PHY-102 Lab Mannual (Hardware Based) Final

LAB MANUAL
(Hardware Based)
Program : B.Sc. in EEE

Course Code : PHY 102
Course Title : Physics Lab I
Course Credit : 1.50
Contact Hours : 3 hrs
PHY-102 Page | 1
Introduction
This course will mainly focus on Waves and Oscillations (Compound pendulum, Katter’s pendulum,
Spring-Mass system), Heat & Thermodynamics (Thermal conductivity, Pressure coefficient), Properties
of Matter (Modulus of rigidity, Young’s Modulus, Surface Tension), Physical Optics (Refractive Index).
1. Course Objectives
This course will provide practical knowledge by applying the experimental methods to correlate with
the Physics theory and the ideas of different measuring devices and meters to record the data with
precision.
2. Course Outcomes
Upon completion of this course students will be able to:
CO1: Apply the various procedures and techniques for the experiments, mathematical equations and
graphical analysis to the experimental data to obtain quantitative results;
CO2: Develop intellectual communication skills through working in groups in performing the
laboratory experiments and by interpreting the experimental results;
CO3: Learn the writing techniques of lab report in a systematic way.
3. Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:
Domain / level Delivery

Correspon Assessment
CO Statement of learning methods and
ding PO tools
taxonomy activities
Upon completion this Lab tests

experiment, students will Simulation
be able to: Lab reports
PO1– Affective Experiment
CO1: Apply the various Final lab test
Engineerin
procedures and techniques domain/ Practice lab
g Open ended
for the experiments, analyzing
knowledge Group lab
mathematical equations level
and graphical analysis to discussion
Project
the experimental data to Tutorial show & project
obtain quantitative results; presentation
PHY-102 Page | 2
CO2: develop intellectual
communication skills
through working in groups
PO9- Team
in performing the Psychomotor
Work
laboratory experiments
and by interpreting the
experimental results;
Lab reports
CO3: To learn the writing PO10–
Affective Project
techniques of lab report in Communic
domain show & project
a systematic way. ation
4. Text Book
1. Practical Physics”, Dr. Giasudin Ahmad and Md. Shahabuddin
5. Reference
1. Physics I Lab Manual, EEE Department, BUBT
2. Practical Physics, R.K. Shukla and Anchal Srivastava
6. Weekly Schedule
Expt. No. of
Name of the Experiment Week
No.
01 Familiarization with Vernier Calipers and Screw Gauge by Week1
measuring various samples
02 To determine the value of g, acceleration due to gravity, by Week2
means of a compound pendulum
03 To determine the spring constant and effective mass of a given Week3
spiral spring
04 To determine the Young’s modulus by the flexure of a beam Week4
05 To determine the surface tension of water by capillary tube Week5
method
06 To determine the modulus of rigidity of a wire by Statical method. Week7
PHY-102 Page | 3
Mid Examination Week6
07 To determine the modulus of rigidity of a wire by method of Week8
oscillations (dynamic method)
08 To determine the presser co-efficient of a gas at constant volume by Week9
constant volume air thermometer
09 To determine the refractive index of the material of a prism. Week10
10 To determine the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor by Week11
Lees and Charlton’s method
11 To verify the Newton’s law of cooling of different materials Week12
and different liquids.
12 To determine the value of g, acceleration due to gravity, by Week13
means of Katter’s Pendulum
Final Examination Week14
PHY-102 Page | 4
Experiment No.: 01
Name of the Experiment:

Familiarization with Vernier Calipers and Screw Gauge by measuring various samples
Objectives of the Experiment:
 To know the use of the Vernier Calipers and Screw Gauge.

 To measure the length, width and height of the given rectangular block and then measuring the volume
of the sample
 To measure the diameter of a small spherical body and then measuring volume of the sample.
Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:
Domain /
Delivery
Expt. Correspon level of Assessment
CO Statement methods and
No. ding PO learning tools
activities
taxonomy
Lab tests
Upon completion this
experiment, students Simulation Lab reports
will be able to: PO1– Experiment Final lab
Affective
CO1: apply the various Engineeri test
domain/ Practice lab
01 procedures and ng
analyzing Open ended
techniques for using knowledge Group
level lab
ammeter voltmeter for discussion
finding the voltage Project
drops and currents; Tutorial
show & project
presentation
Theory:
Vernier Calipers:
A Vernier calipers is a device used to measure the distance between two opposing sides of an object. It can be as
simple as a compass with inward or outward-facing points. First the tips of the calipers are adjusted to fit across
the points to be measured and the calipers is then removed and the distance between the tips is measured using a
ruler. The modern Vernier calipers was invented by Joseph R. Brown in 1851. It was the first practical tool for
exact measurements that could be sold at an affordable price to ordinary machinists. The Vernier Calipers
consists of a main scale fitted with a jaw at one end. Another jaw, containing the Vernier scale, moves over the
main scale. When the two jaws are in contact, the zero of the main scale and the zero of the Vernier scale should
coincide. If both the zeros do not coincide, there will be a positive or negative zero error.
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Parts of a Vernier Calipers:
1.Main Scale
The main scale consists of a steel metallic strip graduated in centimeters at one edge and in inches at the other
edge. It carries the inner and outer measuring jaws. When the two jaws are in contact, the zero of the main scale
and the zero of the Vernier scale should coincide. If both the zeros do not coincide, there will be a positive or
negative zero error.
2. Vernier Scale
A Vernier scale slides on the strip. It can be fixed in any position by the retainer. On the Vernier scale, 0.9 cm is
divided into ten equal parts.
3. Outer Measuring Jaws

The outer measuring jaws helps to take the outer dimension of an object
4. Inner Measuring Jaws

The inner measuring jaws helps to take the inner dimension of an object.
5. Retainer
The retainer helps to retain the object within the jaws of the Vernier calipers.
6. Depth Measuring Prong

The depth measuring prong helps to measure the depth of an object.
Figure-1
Vernier Constant (V.C.) calculation:
Vernier constant is a measure of the difference in length of a scale division and a Vernier division in the unit of
the scale division.
Let the value of one small division of the main scale = 1 mm and let 10 Vernier division be equal to 9 scale
division.
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10 Vernier division = 9 scale division
9
I Vernier division = 10 scale division.
Vernier constant (V.C.) = 1 s. d. - I v. d.
9 1
= I s.d - 10 s.d. =.d.= 10 × 1 mm
= 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm.
Instrumental Error/Zero error of Vernier Calipers:
When the Vernier zero does not coincide with the main scale zero, there is an instrumental error or zero error.
In such a case, the actual reading of the scale does not give the true length of the body. There may be two types
of zero errors:
(a) The zero of the Vernier may be in advance of the zero line of the main scale by an amount x mm. This
means that in place of zero reading the instrument is giving a reading +x mm. On placing the body between the
jaws if the scale reading be y mm, then the actual length of the body is (y - x) mm. In this case the instrumental
error is + ve and must always be subtracted.
(b) When Vernier zero is behind that of the main scale by an amount -x mm, the instrumental error is - ve and
must be added to the actual reading to get true length of the body. On placing the body between the jaws if the
scale reading be y mm, then the actual length of the body is (y + x) mm
Calculating the Reading of Iron Block

When a body is between the jaws of the Vernier Caliper; If the zero of the Vernier scale lies ahead of the Nth
division of the main scale, then the main scale reading (MSR) is;
M. S. R. = N
If nth division of Vernier scale coincides with any division of the main scale, then the Vernier scale reading
(VSR) is;
V. S. R. = n × V. C. (Vernier Constant of Vernier Calipers)…………….(1)
Total reading,
TR = M. S. R. +V. S. R. = N + (n × V. C. )…………………(2)
Volume of a Rectangular Block
V = l × b × h……………………………..(3)
where 'l' is length of the block, 'b' the breadth and 'h' the height of the block.
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Screw Gauge:
The screw gauge is an instrument used for measuring accurately the diameter of a thin wire or the thickness of a
sheet of metal. It consists of a U-shaped frame fitted with a screwed spindle which is attached to a thimble.
Figure-2
Parallel to the axis of the thimble, a scale graduated in mm is engraved. This is called pitch scale. A sleeve is
attached to the head of the screw.
The head of the screw has a ratchet which avoids undue tightening of the screw. On the thimble there is a circular
scale known as head scale which is divided into 50 or 100 equal parts. When the screw is worked, the sleeve
moves over the pitch scale.
A stud with a plane end surface called the anvil is fixed on the ‘U’ frame exactly opposite to the tip of the screw.
When the tip of the screw is in contact with the anvil, usually, the zero of the head scale coincides with the zero
of the pitch scale.
Pitch of the Screw Gauge :The pitch of the screw is the distance moved by the spindle per revolution. To find
this, the distance advanced by the head scale over the pitch scale for a definite number of complete rotation of
the screw is determined.
The pitch can be represented as;

Distance moved by screw
Pitch of the screw = No.Of full rotations given
………………………(4)
Least Count of the Screw Gauge
The Least count (L.C.) is the distance moved by the tip of the screw, when the screw is turned through 1
division of the head scale.
The least count can be calculated using the formula;

Pitch
Least Count (L. C. ) = Total nubmer of divisions onthe Circular Scale………………………(5)
Zero Error and Zero Correction of Screw Gauge:
To get the correct measurement, the zero error must be taken into account. For this purpose, the screw is rotated
forward till the screw just touches the anvil and the edge of cap is on the zero mark of the pitch scale. The Screw
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gauge is held keeping the pitch scale vertical with its zero down wards. When this is done, anyone of the following
three situations can arise (Figure-3):
1. The zero mark of the circular scale comes on the reference line. In this case, the zero error and the zero
correction, both are nil.
2. The zero mark of the circular scale remains above the reference line and does not cross it. In this case,
the zero error is positive and the zero correction is negative depending on how many divisions it is above
the reference line.
3. The zero mark of the head scale is below the reference line. In this case, the zero error is negative and
the zero correction is positive depending on how many divisions it is below the reference line.
Figure-3
To find the diameter of the lead shot:
With the lead shot between the screw and anvil, if the edge of the cap lies ahead of the Nth division of the linear
scale.
Then, linear scale reading (L.S.R.) = N
If nth division of circular scale lies over reference line,
Then, circular scale reading (C.S.R.) = n x (L.C.) (L.C. is least count of screw gauge)
Total reading (T.R.) = L.S.R. + corrected C.S.R. = N + (n x L.C.)………………(6)
If D be the mean diameter of lead shot,
Then, volume of the lead shot,
4 D
V = π( )3 ………………………(7)
3 2
Apparatus:
1. Vernier calipers.
2. A small rectangular metallic block
3. Screw Gauge
4. Lead shot
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Experimental Procedures:
1. We'll first determine the Vernier constant (VC), which is the least count (L.C) of the Vernier caliper
and record it stepwise as in the equation, L.C = 1 MSD - 1 VSD.
2. Now, bring the movable jaw in close contact with the fixed jaw and find the zero error. Do this three
times and record the values. If there is no zero error, then record 'zero error nil'.
3. Open the jaws of the Vernier Caliper and place the sphere or cylinder between the two jaws and
adjust the movable jaw, such that it gently grips the body without any undue pressure on it. That
done, tighten the screw attached to the Vernier scale.
4. Note the position of the zero mark of the Vernier scale on the main scale. Record the main scale
reading just before the zero mark of the Vernier scale. This reading (N) is called main scale reading
(MSR).
5. Note the number (n) of the Vernier scale division which coincides with the division of the main scale.
6. You'll have to repeat steps 5 and 6 after rotating the body by 90o for measuring the diameter in a
perpendicular direction.
7. Repeat steps 4 to 7 for three different positions and record the observations.
8. Now find total reading using the equation, TR = MSR+VSR = N+(n x L.C) and apply the zero
correction.
9. Take the mean of the different values of the diameter and show that in the result with the proper
unit.
For Screw Gauge:
1. Determine the pitch and least count of the screw gauge using the equations (1) and (2) respectively.
2. Bring the anvil and screw in contact with each other and find the zero error. Do it three times and
record them. If there is no zero error, then record ‘zero error nil’.
3. Move the screw away from the anvil and place the lead shot and move the screw towards the anvil
using the ratchet head. Stop when the ratchet slips without moving the screw.
4. Note the number of divisions on the pitch scale that is visible and uncovered by the edge of the cap.
The reading N is called the pitch scale reading(PSR)
5. Note the number (n) of the division of the circular scale lying over the reference line.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 after rotating the lead shot by 900 for measuring the diameter in a
perpendicular direction. Record the observations in the tabular column.
7. Find total reading using the equation 3 and apply zero correction in each case.
8. Take the mean of different values.
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Precautions:
1. Follow directions. Come to lab prepared to perform the experiment. Follow all written and
verbal instructions. When in doubt, ask.
2. Absolutely no horseplay. Be alert and attentive at all times. Act like an adult.
3. Report all accidents, injuries or breakage to the instructor immediately. Also, report any
equipment that you suspect is malfunctioning.
4. Dress appropriately. Avoid wearing overly-bulky or loose-fitting clothing, or dangling jewelry
that may become entangled in your experimental apparatus. Pin or tie back long hair and roll
up loose sleeves.
5. Use goggles:
1. when heating anything.
2. when using any type of projectile.
3. when instructed to do so.
6. Use equipment with care for the purpose for which it is intended.
7. Do not perform unauthorized experiments. Get the instructor's permission before you try
something original.
8. Be careful when working with apparatus that may be hot. If you must pick it up, use tongs, a
wet paper towel, or other appropriate holder.
9. If a thermometer breaks, inform the instructor immediately. Do not touch either the broken
glass or the mercury with your bare skin.
10. Ask the instructor to check all electrical circuits before you turn on the power.
11. When working with electrical circuits, be sure that the current is turned off before making
adjustments in the circuit.
12. Do not connect the terminals of a battery or power supply to each other with a wire. Such a
wire will become dangerously hot.
13. Return all equipment, clean and in good condition, to the designated location at the end of the
lab period.
14. Leave your lab area cleaner than you found it.
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Data Collection:
Data Table- 1: Reading for Measurement of the length of the sample (Iron block) (using slide Calipers)
Dimension No. Main Vernier Vernier Vernier scale Total Average Volume
to be of scale scale constant reading length/breadth/ of the
measured obs reading divisions (V.C) (V.S.R) = Thickness, l/b/h Iron
. (M.S.R) (V.S.D) cm V.S.D X V.C Cm block (V)
cm cm (MSR+ VSR) cm3
Length of 1
Iron block
2
3
Breadth of 1
Iron block
2
3
Thickness 1
of Iron
block 2
3
Table- 2: Reading for Measurement of the radius of the sample (Lead Shot) (using Screw Gauge)
Volume
Liner Total of the
Circular
No. scale diameter Mean Lead Shot
scale divisions Least count Circular scale
of reading D diameter (V)
(C.S.D) (L.C) reading (C.S.R) =
obs. (L.S.R) Cm D
cm (CSD * L.C)
cm (LSR + cm 𝒄𝒎𝟑
CSR)
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Calculation:
Vernier Calipers:
Zero Error Calculation:
Zero error, C= 0 cm
Volume of the sample (Iron Block): V = l × b × h = 𝒄𝒎𝟑
Screw Gauge:
Zero Error Calculation:
Zero error, C= -2 × 0.001= -0.002 cm
4 D
Volume of the sample (Lead shot): V = 3 π( 2 )3 = 𝒄𝒎𝟑
Results and Discussions:

Volume of the sample (Iron Block) using Vernier Calipers: 𝒄𝒎𝟑
Volume of the sample (Lead shot) using Screw Gauge: 𝒄𝒎𝟑
Conclusion:
Summarize the experiment and discuss whether the objective were fulfilled or not within a short
paragraph.
References:
1. Practical Physics: Dr. Giasuddin Ahmad and Md. Shahabuddin
2. Practical physics: R.K. Shukla, Anchal Srivatsava
3. Kenneth. E. Jesse, American Journal of Physics, Vol. 48, Issue 9, pp.785 (1980)
Knowledge Test Questions:

Pre-lab Questions:
1. What is Vernier Calipers?
2. What is Screw Gauge?
Post-Lab Questions:
1. What is Vernier constant?
2. What is least count?
3. What is pitch of a Screw Gauge?
PHY-102 Page | 13
Experiment No.: 02

To determine the value of g, acceleration due to gravity, by means of a Compound Pendulum
 To study the motion of a compound pendulum,

 To study simple harmonic motion,
 To determine the acceleration due to gravity using the theory, results, and analysis of this experiment.

Domain /
Delivery
activities
taxonomy
Lab tests
Affective
procedures and ng
level lab
02 ammeter voltmeter for discussion
show & project
presentation
CO3: Learn the writing PO10-
techniques of lab report Communi Lab reports
in a systematic way. cation:
Theory:
A simple pendulum consists of a small body called a “bob” (usually a sphere) attached to
the end of a string the length of which is great compared with the dimensions of the bob and the
mass of which is negligible in comparison with that of the bob. Under these conditions the mass
of the bob may be regarded as concentrated at its center of gravity, and the length of the
pendulum is the distance of this point from the axis of suspension. When the dimensions of the
suspended body are not negligible in comparison with the distance from the axis of suspension to
the center of gravity, the pendulum is called a compound, or physical, pendulum. A rigid body
mounted upon a horizontal axis so as to vibrate under the force of gravity is a compound
pendulum. Compound pendulum is a rigid body of any shape free to turn about a horizontal axis. In
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Eigure-1, G is the center of gravity of the pendulum of mass M, which performs oscillations about a
horizontal axis through O.
Figure-1
In Fig.1 a body of irregular shape is pivoted about a horizontal frictionless axis through P and is
displaced from its equilibrium position by an angle θ. In the equilibrium position the center of
gravity G of the body is vertically below P. The distance GP is l and the mass of the body is m.
The restoring torque for an angular displacement θ is
𝜏 = −𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃………………………(1)
For small amplitudes (θ ≈ 0),
𝜏 = −𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝜃…………………………..(2)
𝑑2 𝜃
And 𝜏 = 𝐼 …………………………(3)
𝑑𝑡
From equation (2) and (3),

𝑑2 𝜃
𝐼 = −𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝜃……………………….(4)
𝑑𝑡
Where, I is the moment of inertia of the body through the axis P. Eq. (4) represents a simple harmonic
motion and hence the time period of oscillation is given by
𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑚𝑔𝑙………………………….(5)
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Now, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝐺 + 𝑚𝑙 2 , where 𝐼𝐺 is the moment of inertia of the body about an axis parallel with axis of
oscillation and passing through the center of gravity G.
𝐼𝐺 = 𝑚𝑘 2 ……………………………..(6)
Where, K is the radius of gyration about the axis passing through G. Thus,
𝑘2
𝑚𝑘 2 +𝑚𝑙2 +𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋√ 𝑙 …….......(7)
𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝑔
The time period of a simple pendulum of length L, is given by

l
T = 2π√g ……………………………..(8)
Comparing with Eq. (7) we get

𝑘2
𝐿= + 𝑙…………………………..(9)
𝑙
This is the length of “equivalent simple pendulum”. If all the mass of the body were concentrated at a
𝑘2
point O (See Figure-1) such that 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑙 + 𝑙, we would have a simple pendulum with the same time
period. The point O is called the ‘Centre of Oscillation’. Now from Eq. (9)
𝑙2 − 𝑙𝐿 + 𝑘2 = 0……………………..(10)
i.e. a quadratic equation in l. Equation 10 has two roots l1 and l2 such that
𝑙1 + 𝑙2 = 𝐿
And, 𝑙1 𝑙2 = 𝐾2 ……………………….(11)
Thus both 𝑙1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙2 are positive. This means that on one side of C.G there are two positions of the
center of suspension about which the time periods are the same. Similarly, there will be a pair of
positions of the center of suspension on the other side of the C.G about which the time periods will be
the same. Thus there are four positions of the centers of suspension, two on either side of the C.G, about
which the time periods of the pendulum would be the same. The distance between two such positions
of the centers of suspension, asymmetrically located on either side of C.G, is the length L of the simple
equivalent pendulum. Thus, if the body was supported on a parallel axis through the point O (see Figure-
1), it would oscillate with the same time period T as when supported at P. Now it is evident that on
either side of G, there are infinite numbers of such pair of points satisfying Eq. (11). If the body is
supported by an axis through G, the time period of oscillation would be infinite. From any other axis in
the body the time period is given by Eq. (7). From Equation (8) and (11), the value of g and K are given
by
4π2 L
g= …………………………(12)
T2
and 𝐾 = √𝑙1 𝑙2………………….(13)

By determining L, 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 graphically for a particular value of T, the acceleration due to gravity g at
that place and the radius of gyration K of the compound pendulum can be determined.
PHY-102 Page | 16
Apparatus:
1. A Compound Pendulum (metallic rectangular bar with hole in each 5cm distance).
2. A small metallic wedge
3. A holder in fixed point
4. Stop watch
Description of the apparatus (Compound Pendulum):

The apparatus ordinarily used in the laboratory is a rectangular bar AB of brass about 1-meter long. A
series of circular holes is drilled along the bar at intervals of 5 cm (Figure-2). The bar is suspended from
a horizontal knife-edge passing through any of the holes (Figure-2). By inserting the metal wedge S in
one of the holes and placing the wedge on the support S1S2, the bar may be made to oscillate. The real
picture of compound pendulum is shown in Figure-3.
Figure-2: Compound pendulum Figure-3: Compound pendulum
1. The compound bar pendulum AB is suspended by passing a knife edge through the first hole at the
end A. The pendulum is pulled aside through a small angle and released, whereupon it oscillates in a
vertical plane with small amplitude. The time for 10 oscillations is measured. From this the
period T of oscillation of the pendulum is determined.
2. In a similar manner, periods of oscillation are determined by suspending the pendulum through the
remaining holes on the same side of the centre of mass G of the bar. The bar is then inverted and
PHY-102 Page | 17
periods of oscillation are determined by suspending the pendulum through all the holes on the
opposite side of G. The distances d of the top edges of different holes from the end A of the bar are
measured for each hole. The position of the centre of mass of the bar is found by balancing the bar
horizontally on a knife edge. The mass M of the pendulum is determined by weighing the bar with an
accurate scale or balance.
3. A graph is drawn with the distance d of the various holes from the end A along the X-axis and the
period T of the pendulum at these holes along the Y-axis. The graph has two branches, which are
symmetrical about G. To determine the length of the equivalent simple pendulum corresponding to
any period, a straight line is drawn parallel to the X- axis from a given period T on the Y- axis, cutting
the graph at four points A, B, C, D. The distances AC and BD, determined from the graph, are equal
to the corresponding length l. The average length l = (AC+BD)/2 and l/T2 are calculated. In a similar
way, l/T2 is calculated for different periods by drawing lines parallel to the X-axis from the
corresponding values of T along the Y- axis. L/T2 should be constant over all periods T, so the
average over all suspension points is taken. Finally, the acceleration due to gravity is calculated from
the equation g= 4π2(l/T2).
4. Tmin is where the tangent EF to the two branches of the graph crosses the Y-axis. At Tmin, the distance
EF = l = 2kG can be determined, which gives us kG, the radius of gyration of the pendulum about its
centre of mass, and one more value of g, from g= 4π2(2kG/Tmin2) .
5. kG can also be determined as follows. A line is drawn parallel to the Y -axis from the point G
corresponding to the centre of mass on the X-axis, crossing the line ABCD at P. The distances AP =
PD = AD/2 = h and BP = PC = BC/2 = h′ are obtained from the graph. The radius of gyration
kG about the centre of mass of the bar is then determined by equation (4). The average value of
kG over the different measured periods T is taken, and the moment of inertia of the bar about a
perpendicular axis through its centre of mass is calculated using the equation IG=MkG2.
Precautions:
PHY-102 Page | 18
up loose sleeves.
5. Use goggles:
something original.
lab period.
PHY-102 Page | 19
Table 1: Data for time period
Distance from Time for 10 Mean Time

Starting Mean Time, t
Hole no. Top oscillations Period, T
direction (sec)
(cm) (sec) (sec)
(i)
1 5
(ii)
(i)
2 10
(ii)
(i)
3 15
(ii)
(i)
4 20
(ii)
(i)
5 25
(ii)
Forward (i)
6 30
(ii)
(i)
7 35
(ii)
(i)
8 40
(ii)
(i)
9 45
(ii)
(i)
1 55
(ii)
(i)
2 60
(ii)
(i)
3 65
(ii)
(i)
4 70
(ii)
Reverse (i)
5 75
(ii)
(i)
6 80
(ii)
(i)
7 85
(ii)
(i)
8 90
(ii)
(i)
9 95
(ii)
PHY-102 Page | 20
Graph:
Draw a graph by plotting distance from the top, d along the X-axis and time period, T along the Y-axis. The
graph will be drawn with the center of gravity of the bar at the origin which is put at the middle of the paper
along the abscissa. Put the length measured in the forward direction to the left and that measured in reverse
direction to the right of the origin. A line ABCD will be drawn parallel to the abscissa intersects the two curves
at A, B, C and D to get the value of time period, T. The average of the lengths of AC and BC will be the
measurement of L. The schematic graph is shown in figure-4.
Figure-4
Calculation:
From the graph,
AC+BD
Length L= 2
cm = cm and
Time period, T = Sec
4π2 L
Therefore, g = T2
cm/sec2 = cm/sec2
PHY-102 Page | 21
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
% of error calculation = | 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
|× 100%
=

The acceleration due to gravity, g = cm/sec2
Conclusion:
paragraph.
References:

Pre-lab Questions:
1. What is gravitational acceleration?
2. What is compound pendulum?
Post-Lab Questions:
1. How does g vary?
2. What factors do affect on the variation of g?
PHY-102 Page | 22
Experiment No: 03
To determine the spring constant and effective mass of a given spiral spring
Objectives:
a) To Determine the spring constant of a given spiral spring.
b) To calculate the effective mass of a given spiral spring.

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Theory:
In this experiment a spring is suspended vertically from a clamp attached to a rigid frame work of heavy metal
rods. At the bottom end (which is the free end) of the spring a load of mass, m0 is suspended. So the force acting
on the spring is the weight m0g of the load which acts vertically downward and the spring gets extended. Due to
the elastic property of the spring, it tries to regain its initial size, hence applies a counter force on the load, which
is called the restoring force of the spring.
According to Hooke’s law, magnitude of restoring force is directly proportional to the extension of the spring
and the direction of this restoring force is always towards the equilibrium position. If k is the spring constant of
PHY-102 Page | 23
the spring and l is the extension of the spring, then
Restoring force = −kl
Let, the spring is in equilibrium with mass m attached as in figure and so we can write
mg = k Ɩ
m
⇨ k = l xg
g
⇨ Ɩ = m0 k------------------------------------------------------- (i)
Here k is the spring constant and g is the acceleration due to gravity. From equation (i) and equation of straight
line, slope of this line is given by-
g
Slope =
k
g
⇒ k= slope
--------------------------------------------------.(ii)
We can plot Ɩ vs. m0 graph and determine its slope to determine k.

As you know, if the mass of the spring were negligible then the period of oscillation would be given by
mo
T = 2 π√ − − − − − − − − − − − − − (iii)
k
Due to the mass, m of the spring an extra term m′ will be added with the mass of the load mo in the above
mentioned equation. So, the period of oscillation is,
mo + m′
T= 2π√ k
− − − − − − − − − − − (iv)
m′ is called the effective mass of the spring. It can be showed that m′ is related with the mass of the spring by
following equation,
PHY-102 Page | 24
m
m′ =
3
From equation (iv) →
4π2 4π2 ΄
T2 = m0 + m
k k
4π2 4π2 ΄
∴0= m0 + m
k k
For different mass, m0 of the load we find different periods of oscillation, T. If we draw a graph by plotting m0
along X axis and corresponding T2 along Y axis, it will be a straight line. The point where the line intersects the
X axis, its y-coordinate is 0, i.e., T2 = 0 there. We can find the X coordinate of the point, (i.e. the value of m0 at
that point) by putting T2 = 0 in the above mentioned equation.
⇨ m0 = -m′
That means x coordinate of the point is equal to the negative value of the effective mass. So, if we draw a T 2 vs.
m0 graph, it will be a straight line and its x-interception gives us the effective mass of the spring.
Apparatus:
1. A spiral spring,
2. convenient masses with hanging arrangement,
3. a hook attached to a rigid framework of heavy metal rods,
4. weighing balance,
5. stop watch and
6. scale.
Procedure:
1. The helical spring is suspended vertically from a rigid support.A pointer is attached horizontally
at the free end of the spring.
2. A meter scale is kept vertically in such a way that the tip of the pointer is over the divisions of the
scale, but does not touch the scale.
3. A dead weight, w0 g-wt is suspended by the weight hanger to keep the spring vertical. The reading
of the pointer on the meter scale is noted.
4. Now, gently add a suitable load of 50 g slotted weights to the hanger and the reading of the pointer
is noted.
PHY-102 Page | 25
5. The weights are added one by one till the maximum load is reached. In each case, the reading of
the pointer is noted.
6. The weights are then removed one by one and the reading of the pointer is noted in each case of
unloading.
7. The average of the readings for each load during loading and unloading is calculated in each
case. Let z0, z1, z2, z3…etc.., be the average readings of the pointer for the loads w0, (w0+50),
(w0+100), (w0+150) etc.
8. From this, extension, l (in m) for the loads (w0+50), (w0+100), (w0+150) etc. , are calculated as
(z1-z0), (z2-z0), (z3-z0) respectively.
9. In each case, k =mg/l is calculated. The average value of k gives the spring constant in N/m.
10. A graph is drawn with load M in kg wt along X axis and extension, l in metre along the Y axis.
The graph is a straight line. The reciprocal of the slope of the graph is determined. It gives spring
constant in kg wt/m. The spring constant in N/m is obtained by multiplying this with g=9.8 m/s2.
11. Draw graphs with added loads m0 in grams (abscissa) against the extensions of the spring in cm
(ordinate) and with T2 as a function of m0. Draw lines of best fit through the points.
12. From the first graph determine the slope of the line. Find out the spring constant of the spring by equation
(ii).
13. Draw a graph of T2 vs. m0, which should be a straight line and does not pass through the origin owing to
the mass of the spring which has not been considered in drawing it. The intercept of the resulting line on
the mass-axis give m′ the effective mass of the spring.
m
14. Measure the mass m of the spring with a weight meter and find the effective mass m′ i.e. m′ = , also
3
compare the value of m′ what you deduced in (viii)
PHY-102 Page | 26
Precautions:
up loose sleeves.
5. Use goggles:
something original.
lab period.
Data Collection:
Table 1: Data of time period for different masses
Mean
t
No. of Loads Extension Times for 10 Total Period T = T T2
10
obs. m0 l oscillation
(Sec.)
Sec
gm cm t1 t2
1
2
3
4
5
6
PHY-102 Page | 27
Calculation:
a) Length of the spring, L = ……………cm.
b) Measurement of the mass of the spring,

y2 −y1
M = Slope = = ……… gm.
x2 −x1
c) Determinations of extension and time period:
d) A graph is attached in 1st left page about added loads against the extension of the spring.
e) Calculation of k, the spring constant and m′ the effective mass of the spring.
g
From fig, Slope = k
= ………
g
k = slope
= gm-wt/cm
y2 − y1
Slope =
x2 − x1
g
Now, k = slope
= gm-wt/cm
Spring constant, k =…………. dynes/cm

M
f) (i) Theoretical: the effective mass of Spring, m′ = 3
=…………… gm.
(ii) Experimental: From the graph, the effective mass of Spring, m′ =…………. gm

1. Spring Constant, k =…………………… dyne/cm.
2. Theoretical effective mass, m′ =…………………….. gm.
3. Experimental effective mass, m′=…………………….. gm.
Conclusion:
paragraph.
References:
PHY-102 Page | 28

Pre-lab Questions:
1. What is spring constant?
2. What are strain and stress?
3. What is effective mass of a spring?
Post-Lab Questions:
1. State Hooke’s law of elasticity.
2. What is the modulus of rigidity?
PHY-102 Page | 29
Experiment No.: 04

Determination of the Young’s Modulus by the flexure of a beam
Objectives:
a) To determine Young’s modulus by the flexure of a beam

b) To determine the intrinsic property of the given material

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Theory:
Provided the distortion of a body is not too great it has been found that the amount of distortion is
directly proportional to the magnitude of the forces producing the distortion. This fact is known as
“Hooke’s” law. If a wire of natural length l is stretched or compressed a distance x by a force F,
experiment reveals that
F = kx----------------------------- (1)
Where, k is a constant whose value will depend on the material, the dimension of the wire and the units
used for measurement. In practice it is very desirable that the value of the constant should depend only
on the material of the specimen and not on its dimension. Experiment shows that such a constant exists-
it is called Young’s modulus of elasticity for the material-symbol Y.
𝐹
If a force F be applied normally to a cross-sectional area A of the material in the form of a wire, then 𝐴
is called the tensile stress.
PHY-102 Page | 30
Young’s modulus Y is then defined as the ratio of the tensile stress to tensile strain.
𝐹
𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐴
Y = 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥
𝑙
𝑚𝑔 𝑙
= 𝜋𝑟 2 × 𝑥 dynes/ cm2
Where m is the mass of the load, g is the acceleration due to gravity and r is the radius of the wire. Let
𝑥
x be the increase in length produced in an original length l as a result of this force, then 𝑙 , is called the
tensile strain.
If a rectangular beam of breadth b and thickness d is supported near its two ends by two knife edges
separated by a distance l and if a mass m acting at a point of the beam equidistant from the knife edges
𝑚𝑔𝑙3
produces a depression x, then the Young’s modulus of the material is given by Y= 4𝑏𝑑3 𝑥
As stress is a force per unit area, it must be expressed in dynes per sq. cm or other units of similar
dimensions. A strain is a ratio and has no dimension. Young’s modulus is, therefore, expressed in the
same units as those used for stress.
Apparatus:
1. Pin and microscope,
2. meter scale,
3. suitable weights,
4. screw gauge and
5. A long wooden stick.
Experimental Procedure:
1. Put two suitable weights (say 1 to 2 kg) on the hook and scale pane to make the wires straight
(dead load).
2. By means of a screw gauge measure the diameter of the experimental wire W at several regions
(say 5 regions) with two perpendicular readings at each region. Calculate the mean diameter and
the area of cross-section of the wire in sq. cm.
3. Multiply the area of cross-section of the wire in sq. cm by the breaking stress of the particular
material given in the Appendix. This is the breaking load for the wire. The wire must not be loaded
with more than half this breaking load.
4. To find the least count of the micro-meter screw attached to the frame, determine the value of the
smallest division of the vertical scale. Give the circular scale a complete rotation and observe the
linear distance through which the edge of the disc moves. The distance covered is the pitch of the
screw. Divide the pitch by the number of circular divisions. This gives the least count of the
micrometer.
PHY-102 Page | 31
5. Rotate the micrometer screw so that air bubble in the spirit level goes to the other end of it. Then
rotate the micrometer screw in the opposite direction, until the air bubble is at the centre of the
spirit level. From now on the micrometer should always be turned in the same direction. Take the
readings of the linear scale R and circular scale S.
6. Place load (say half kg) on the scale pan. Owing to elongation the level will be disturbed. After
waiting for about a minute adjust the micrometer screw till the bubble is brought back to the center.
Note the reading of the micrometer. The difference of the two readings will give the elongation
due to the load added.
7. In this way put equal loads by a few installments and take the corresponding Readings. These are
readings with the loads increasing on the pan.
8. When half the breaking load is reached, take out the load one by one from the pan and obtain
another set of readings for loads decreasing, taking care to rotate the micrometer screw in the same
direction. At each installment of decreasing the load, wait for about a minute before taking the
reading.
9. Measure the length of the experimental wire from the point of suspension to the point where it is
clamped to the apparatus
10. Calculate the elongation for each load increasing and decreasing. Take the mean. Draw the load
versus mean elongation graph with load along abscissa and elongation along ordinate.
Precautions:
up loose sleeves.
5. Use goggles:
PHY-102 Page | 32
something original.
lab period.
Data Collection:
(A) Vernier constant of the microscope:

50 Vernier divisions= 49 main scale divisions
49
1 ............................=
50
49 1
Vernier constant = 1 m.s.d. – 1 v.s.d. = (1- 50)×0.5 mm = 50 × 0.5𝑚𝑚= 0.01 mm =0.001 cm
(B) Length of the beam, l = …. cm
Table 1: Data for load versus elongation
Additional Readings for the elongation, x Average

Load on Load increasing Load decreasing depression
hanger MSR VSD VC VSR Total MSR VSD VC VSR Total x
(kg) x N (cm) y = N Reading x N (cm) y = N Reading (cm)
(cm) × = x + y (cm) × 𝐿𝐶 =x+y
𝐿. 𝐶. cm (cm) cm
(cm)
PHY-102 Page | 33
Table 2: Measure the breadth, (b) of beam
Main scale
No. Vernier scale Vernier Vernier scale Total Mean
reading
of divisions constant reading (V.S.R) = breadth Breadth
(M.S.R)
obs. (V.S.D) (V.C) (V.S.D X V.C) b b
cm
cm cm (cm) (cm)
1
2
3
Table 3: Measure the depth, (d) of beam
Main scale
No. Vernier scale Vernier Vernier scale Total Mean
reading
of divisions constant reading (V.S.R) = depth depth
(M.S.R)
obs. (V.S.D) (V.C) (V.S.D X V.C) d d
cm
cm cm (cm) (cm)
1
2
3
Calculation:
For the mass of ………………..gm

𝑚𝑔𝑙 3
Young’s modulus of the material, Y= = dyne/cm2
4𝑏𝑑 3 𝑥
Results and Discussion:

Young’s modulus of the given material is .................dyne/cm2
Conclusion:
paragraph.
References:
1.Practical Physics: Dr. Giasuddin Ahmad and Md. Shahabuddin

2.Practical physics: R.K. Shukla, Anchal Srivatsava
3.Kenneth. E. Jesse, American Journal of Physics, Vol. 48, Issue 9, pp.785 (1980)
PHY-102 Page | 34
Pre-lab Questions:
1. What is Young’s modulus of materials?
Post-Lab Questions:
1.State Hooke’s law of elasticity.
PHY-102 Page | 35
Experiment No. 05

To determine the surface tension of water by capillary tube method
Objectives:
 To determine the height of the column of water.
 To determine the diameter of the capillary tube.
 To determine surface tension of the water.

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Theory:
When glass is dipped into a liquid like water, it becomes wet. When a clean fine bore glass capillary is
dipped into such a liquid it is found to rise in it, until the top of the column of water is at a vertical
height ‘h’ above the free surface of the liquid outside the capillary. The reason for this rise is the surface
tension, which is due to the attractive forces between the molecules of the liquid. Such forces called
cohesive forces try to make the surface of the liquid as small as possible. This is why a drop of liquid
is of spherical shape.
Since the surface tension tries to reduce the surface of a liquid we can define it as follows. If an
imaginary line of unit length is drawn on the surface of a liquid, then the force on one side of the line
in a direction, which is perpendicular to the line and tangential to the surface, is called surface tension.
When the liquid is in contact with the glass then on the line of contact the cohesive forces (or surface
tension) try to pull the liquid molecules towards the liquid surface and the adhesive forces i.e. the forces
between the molecules of the glass and the liquid try to pull the liquid molecules towards the glass
surface. Equilibrium results when the two forces balance each other.
PHY-102 Page | 36
Fig. 1: Magnified view of the meniscus in the capillary tube
Such equilibrium arises after the water has risen in the capillary to a height of ‘h’. This column has
weight equal to mg where m is the mass of the water in the column. This balances the upward force due
to the surface tension which can be calculated as follows:
The length of the line of contact in the capillary between the surface of the water and the glass is 2𝜋r
where ‘r’ is the radius of the capillary. As seen from Fig.1, the surface tension T acts in the direction
shown and 𝜃 is called the angle of contact. The upward component of T is given by T cos 𝜃and therefore,
recalling that T is the force per unit length, we get the total upward force equal to 2𝜋𝑟𝑇 cos 𝜃. This
must balance the weight mg and we have
𝑚𝑔 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑇 cos 𝜃
For water-glass contact = 0° and so cosθ = 1
Therefore, mg = 2𝜋rT (1)
Now m = 𝜌V (2)
Where 𝜌 is the density of the liquid and V is the Volume of the column of water
Since radius of the capillary is ‘r’
V = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ + volume in meniscus
and the volume of liquid in the meniscus = volume of cylinder radius ‘r’ & height ‘r’ – volume
of hemisphere of radius ‘r’
i.e. volume in meniscus = π𝑟 3 −2/3 π𝑟 3 = 1/3 π𝑟 3
Therefore V = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ + 1/3 π𝑟 3
1
= 𝜋𝑟 2 (ℎ + 3 𝑟) (3)
Substituting the value of V from Eq. (3) in Eq. (2) we obtain
1
m = 𝜌 𝜋𝑟 2 (ℎ + 3 𝑟)
For water and so, Eq. (1) becomes
1
2πrT = 𝜌 𝜋𝑟 2 (ℎ + 3 𝑟)𝑔
1
T= ½ 𝜌gr(ℎ + 3 𝑟) in C.G.S. units,
𝜌 = 1 and we finally obtain the formula for a glass capillary dipping in water to be
1
T= ½ gr(ℎ + 3 𝑟) dynes/c.m. at......°c
PHY-102 Page | 37
Fig.2: Setup for the observing capillary rising Fig. 3: Measurement of the capillary radius
Apparatus:
1. A clean and dry capillary tube,

2. A tipped pointer,
3. A beaker containing water,
4. A travelling microscope,
5. Adjustable wooden stand,
6. Clamps and stand.
To set up the apparatus:
 Place the adjustable height stand on the table and make its base horizontal by leveling the
screws.
 Fix the capillary tube and the pointer in a cork, and clamp it in a rigid stand so that the capillary
tubes and the pointer become vertical.
 Adjust the height of the vertical stand, so that the capillary tubes dip in the water in an open
beaker.
 Adjust the position of the pointer, such that its tip just touches the water surface.
To find the capillary rise:
 Find the least count of the travelling microscope for the horizontal and the vertical scale.
 Make the axis of the microscope horizontal.
 Adjust the height of the microscope using the height adjusting screw.
 Bring the microscope in front of the capillary tube and clamp it when the capillary rise becomes
visible.
 Make the horizontal cross wire just touch the central part of the concave meniscus.
 Note the reading of the position of the microscope on the vertical scale.
PHY-102 Page | 38
 Now, carefully remove the beaker containing water
 Move the microscope horizontally and bring it in front of the pointer.
 Lower the microscope and make the horizontal cross wire touch the tip of the pointer.
 Corresponding vertical scale readings are noted.
 The difference in the two readings (i.e., height of water meniscus and height of the tip of pointer)
will give the capillary rise of the given liquid.
 We can repeat the experiment by changing the height of the wooden stand.
To find the internal diameter of the capillary tube:
 Place the capillary tube horizontally on the adjustable stand.

 Focus the microscope on the end dipped in water.
 Make the horizontal cross- wire touch the inner circle at A (fig i). Note microscope reading on
the vertical scale.
 Raise the microscope to make the horizontal cross wire touch the circle at B (fig ii). Note the
vertical scale reading.
 The difference between the two readings will give the vertical internal diameter (AB) of the
tube.
 Move the microscope on the horizontal scale and make the vertical cross wire touch the inner
circle at C (fig iii). Note microscope reading on the horizontal scale.
 Move the microscope to the right to make the vertical cross wire touch the circle at D (fig iv).
Note the horizontal scale reading.
 The difference between the two readings will give the horizontal internal diameter (CD) of the
tube.
 We can calculate the diameter of the tube by calculating the mean of the vertical and horizontal
internal diameters. Half of the diameter will give the radius of the capillary tube.
PHY-102 Page | 39
Precautions:
up loose sleeves.
5. Use goggles:
something original.
lab period.
Data collection:
1. Least count of the travelling microscope = Value of one MSD / Number of divisions on the Vernier
=0.5mm/50 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
PHY-102 Page | 40
Table 1: Measurement of inside radius (r) of the tubes
Readings in cm for the bore

Difference
diameter
Tube no.
Left side ( X2) Radius

Right side ( X1) r =D/2
D=X2~X1 (cm)
Total Total
M.S.R V.C V.S.R Reading M.S.R V.C V.S.R Reading (cm)
V.S. D V.S. D
(cm) (cm) (cm) (x1) (cm) (cm) (cm) (x2)
cm cm
A
Table 2: Determination of the height of the column of water ‘h’:
No. of Radius of the water meniscus Reading at the tip of pointer Height, h
observ = h1-h2
ation cm
MSR VSD LC CSR Total MS VSD LC CSR Total
x N (cm) y=N Readin R N (cm) y=N× Reading
(cm) × L. C. g=x+ x =x+y
y (cm) L. C. h2 cm
(cm) h1 cm (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
Calculation: The surface tension of water at room temperature,

1
T= ½ 𝜌gr(h + 3 r) dynes/cm
Here, cos θ = 1 and density, =1
h= in cm
r= in cm
PHY-102 Page | 41
The surface tension of water is = dynes/cm.
Conclusion:
paragraph.
References:

Pre-lab Questions:
1. What is capillarity?
2. What are the cohesive and adhesive forces?
3. What is surface tension?
Post-Lab Questions:
1.State what factors effect on surface tension
PHY-102 Page | 42
Experiment No.: 06
To determine the modulus of rigidity of a wire by Statical method using Barton’s apparatus
 To determine the modulus of rigidity of a wire by Statical method

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Theory:
The following formula is used for the determination of modulus of rigidity (η).
𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝒍 𝒈 𝑫 𝑴
η= 𝒙 dynes/cm2
𝝅𝟐 𝒓𝟒 (𝝋𝟐 ° − 𝝋𝟏 °)
Where M = load suspended on each cord, g: acceleration due to gravity,

D = Diameter of heavy cylinder, r: radius of experimental rod,
l = (l1 − l2) = Distance between two circular scales,
𝜑 = 𝜑2 ° − 𝜑1 °) = Difference between deflections measured in circular scales
PHY-102 Page | 43
g = acceleration due to gravity,
And r = radius of experimental rod
Figure-1: Diagram of Barton’s Apparatus
Apparatus:
Barton’s apparatus, 500 gm weights, screw Gauge, Vernier Calipers and meter scale.
Procedures:
1. Fix the both scales and pointers at different places such that pointers should indicate 0-0 on
scales in absence of load (note: at least pointer on one side must indicate zero). Now measure
distance between scales. This will provide the value of (l1-l2).
2. Place equal masses (start from 0gm in interval of 500gm) on each pan and read deflection on both
scale and on both side. The scale which is nearer to cylinder will provide θ1 value while other will
give θ2 value.
3. Go on increasing masses on each pan by equal amounts (from 0 to 2.5kg in interval of 0.5kg) and
note the corresponding deflections on both scales on both sides.
PHY-102 Page | 44
4. Go on increasing masses on each pan by equal amounts (from 0 to 2.5kg in interval of 0.5kg) and
note the corresponding deflections on both scales on both sides.
5. Now decreases the masses on pans in the same interval and note the corresponding readings on
scales for the case of load decreasing.
6. Take mean of all four readings of θ1 which is noted for the case of load increasing and decreasing.
Similarly, do it also for θ2.
7. After it, calculate θ1-θ2 for each mass. Using these values, find the angle of twist (θ1-θ2) for 1.5kg (it
can be obtained by taking difference between 1st & 4th, 2nd &5th and 3rd &6th).
8. Find out the least count of screw gauge and zero error in it. Using screw gauge, measure the
diameter of wire. Its half will provide the value of radius (r) of wire/experimental rod.
9. Find out the least count and zero error of Vernier calipers. Using Vernier calipers, measure the
diameter of cylinder (D).
10. Put all the values in the formula and calculate it by log method.
Precautions:
up loose sleeves.
5. Use goggles:
something original.
PHY-102 Page | 45
lab period.
Data Table:
Table 1: Diameter of the fly-wheel (heavy cylinder)
Main scale Vernier Vernier scale

No. Vernier Total Mean
reading scale reading (V.S.R)
of constant Diameter Diameter
(M.S.R) divisions =
obs. (V.C) d d
cm (V.S.D) (V.S.D X V.C)
cm (cm) (cm)
cm
1
Table 2: Radius of the wire (using screw gauge)
Circular
Liner scale Circular
No. Least scale Total Mean Mean
reading scale
of count reading diameter diameter radius
(L.S.R) divisions
obs. (L.C) (C.S.R) = D D r=D/2
cm (C.S.D)
cm (CSD X cm cm cm
L.C)
1
PHY-102 Page | 46
Table 3: Reading for load-twist graph
No. Load in Mean pointer

of each reading
Obs. hanger Pointer reading in degrees
(gm)
Mean twist
(𝝋𝟐° -𝝋𝟏° )
Scale S1 Scale S2
S1 S2
Load Load Load Load
(𝝋𝟏°) (𝝋𝟐° )
increasing decreasing increasing decreasing
1 500
2 1000
3 1500
4 2000
5 2500
6 3000
Calculations:
𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝒍 𝒈 𝒅 𝒎
n= 𝒙
𝝅𝟐 𝒓𝟒 (𝝋𝟐 ° − 𝝋𝟏 °)

The rigidity modulus of the wire is ......................……. dynes/cm2
Conclusion:
paragraph.
References:
PHY-102 Page | 47
Pre-lab Questions:
1. What is rigidity modulus of materials?
Post-Lab Questions:
PHY-102 Page | 48
Experiment No. 07
To determine the modulus of rigidity of a wire by method of oscillations (dynamic method)
Objectives:
 To determine the rigidity modulus of the material of a wire by dynamical method.

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Theory:
Within the elastic limit of a body, the ratio of tangential stress to the shearing strain is called rigidity
modulus of elasticity. The period (T) with which the bob of a torsion pendulum oscillates with its
suspension wire as axis, is given by
𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝐶
4𝜋 2 𝐼
⇒𝐶= … … … … … … (1)
𝑇2
where, C is the couple per unit twist of the wire.
PHY-102 Page | 49
Where, I is the moment of inertia of the suspended cylinder about its own axis and is given by
1
𝐼= × 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 2 … …. (2)
2
Here C represents the restoring couple exerted by the suspension wire of length l for one radian twist
at its free end and is given by,
𝑛 𝜋𝑟 4
𝐶= … … … … … … (3)
2𝑙
Where n is the rigidity of the material of the wire, while l and r are respectively the length and radius
of the suspension wire.
From (1) and (3) we get
𝑛 𝜋𝑟 4 4𝜋 2 𝐼
= 2
2𝑙 𝑇
8𝜋𝐼𝑙
⇒ 𝑛 = 4 2 … … … . (4)
𝑟 𝑇
Calculating I from the relation (2) and by measuring l, r and T experimentally, we can find the rigidity
(n) of the wire by employing the relation (4). If l and r are put in meters, I in kg.m2 then n will be in
N/m2.
Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of Rigidity modulus experimental set-up
PHY-102 Page | 50
Apparatus:
A screw gauge, measuring tape, stop watch, slide calipers, rigidity modulus experimental set-up etc.
(i) If the cylinder is detachable from the suspension wire, then it should be detached from the suspension
wire and its mass (M) is to be found out either by a rough balance or by a spring balance, [if this cylinder
is not detachable from the suspension wire then its mass (M) should be supplied].
(ii) The diameter D of the cylinder is to be determined by a slide calipers at least in six different places
and at each place, the diameter in two perpendicular directions should be found out. The mean of these
diameters when halved we get the radius (R) of the cylinder. Thus R=D/2. Knowing the mass M and
the radius R of the cylinder, its moment of inertia I about its own axis is calculated by using the formulae
I= MR2 /12
(iii) The cylinder is then attached to the lower end of the suspension wire (provided the cylinder is
detachable from the suspension wire) and the length l of wire, from its point of suspension to the point
where the cylinder is attached, is measured by a scale thrice and its mean value is found out.
(iv) The diameter of the suspension wire is measured by a screw gauge at least in eight different places
and at each place this diameter is found out in two perpendicular directions. When the mean of these
diameters (d) is halved and corrected for the instrumental error of the screw gauge we get the mean
corrected radius r = d/2 of the suspension wire.
(v) To find the time period T of a chalk-mark is given on the circular scale just below the pointer when
the cylinder is at rest. (if there is no pointer, a vertical line N is marked on the cylinder and is focused
by a telescope from a distance such that the line coincides with the vertical cross-wire of the telescope).
The cylinder is then twisted by a certain angle and is released to perform torsional oscillations about
the vertical axis. The pendulum linear oscillation (if any) should be stopped by leveling the base of the
pendulum stand. When the pointer is going towards right by crossing the chalk mark (or when the
vertical line of the cross-wire of the telescope) a stop-clock is started and note the total time for 30
complete oscillations. The time for 30 complete oscillations is noted thrice independently and the mean
of this time when divided by 30, we get the period (T) of oscillation of the cylinder.
(vi) The value of the rigidity n is then calculated by putting the values of I, l, r and T in the relation (4)
Precautions:
PHY-102 Page | 51
up loose sleeves.
5. Use goggles:
something original.
lab period.
Data collection:
Table 1: Readings for the Radius of the cylinder, R (using slide calipers)
Main
Vernier Vernier scale
No. scale Vernier Total Mean Mean
scale reading
of reading constant diameter diameter radius
divisions (V.S.R) =
obs. (M.S.R) (V.C) D D R= D/2
(V.S.D) (V.S.D * V.C)
cm cm (cm) (cm) (cm)
cm
1
PHY-102 Page | 52
Table 2: Radius of the wire, r (Using screw gauge)
Circular
No. scale Least Total Mean Mean
reading scale
of divisions count diameter diameter radius
(L.S.R) reading
obs. (C.S.D) (L.C) D D r=D/2
cm (C.S.R) =
cm cm cm cm
(CSD * L.C)
1
Table 3: Reading for the time period T.
Time for 30 Period of oscillation

No. of obs. Mean T. (sec)
oscillations (see) t(sec)
1
Calculations:
1
1. I = 2 𝑚 𝑅 2
𝟖𝜋𝐼𝐿
2. n = T2 r4 dynes/cm2

The modulus of rigidity of the wire is ………………… ………. dynes/cm2
Conclusion:
paragraph.
References:
PHY-102 Page | 53

Pre-lab Questions:
1. What is Young’s modulus of materials?
Post-Lab Questions:
PHY-102 Page | 54
Experiment No. 08
Determination of the presser co-efficient of a gas at constant volume by constant volume air
thermometer
Objectives:
To determine the presser co-efficient of a gas at constant volume by constant volume air

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Theory:
According to Charles law, If Vt and Vo be the volumes of a gas at t° C and O°C respectively and αp be
the Co-efficient of expansion of gas, then
Vt=Vo (1+ αpt) …………. (1)

𝑉𝑡−𝑉𝑜
Or αp = 𝑉𝑜𝑡 ………..(2)
Pressure remain constant.

Now gases, such as carefully dried air, behave approximately as ideal gas, for which boyle’s law is
strictly valid. Hench if T and To are absolute temperatures corresponding to the temperature t° C and
O°C respectively and n the number of moles of gas used, then
PHY-102 Page | 55
PVt = nRT
PVo=nRTo ………………..(3)
𝑉𝑡−𝑉𝑜 𝑇−𝐓𝐨 𝑡
∴ = = 𝑇𝑜………….(4)
𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑜
But, by definition, the co-efficient of increase of volume at constant pressure

𝑉𝑡−𝑉𝑜
αp = 𝑉𝑜𝑡
𝑉𝑡−𝑉𝑜 1
Hence αp = 𝑉𝑜𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜 ……………………..(5)
Therefore, if the volumes Vt and Vo of a gas can be determined at any temperature at t° C and O°C
respectively, αp can be obtained from equation (2) which should be equal
1
to=𝑇𝑜
Apparatus:
1. The constant pressure air thermometer

2. Steam boiler
3. Thermometer
1. Suspend a thermometer, reading to a tenth of degree, in the bath so that its bulb is very close to bulb
B. Adjust the level of acid in the two arms to the same height. carefully note down the temperature
of water in the jar and find out the volume of enclosed air from graduations on the stem below B.
2. Now allow steam from a boiler to pass through the tube . E unit the temperature of the bath is raised
by about 5°C . Maintain this temperature steady for at least five minutes by carefully stirring the
bath . it may also be necessary to regulate the steam supply by intern mitten heating of the boiler
.As a result of the increase of temperature ,air in the bulb B will expand and will push down the
acid which rises in other limb. Again adjust the level of the acid in the arm to same height by
allowing the acid to drip out through the cock C. Note Down the steady temperature and the
corresponding volume of air.
3. Repeat the process several times, each time raising the temperature in steps of about 5°C so that at
least 8-10 sets of reading are obtained for drawing the graph . However, the maximum temperature
o the bath should be below 80°C . Otherwise the increase in volume of gas would be so much that
a portion of the gas escape the closed limb.
4. Note down the barometric pressure before and after the experiment.
PHY-102 Page | 56
5. Plot a graph with temperature as the abscissa and volume as the ordinate . IT should be straight line
which when proceed backwards will cut the volume –axis at a certain height . this is the required
volume Vo of the gas at O°C.
Use this value of Vo an d the volume Vt at fairly high temperate ,which should be obtained from the
graph ,to calculate αp from the equation (2) .See whether the value of αp thus obtained . corresponds
to equation (5).
Precautions:
up loose sleeves.
5. Use goggles:
something original.
lab period.
PHY-102 Page | 57
Data Table :-
Table 1: Data for pressure - temperature record
Reading in cm of the
mercury level in the Difference of two
levels in cm Pressure of gas in
No. of Temperature Closed limb
Open limb cm of mercury
observation in °C constant
H=R1 ~R2 P= Po ± h
level at
(R1)
(R2)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Calculation:
𝑷 −𝑷
𝜶v = 𝑷𝒕 𝐭 𝒐 per °C
𝒐
Conclusion:
paragraph.
References:
PHY-102 Page | 58
Pre-lab Questions:
1. What is thermal Equilibrium?
2. What is pressure co-efficient?
Post-Lab Questions:
1. How can you find it?
PHY-102 Page | 59
Experiment No.: 9
Experiment Name: To determine the refractive index of the material of a prism
a) To observe the refraction of light;
b) To determine the refractive index of the material of a prism.

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Theory:
When a beam of light strikes on the surface of transparent material (Glass, water, quartz crystal, etc.),
the portion of the light is transmitted and other portion is reflected. The transmitted light ray has small
deviation of the path from the incident angle. This is called refraction.
Refraction is due to the change in speed of light while passing through the medium. It is given by Snell's
Law.
sin(𝑖) 𝑛2
= … … … (1)
sin(𝑟) 𝑛1
Where, i is the angle of incident and r is the angle of refraction. And 𝑛1 is the refractive index of the
first face and 𝑛2 is the refractive index of the second face.
PHY-102 Page | 60
𝐶1 𝑛2
= … … … … … (2)
𝐶2 𝑛1
And the speed of light on both faces is related to the equation
𝐶1 is the velocity of wave in first face and 𝐶2 is the velocity of wave in second face .
The above figure illustrates the change in refracted angle with respect to the refractive index.
Refractive index of the material of prism
The refractive index of the material of the prism can be calculated by the equation.
𝑨+ 𝜹𝒎
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐
µ= 𝑨 … … … … … . . (𝟑)
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐
Where, D is the angle of minimum deviation, here 𝜹𝑚 is different for different color.
Apparatus: Spectrometer, Prism, prism clamp, sodium vapour lamp, lens etc.
Description of Apparatus:
Spectrometer has application in a wide range of areas including determining the constituents of stars,
to investigate the structure of the atom. You will use a simple but high precision student spectrometer
similar to the picture shown in Fig. 1, which consists of three basic components: a collimator, a
diffraction grating, and a telescope.
PHY-102 Page | 61
Fig. 1: Spectrometer and its components.
Light enters through a narrow slit positioned at the focal point of the collimating lens. The light leaving
the collimator is therefore a thin, parallel beam, which ensures that all the light from the slit strikes the
diffraction grating at the same angle of incidence. The grating diffracts the light of different color light
at different angles. The telescope is focused at infinity to collect the parallel diffracted beam of light
and can be rotated at very precisely measured angles. There are two Vernier readings on two opposite
sides on the table, Vernier A and B. You can treat these two reading as measured by two different
scales. The Vernier reading has least count of 1’ [(1/60)0]. To aid viewing the Vernier scale reading a
magnifying glass is provided. The table and the telescope can be fine adjusted by tightening the lock
screw and rotating the fine adjustment knobs.
Preliminary adjustments:
1. Turn the telescope towards the white wall or screen and looking through eye-piece, adjust its position
till the cross wires are clearly seen.
2. Turn the telescope towards window; focus the telescope to a long distant object.
3. Place the telescope parallel to collimator.
4. Place the collimator directed towards sodium vapor lamb. Switch on the lamp.
5. Focus collimator slit using collimator focusing adjustment.
PHY-102 Page | 62
6. Adjust the collimator slit width.
7. Place prism table, note that the surface of the table is just below the level of telescope and collimator.
8. Place spirit level on prism table. Adjust the base leveling screw till the bubble come at the center of
spirit level.
9. Clamp the prism holder.
10. Clamp the prism in which the sharp edge is facing towards the collimator, and base of the prism is at
the clamp.
To determine the angle of the Prism:

1. Prism table is rotated in which the sharp edge of the prism is facing towards the collimator.
2. Rotate the telescope in one direction up to which the reflected ray is shown through the telescope.
3. Note corresponding main scale and Vernier scale reading in both Vernier (Vernier I and Vernier II).
4. Rotate the telescope in opposite direction to view the reflected image of the collimator from the second
face of prism.
5. Note corresponding main scale and Vernier scale reading in both Vernier (Vernier I and Vernier II).
6. Find the difference between two readings, i.e.θ
7. Angle of prism, A=θ/2
To determine the Angle of minimum deviation:

1. Rotate the Vernier table so that the light from the
collimator falling on one of the face of the prism and
emerges through the other face.
2. The telescope is turned to view the refracted image of
the slit on the other face.
3. The Vernier table is slowly turned in such a direction
that the image of slit is move directed towards the
directed ray; ie., in the direction of decreasing angle of
deviation.
4. It will be found that at a certain position, the image is stationary for some moment. Vernier table is
fixed at the position where the image remains stationary.
5. Note the readings on main scale and Vernier scale.
6. Carefully remove the prism from the prism table.
7. Turn the telescope parallel to collimator, and note the direct ray readings.
8. Find the difference between the direct ray readings and deviated readings. This angle is called angle of
minimum deviation (D). Refractive index of the material of the prism is determined by using equation
(3)
Precautions:
PHY-102 Page | 63
up loose sleeves.
5. Use goggles:
something original.
lab period.
Data Collection:
Table 1: Determination of angle of Prism at the two face (θ=M-N)
No. of obs.
Difference in readings
Mean (θ) of the two
Readings for image in the face Readings for image in the face AC of Angle of the prism
AB of the prism the prism
venires
A=θ/2
Reading
Reading
Value of
Value of
M.S.R
M.S.R
V.S.D
V.S.R
V.S.D
V.S.R
Total
Total
V.C
V.C
M
N
PHY-102 Page | 64
Table 2: Determination of angle of minimum deviation
𝜹m)=(M-N)
No. of obs.
Angle of minimum
Readings for the minimum
Readings for the direct position
𝜹m)
deviation position
Mean (
deviation (
Reading
Reading
Value of
Value of
M.S.R
M.S.R
V.S.D
V.S.R
V.S.D
V.S.R
Total
Total
V.C
V.C
M
N
1
Calculation:
The refractive index of the material of Prism is
𝑨+ 𝜹𝒎
𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝟐
µ= 𝑨 =
𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝟐

The refractive index of the material of Prism is ………………
Conclusion:
paragraph.
References:
PHY-102 Page | 65
Pre-lab Questions:
1. What is refractive index?
Post-Lab Questions:
1. State the laws of reflection.
2. State the laws of refraction.
PHY-102 Page | 66
Experiment No.: 10
Experiment Name: To determine the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor by Lees and Chorltons
method.
To determine the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor

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Theory:
The Lee’s Disc experiment determines an approximate value for the thermal conductivity k of a poor
conductor like glass, cardboard, etc. The procedure is to place a disc made of the poor conductor, radius
r and thickness x, between a steam chamber and two good conductivity metal discs (of the same metal)
and allow the setup to come to equilibrium, so that the heat lost by the lower disc to convection is the
same as the heat flow through the poorly conducting disc. The upper disc temperature T2 and the lower
disc temperature T1 are recorded. The poor conductor is removed and the lower metal disc is allowed
to heat up to the upper disc temperature T2. Finally, the steam chamber and upper disc are removed and
replaced by a disc made of a good insulator. The metal disc is then allowed to cool through T1 < T2 and
toward room temperature T0. The temperature of the metal disc is recorded as it cools so a cooling
PHY-102 Page | 67
curve can be plotted. Then the slope s1 =ΔT/Δt of the cooling curve is measured graphically where the
curve passes through temperature T1.
Fig. 1: Lee’s disc arrangement
At the steady state, rate of heat transfer (H) by conduction is given by;
Where,
K is Thermal conductivity of the sample;
A is Cross sectional area;
T2 - T1 is Temperature difference across the sample;
x is Thickness of the bad conductor (see figure 1)
The sample is an insulator. It is in the form of a thin disc with large cross sectional area (A = πr 2)
compared to the area exposed at the edge (a = 2πrx) in order to reduce the energy loss. Rate of energy
transfer across the sample can be increased by keeping 'x 'small and 'A 'large. Keeping
x small means the apparatus will reach a steady state quickly.
PHY-102 Page | 68
Fig. 2: Experimental Arrangement
The thin sample of disc is sandwiched between the brass disc and brass base of the steam chamber (see
figure 2). The temperature of the brass disc is measured by thermometer T1 and the temperature of the
brass base is measured by thermometer T2. In this way the temperature difference across such a thin
disc of sample can be accurately measured.
Fig. 3:
The temperatures T1 and T2 are constant when the apparatus is in steady state. Then the rate of heat
conducted through the brass disc must be equal to the rate of heat loss due to cooling from the bottom
of the brass disc by air convection. By measuring how fast the brass disc cools at the steady state
temperature T1, the rate of heat loss can be determined.
𝑑𝑇
It is shown in figure 3. If the disc cools down at a rate, then the rate of heat loss is given by:
𝑑𝑡
PHY-102 Page | 69
Where,
m- Mass of the brass disc
c - Specific heat capacity of brass.
At steady state, heat conducted through the bad conductor per second will be equal to heat radiated
per second from the exposed portion of the metallic disc.
Where,
k - Coefficient of thermal conductivity of the sample,
A - Area of the sample in contact with the metallic disc,
x - Thickness of the sample,
T2- T1 -Temperature difference across the sample thickness,
m - Mass of the metallic disc,
c - The Heat capacity of the metallic disc,
𝑑𝑇
- Rate of cooling of the metallic disc at T2.
𝑑𝑡
Apparatus: Specimen of a bad conductor, two metallic disks, Heat source, Thermometers etc.
1. Determine the mean thickness of metal disc and bad conductor with a screw gauge.
2. Determine the diameter of metal disc and bad conductor with Vernier calipers.
3. Find the mass M of the metal disc by a balance.
4. Keep the bad conductor between metal disc and steam chamber.
5. Introduce thermometers through holes in the steam chamber and in the metal disc.
6. Pass steam through the chamber until the temperature indicated by thermometers become steady and
note the steady temperature.
PHY-102 Page | 70
7. Remove the bad conductor.
8. Remove the steam chamber when the temperature of the metal disc is 10 0 C above its steady
temperature.
9. Start a stop clock and take time-temperature observation till the temperature of the disc is 10 0 C below
its steady state.
10. Plot a time-temperature graph.
Precautions:
that may become entangled in your experimental apparatus. Pin or tie back long hair and roll up
loose sleeves.
5. Use goggles:
something original.
9. If a thermometer breaks, inform the instructor immediately. Do not touch either the broken glass
or the mercury with your bare skin.
12. Do not connect the terminals of a battery or power supply to each other with a wire. Such a wire
will become dangerously hot.
lab period.
PHY-102 Page | 71
Data Collection:
Table 1: Diameter of the Specimen disc.
Main scale Vernier Vernier scale

No. Vernier Total Mean
reading scale reading
of constant Diameter Diameter
(M.S.R) divisions (V.S.R) =
obs. (V.C) d d
(cm) (V.S.D) (V.S.D x V.C)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm)
1
2
3
Table 2: Thickness of the disc shaped specimen.
Circular
No. scale Least Total Mean Mean
reading scale
of divisions count diameter diameter radius
(L.S.R) reading
obs. (C.S.D) (L.C) D D r=D/2
cm (C.S.R) =
cm cm cm cm
(CSD x L.C)
1
2
3
Table 3: Time temperature record of B and A
Time in
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
minutes
θ1
θ2
Table 5=4: Time temperature record of A during cooling
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Time in minutes 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Temperature in
°C
θ2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
5 5𝟐 6 6𝟐 7 7𝟐 8 8𝟐 9 9𝟐 10 10𝟐
PHY-102 Page | 72
Calculation:
From the graph,
dT =...........0C
dt=............s
dT/dt=.........0Cs-1
Specific heat capacity of the metal disc c

=...........JKg-1K-1
Coefficient of thermal conductivity of the given
material,
⇒ K = …………….
Results and Discussion:

The Coefficient of thermal conductivity of the given material, k =......................Wm-1K-1
Conclusion:
paragraph.
References:
Pre-lab Questions:
1. What is thermal conductivity?
2. What is oscillation?
3. What is time period?
Post-Lab Questions:
1. Mention some names of bad conductor?
PHY-102 Page | 73
Experiment Number: 11
To verify the Newton’s law of cooling of different materials and different liquids
Objectives:
 The aim of the experiment is to verify Newton's Law of Cooling of different materials and different
liquids.
 To draw the cooling curve.

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Theory:
Temperatures difference in any situation results from energy flow into a system or energy flow from a
system to surroundings. The former leads to heating, whereas latter leads to cooling of an object.
Newton’s Law of Cooling states that the rate of temperature of the body is proportional to the difference
between the temperature of the body and that of the surrounding medium. This statement leads to the
classic equation of exponential decline over time which can be applied to many phenomena in science
and engineering, including the discharge of a capacitor and the decay in radioactivity.
Newton's Law of Cooling is useful for studying water heating because it can tell us how fast the hot
PHY-102 Page | 74
water in pipes cools off. A practical application is that it can tell us how fast a water heater cools down
if you turn off the breaker when you go on vacation.
Suppose that a body with initial temperature T1°C, is allowed to cool in air which is maintained at a
constant temperature T2°C.
Let the temperature of the body be T °C at time t. Then by Newton’s Law of Cooling,
𝑑𝑇
= −𝑘 (𝑇 − 𝑇2 )…………………..(1)
𝑑𝑡
Where k is a positive proportionality constant. Since the temperature of the body is higher than the
temperature of the surroundings then T-T2 is positive. Also the temperature of the body is decreasing
i.e. it is cooling down and rate of change of temperature is negative.
𝑑𝑇
<0
𝑑𝑡
The constant ‘k’ depends upon the surface properties of the material being cooled.
Initial condition is given by T=T1 at t = 0
Solving Eq. (1)
−𝑘𝑡 = log(𝑇 − 𝑇2 ) + log 𝐶
Or, 𝑇 − 𝑇2 = 𝐶𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 …………………..(2)
Applying initial conditions;
, 𝐶 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
Substituting the value of C in equation (2) gives
𝑇 = 𝑇2 + (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
This equation represents Newton’s law of cooling.
If 𝑘 < 0, lim 𝑡 → ∞, 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = 𝑇2
Or we can say that the temperature of the body approaches that of its surroundings as time goes.
The graph drawn between the temperature of the body and time is known as cooling curve. The slope
of the tangent to the curve at any point gives the rate of fall of temperature.
PHY-102 Page | 75
In general,
𝑇 (𝑡) = 𝑇𝐴 + (𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐴 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
where,
T(t) = Temperature at time t,
TA = Ambient temperature (temp of surroundings),
TH = Temperature of hot object at time 0,
k = positive constant and
t = time.
Example of Newton's Law of Cooling:
This kind of cooling data can be measured and plotted and the results can be used to compute the unknown
parameter k. The parameter can sometimes also be derived mathematically.
Apparatus: Calorie meter, heat source, thermometers
The calorie meter is filled 2/3rd with the given liquid and is heated to a temperature of 80oC. This liquid
will act as a hot body which is subjected to cooling. The thermometer is inserted in to the calorimeter.
When the temperature reading is 70oC the stopwatch is started. The time readings are noted for every
5o fall of temperature up to the room temperature. The readings are tabulated. A graph is drawn with
temperature θ along Y axis and time (t) along X axis, dθ/dt is found by taking slopes to tangents drawn
at various temperatures on the cooling curve. Hence Newton's law of cooling is verified.
PHY-102 Page | 76
Precautions:
1. Follow directions. Come to lab prepared to perform the experiment. Follow all
written and verbal instructions. When in doubt, ask.
3. Report all accidents, injuries or breakage to the instructor immediately. Also, report
any equipment that you suspect is malfunctioning.
4. Dress appropriately. Avoid wearing overly-bulky or loose-fitting clothing, or dangling
jewelry that may become entangled in your experimental apparatus. Pin or tie back
long hair and roll up loose sleeves.
5. Use goggles:
i) when heating anything.
ii) when using any type of projectile.
iii) when instructed to do so.
7. Do not perform unauthorized experiments. Get the instructor's permission before
you try something original.
8. Be careful when working with apparatus that may be hot. If you must pick it up, use
tongs, a wet paper towel, or other appropriate holder.
9. If a thermometer breaks, inform the instructor immediately. Do not touch either the
broken glass or the mercury with your bare skin.
11. When working with electrical circuits, be sure that the current is turned off before
making adjustments in the circuit.
PHY-102 Page | 77
12. Do not connect the terminals of a battery or power supply to each other with a wire.
Such a wire will become dangerously hot.
13. Return all equipment, clean and in good condition, to the designated location at the
end of the lab period.
Table: Data for time and Temperature
Time (Sec) Temperature (℃) Time (Sec) Temperature (℃)

1 41
2 42
3 43
4 44
5 45
6 46
7 47
8 48
9 49
10 50
11 51
12 52
13 53
14 54
15 55
16 56
17 57
18 58
19 59
20 60
21 61
22 62
23 63
24 64
25 65
26 66
27 67
28 68
29 69
30 70
31 71
32 72
33 73
34 74
35 75
PHY-102 Page | 78
36 76
37 77
38 78
39 79
40 80
Calculations:
Cooling Curve:
Calculations:
𝑑𝑇 𝑇 −𝑇
Slope, = 𝑡2−𝑡1 =. … … … … 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑡 2 1

Newton's Law of Cooling is verified.
Conclusion:
paragraph.
PHY-102 Page | 79
References:

Pre-lab Questions:
1. What is thermal Equilibrium?
Post-Lab Questions:
1. State Newton's Law of Cooling.
PHY-102 Page | 80
Experiment No.: 12

To determine the value of g, acceleration due to gravity, by means of Kater’s Pendulum
 To study the motion of Katter’s Pendulum,

 To study simple harmonic motion,
 To determine the acceleration due to gravity using the theory, results, and analysis of this
experiment.
Domain /
Delivery
activities
taxonomy

will be able to:
PO1– Experiment Final lab
CO1: apply the Affective
Engineeri test
various procedures domain/ Practice lab
ng
and techniques for analyzing Open ended
knowledge Group
using ammeter level lab
12 voltmeter for finding discussion
the voltage drops and Project
Tutorial
currents; show & project
presentation
CO3: Learn the
Communi
lab report in a
cation:
systematic way.
PHY-102 Page | 81
Theory:
Kater’s pendulum, shown in Fig. 1, is a physical pendulum composed of a metal

rod 1.20 m in length, upon which are mounted a sliding metal weight W1, a sliding
wooden weight W2, a small sliding metal cylinder w, and two sliding knife edges
K1 and K2 that face each other. Each of the sliding objects can be clamped in
place on the rod. The pendulum can be suspended and set swinging by resting
either knife edge on a flat, level surface. The wooden weight W2 is the same size
and shape as the metal weight W1. Its function is to provide as near equal air
resistance to swinging as possible in either suspension, which happens if W1 and
W2, and separately K1 and K2, are constrained to be equidistant from the ends of
the metal rod. The centre of mass G can be located by balancing the pendulum
on an external knife edge. Due to the difference in mass between the metal and
wooden weights W1 and W2, G is not at the centre of the rod, and the distances
h1 and h2 from G to the suspension points O1 and O2 at the knife edges K1 and
K2 are not equal. Fine adjustments in the position of G, and thus in h1 and h2, can
be made by moving the small metal cylinder w.
In Fig. 1, we consider the force of gravity to be acting at G. If hi is the distance to G from the suspension
point Oi at the knife edge Ki, the equation of motion of the pendulum is
𝐼𝑖 𝜃̈ = −𝑀𝑔ℎ𝑖 sin 𝜃
And the equation of motion of the simple pendulum
𝑔
𝑥̈ = − 𝑥
𝑙𝑖
We see that the two equations of motion are the same if we take
𝑀𝑔ℎ𝑖 𝑔
= … … … (1)
𝐼𝑖 𝑙𝑖
It is convenient to define the radius of gyration of a compound pendulum such that if all its mass M
were at a distance from Oi, the moment of inertia about Oi would be Ii , which we do by writing
𝐼𝑖 = 𝑀𝑘𝑖2
Inserting this definition into equation (1) shows that
𝑘𝑖2 = ℎ𝑖 𝑙𝑖 ………….. (2)
If IG is the moment of inertia of the pendulum about its centre of mass G, we can also define the radius
of gyration about the centre of mass by writing
𝑙𝐺 = 𝑀𝑘𝐺2
The parallel axis theorem gives us
PHY-102 Page | 82
𝑘𝑖2 = ℎ𝑖2 + 𝑘𝐺2
o that, using (2), we have
ℎ𝑖2 + 𝑘𝐺2
𝑙𝑖 =
ℎ𝑖
The period of the pendulum from either suspension point is then
𝑙𝑖
𝑇𝑖 = 2𝜋√
𝑔
ℎ2 + 𝑘𝐺2
𝑇𝑖 = 2𝜋√ 𝑖 … … … … (3)
𝑔ℎ𝑖
Squaring (3), one can show that
4𝜋 2 2
ℎ1 𝑇12 − ℎ2 𝑇22 = (ℎ1 − ℎ22 )
𝑔
and in turn,
4𝜋 2 ℎ1 𝑇12 − ℎ2 𝑇22 ℎ1 𝑇12 − ℎ2 𝑇22 𝑇12 + 𝑇22 𝑇12 − 𝑇22
= = = +
𝑔 (ℎ12 − ℎ22 ) (ℎ1 + ℎ2 )(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) 2(ℎ1 + ℎ2 ) 2(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
−1
𝑇12 + 𝑇22
2
𝑇12 − 𝑇22
∴ 𝑔 = 8𝜋 [ + ]
(ℎ1 + ℎ2 ) (ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
Apparatus:
1. A Kater’s Pendulum
2. A small metallic wedge
3. A holder in fixed point
4. Stop watch
1. Shift the weight W1 to one end of katers pendulum and fix it. Fix the knife edge K1 just below it.
2. Keep the knife edge K2 at the other end and fix the wooden weight W2 symmetrical to other end. Keep
the small weight 'w' near to centre.
3. Suspend the pendulum about the knife edge 1 and take the time for about 10 oscillations. Note down
the time t1 using a stopwatch and calculate its time period using equation T1=t1/10.
4. Now suspend about knife edge K2 by inverting the pendulum and note the time t2 for 10 oscillations.
Calculate T2 also.
5. If 𝑇2 ≠ 𝑇1 adjust the position of knife edge K2 so that 𝑇2 ≈ 𝑇1
6. Balance the pendulum on a sharp wedge and mark the position of its centre of gravity. Measure the
distance of the knife-edge K1 as h1 and that of K2 as h2 from the centre of gravity.
Precautions:
1. Follow directions. Come to lab prepared to perform the experiment. Follow all written and verbal
instructions. When in doubt, ask.
PHY-102 Page | 83
that may become entangled in your experimental apparatus. Pin or tie back long hair and roll up
loose sleeves.
5. Use goggles:
something original.
8. Be careful when working with apparatus that may be hot. If you must pick it up, use tongs, a wet
paper towel, or other appropriate holder.
9. If a thermometer breaks, inform the instructor immediately. Do not touch either the broken glass
or the mercury with your bare skin.
12. Do not connect the terminals of a battery or power supply to each other with a wire. Such a wire
will become dangerously hot.
13. Return all equipment, clean and in good condition, to the designated location at the end of the lab
period.
Data Collection:
1. Distance between K1 and CG (𝑙1)=……..cm
2. Distance between K2 and CG (𝑙2 )=……..cm
3. Table for time period 𝑇1 (oscillation about K1)
No. of Number of Time of Oscillation Time Period Mean Time
Observation Oscillation, n 𝑡1 (sec) 𝑇1 = 𝑡1 /n (sec) 𝑇1 (sec)
1
2
3
4
5
PHY-102 Page | 84
4. Table for time period 𝑇2 (oscillation about K1)
No. of Number of Time of Oscillation Time Period Mean Time
Observation Oscillation, n 𝑡1 (sec) 𝑇2 = 𝑡1 /n (sec) 𝑇2 (sec)
1
2
3
4
5
Calculation:
−1
2
𝑇12 + 𝑇22 𝑇12 − 𝑇22
𝑔 = 8𝜋 [ + ]
(ℎ1 + ℎ2 ) (ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
The acceleration due to gravity, g = …….. cm/s2
Conclusion:
paragraph.
References:
2. Practical physics: R.K. Shukla, Anchal Srivatsava .

Pre-lab Questions:
1. What is acceleration due to gravity?
2. What is oscillation?
3. What is time period?
Post-Lab Questions:
1. What is Kater’s Pendulum?
2. What is centre of gravity?
3. How does g vary?
PHY-102 Page | 85

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LAB MANUAL

Program : B.Sc. in EEE

3. Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

Domain / level Delivery

Upon completion this Lab tests

1. Physics I Lab Manual, EEE Department, BUBT

2. Practical Physics, R.K. Shukla and Anchal Srivastava

Name of the Experiment:

Objectives of the Experiment:

 To know the use of the Vernier Calipers and Screw Gauge.

Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

3. Outer Measuring Jaws

4. Inner Measuring Jaws

6. Depth Measuring Prong

Vernier Constant (V.C.) calculation:

Vernier constant (V.C.) = 1 s. d. - I v. d.

= 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm.

Instrumental Error/Zero error of Vernier Calipers:

Calculating the Reading of Iron Block

V. S. R. = n × V. C. (Vernier Constant of Vernier Calipers)…………….(1)

Volume of a Rectangular Block

The pitch can be represented as;

Least Count of the Screw Gauge

The least count can be calculated using the formula;

Zero Error and Zero Correction of Screw Gauge:

To find the diameter of the lead shot:

For Screw Gauge:

Results and Discussions:

Volume of the sample (Lead shot) using Screw Gauge: 𝒄𝒎𝟑

Knowledge Test Questions:

Name of the Experiment:

Objectives of the Experiment:

 To study the motion of a compound pendulum,

Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

From equation (2) and (3),

The time period of a simple pendulum of length L, is given by

Comparing with Eq. (7) we get

and 𝐾 = √𝑙1 𝑙2………………….(13)

Description of the apparatus (Compound Pendulum):

Figure-2: Compound pendulum Figure-3: Compound pendulum

Distance from Time for 10 Mean Time

Results and Discussions:

Knowledge Test Questions:

Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

We can plot Ɩ vs. m0 graph and determine its slope to determine k.

From equation (iv) →

compare the value of m′ what you deduced in (viii)

a) Length of the spring, L = ……………cm.

b) Measurement of the mass of the spring,

c) Determinations of extension and time period:

Spring constant, k =…………. dynes/cm

Results and Discussions:

Knowledge Test Questions:

Name of the Experiment:

a) To determine Young’s modulus by the flexure of a beam

Course Outcomes (COs), Program Outcomes (POs) and Assessment:

(A) Vernier constant of the microscope:

Table 1: Data for load versus elongation