parkes’s process, depending on the formation, on addition of zinc to a pot of molten
lead, of crusts consisting of an alloy of silver, lead, and zinc. The crusts obtained in the
latter process, after cooling, are broken up, placed in a crucible, and the zinc driven off
at a temperature of 1,000° C. in a dezincing Faber du Faur retort. The rich bullion,
retained either in the last kettle by the Pattinson process, or remaining in the crucible
after dezincing, next undergoes cupellation—i.e., exposure to a blast of air in a
furnace. The lead is oxidized into litharge, which drops into a receptacle below the
furnace, leaving the silver behind. In all lead-smelting works the draught from the
furnace carries much dust of ore and fuel, and fume, consisting of sulphide, sulphate,
and oxides of lead, into the flues. The dust is easily collected in dust chambers, but the
fume requires ducts of great length—sometimes a mile or more—in which to deposit.
Dangers and Prevention.—The risk from dust in general labouring work, in
depositing the ores in bins, in removing them to, and charging them into, the furnace,
can only be controlled by watering, preferably by a spray. From the blast furnace lead
fume and carbon monoxide may escape at the point where charging is done, if there is
back pressure from blockage in the flues, or if the furnace blast is not working perfectly.
In tapping the lead and in manipulations such as charging, drossing, and skimming,
conducted through the doors of furnaces of all descriptions, hoods, extending at the
sides down to the floor level, require to be arranged over the working doors, and
connected either with ducts passing vertically through the roof or directly with the
exhaust created in the furnace or flue itself. Dross and skimmings removed through the
working doors should be received into iron trolleys capable of being covered, and not
be allowed to fall on to the floors, to be shovelled up later on to barrows. Before such
dross or slag from reverberatory furnaces is broken up for further treatment it should
be well watered.
Lead absorption among the men actually employed in the Pattinson and Parkes’s
processes is comparatively rare, as the temperature of the molten metal does not
exceed 450° to 500° C. When, however, the zinc-silver-lead and gold alloy is removed
for treatment in special furnaces for distillation off of the zinc, prior to cupellation, the
lead from the Parkes’s pot, now free from silver, but containing traces of zinc,
antimony, and other impurities, is run in some works into what are termed “market
pots” for a final refining. Air and steam are blown through to oxidize the impurities. The
pot is skimmed twice, the first dross containing antimony, etc., and the second a fine
dust consisting of lead (60 per cent.) and zinc. The risk of poisoning at this point is
considerable, although an exhaust fan connects up the cover of the pot with a cyclone
separator, to carry away the fume when the steam is blown through. In other works this
dezincing is done in a refining furnace, the material being then in a slaggy state, thus
hindering development of fumes. After the condensation of the zinc in the distillation of
the silver-lead and zinc crust the cover of the pot is raised, and the remaining metal,
containing 80 per cent. of lead at a temperature of about 2,000° F., is ladled out into
moulds for treatment in the cupelling furnace. The temperature at which this ladling
operation has to be done makes the work impossible for those unaccustomed to it.
Exhaust ventilation in the operation of emptying the pot, and cutting off the heat by a
water-cooled jacket, suggest themselves as means to combat the undoubted risk.
In cupellation the temperature is high (about 2,000° C.), and fume will escape from
the working door and from the opening where the rich lead is fed into the furnace. The
danger here is sufficiently recognized by hoods and ducts placed in front of the
furnace, but the draught, unless the ducts are connected up with a high-pressure fan,
may prove inadequate to carry away all the fume.
Flue-cleaning, carried out usually at quarterly or half-yearly periods, is dusty work, as
much of the dust is in so fine a state of division as to repel contact with water.
Smelting of other metals when the ores contain appreciable amounts of lead is
equally productive of plumbism. Thus, in the year 1901 fourteen cases were reported
from an iron works for the manufacture of spiegeleisen, the ore (now no longer used)
coming from Greece[2]. In previous years it would appear to have been even greater. A
remarkable feature of all the reported cases from this factory was that the form
assumed was colic, and never paralysis. The poisoning was due to vaporization of the
molten lead by the very high temperature to which it was raised as the molten iron
flowed out of the furnace on tapping. The danger from fume was limited to the first few
feet of the channel, as the heavier molten lead gravitated down between loose
brickwork into a pit. Dust collected above the point where the furnace was tapped
contained 39·77 per cent. of lead monoxide, and the flue dust 4·22 per cent.[3]. A
flannel respirator worn once only by one of the furnace men contained lead equal to 16
milligrammes of lead monoxide. In 1906 three cases were reported in the extraction of
copper. The persons affected were employed in charging ore into the cupola[4].
Heavy incidence of poisoning (twelve cases in two months) in a smelting works (now
closed) led to examination of sixteen men. The gums of only one man were free of a
blue line—in most it was particularly dense—eight were anæmic, one had paralysis of
the wrists, and five others weakness. Analysis of the air was made at different points in
the factory by the chemist of the works, G. D. Cowan, with the following results:
The samples from the cupola were taken from inside the hood (about 5 feet above the men’s heads).
The gas was filtered through cotton-wool, so that all solid particles were retained, and the remaining gas
was treated separately. The solid particles will be called “dust,” and the gas, after filtration, “fume.”
The cupola samples on being examined gave—
Dust, first sample 0·08152 grain of lead per cubic foot.
„ second sample 0·07297 „ „ „
Fume, first sample
- 0·00526 „ „ „
„ second sample
The samples from the lead well were taken 12 inches above the molten metal at the end of the lead
siphon, and gave the following results:
Dust 0·05653 grain per cubic foot.
Fume Nil.
The briquetting machine samples were taken from the platform where all the ore and fluxes are mixed
before briquetting.
The results obtained here were as follows:
Dust 0·95715 grain of lead per cubic foot.
Fume, or fine dust that passed through filter 0·01314 „ „ „
The reason for these high results was owing to dust raised when waggons of ore were tipped prior to
mixing.
Assuming that 20 cubic inches of air pass in and out of the lungs at each respiration,
a man in eight hours would inhale and exhale 94·4 cubic feet. This amount of air,
inhaled at the position in the cupola where the sample was taken, would contain
7·3818 grains of lead; at the lead well, 5·3064 grains; and at the briquetting machines,
91·5953 grains. Although the condition of the air where the men actually worked must
have contained much less than these amounts, the analyses quite serve to explain the
heavy incidence.
Collis[5] quotes the following analysis of dust and fumes from Hofman’s “Metallurgy
of Lead.”
Lead Smelting: Analyses of Dust and Fumes (from Hofman’s “Metallurgy of
Lead”).
Percentage of—
Material Arsenious Lead Lead
Analysed. Arsenic. Oxide. Lead. Monoxide. Sulphate.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
All dust collected in ten years, average — — 25·6 — —
Dust from—
Downcomers of eleven blast furnaces — — 47·5 — —
Roof of blast-furnace building — — 27·1 — —
Fumes from—
Slag pot while boiling — 4·8 — 41·0 26·2
Reverberatory settling furnace 2·3 — — 31·0 —
Flue dust—
Friedrichshütte, Silesia — — — 62·8 —
A 7·5 — 26·2 — —
Freiberg, Saxony - B 37·5 — 21·3 — —
C 46·4 — 16·2 — —
Pribram, Bohemia — 1·0 — 45·5 —
Collis[6] estimated the attack rate in lead-smelting works at 30, and in spelter works
at 10, per 1,000 per annum. In one factory he found it 80 per 1,000, and in a spelter
works five cases occurred in a few months among seven workers.
The distribution of the reported cases from year to year was as follows:
Process. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. 1910. 1911. Total.
Lead
smelting 21 26 13 13 7 10 16 21 31 28 21 33 240
Desilverizing 1 3 9 10 16 6 9 4 3 6 — 3 70
Spelter 5 11 3 4 4 5 9 2 31 25 12 11 122
Other
(copper,
iron, etc.) 7 14 3 10 6 3 4 1 5 7 1 1 62
34 54 28 37 33 24 38 28 70 66 34 48 494
Spelter (Zinc) Manufacture.—Lead is present in zinc ores in a proportion of from
1 to 10 per cent. (usually 3 per cent.). Despite this small proportion, incidence of
chronic plumbism among those engaged in the manufacture is high, as in the present
state of knowledge the lead fume given off in distillation of the zinc cannot be efficiently
removed. Blende (zinc sulphide) is first calcined, and the residue, after mixture with
calamine (zinc ashes) and anthracite, forms the charge for the furnace. The retorts are
arranged in long rows one above the other, and frequently back to back in the furnace,
so that there may be 250 or more to each furnace, and of the furnaces there may be
several in a shed. Attached to the retort is a fireclay receptacle (condenser) into which
the zinc distils, and an iron nozzle (prolong) to prevent oxidation in the condenser.
While distillation goes on the carbonic oxide gas evolved burns brightly, tinged with the
greenish-white colour imparted by the zinc. The products of combustion, with traces of
lead fume from the hundreds of prolongs, are discharged into the atmosphere of the
sheds, where temperature is high. The latest design of prolongs, however, has an exit
at which the products of combustion escape near the furnace, so that the greater
portion pass up into the ventilating hoods. Periodically—three times to each charge—
the workman removes the prolong, ladles out such zinc as has condensed, and pours
it into moulds. Finally, when distillation is completed, the contents of the retorts are
raked out, and it is in the fuming hot residues so deposited on the floors that much of
the danger arises. In distilling furnaces of modern design the hot residues fall through
openings in the window of the furnaces into “pockets,” in which they cool off
considerably before they are drawn out into iron skips. In another form of furnace used
in the manufacture of spelter (Silesian), the workman after charging can leave the