Lecture 1

Research
Definitions of research

Research is a process of investigation about a specific phenomenon. According to

Kothari (2004, p.7) …research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an
important source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and
social problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new
developments in one’s field in a better way. Therefore, it aims at finding solutions and
improving the studied situation. Moreover, “research is the process whereby questions are
raised and answers are sought by carefully gathering, analyzing, and interpreting data” (Perry,
2005, p.8).
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines it as “a careful study of a subject, especially in
order to discover new facts or information about it”. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary
English defines research as follows:
1- Serious study of a subject, in order to discover new facts or test new ideas
2- The activity of finding information about something that you are interested in or need to
know about
The researcher
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines the researcher as “a person who studies
something carefully and tries to discover new facts about it”. A good researcher should have
the following qualities: curiosity, honesty, prudence, creativity and healthy criticism.

References:
- Kothari, C.R. (. 2004).Research Methodology. New Age International Publishers.
- Perry, Fred. (2005.)Research in Applied Linguistics: Becoming a Discerning Consumer.
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
 Lecture 2

Research (part 2)
Purposes of research
Research is undertaken for different purposes. According to Kothari (2004, p.2):
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered …to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative
research studies); to portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation
or a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies).
Research may attempt to describe, explain or explore phenomena. Thus, it can be descriptive,
explanatory or exploratory.
Types of research
Research can be basic or applied. Basic research refers to the theoretical investigation
while applied research is the practical aspect. Research can either be applied (or action)
research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a
solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation,
whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the
formulation of a theory (Kothari 2004, p.3). Also, research can be quantitative or qualitative.
Quantitative research relies on the use of statistics. Qualitative research is based on
description.

References:
- Kothari, C.R. (. 2004).Research Methodology. New Age International Publishers.
- Perry, Fred. (2005). Research in Applied Linguistics: Becoming a Discerning Consumer.
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Methodology
 Lecture 3

Definitions of Methodology
Methodology refers to the way of doing something. It is a set of procedures and principles.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines methodology as “the set of methods
and principles that you use when studying a particular subject or doing a particular kind of
work”.
Research methodology refers to the way of doing research. Kothari (2004,p.8) states that:
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may
be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the
various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem
along with the logic behind them.
Therefore, research methodology means the steps followed by the researcher when making an
investigation. It includes the methods, tools and activities of research.
Definitions of Method
A method means a procedure or a specific organized plan. Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English defines a method as “a planned way of doing something, especially
one that a lot of people know about and use”. A method of research implies a specific way of
studying a research topic. Thus, “research methods may be understood as all those
methods/techniques that are used for conduction of research” (Kothari, 2004, p.7). Generally
speaking, a research method is considered as a research strategy. It refers to a set of
techniques and research tools. A research tool refers to the procedure of data collection. It is a
means used by the researcher to get information about the research topic from the sample.

References:
- Kothari, C.R. (. 2004).Research Methodology. India: New Age International Publishers.
- Perry, Fred. (2005.). Research in Applied Linguistics: Becoming a Discerning Consumer.
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Methodology in the Social Sciences
 Lecture 4

Methodology in social sciences

Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary defines social science as “the study of people in
society” or “a particular subject connected with the study of people in society.” Thus, the
social sciences refer to scientific disciplines dealing with the study of society and social
activities. They include the disciplines of education, psychology, linguistics, political science,
law, philosophy, history, geography, economics and sociology.
“The established traditional view holds that the social sciences are essentially the same as the
natural sciences and are therefore concerned with discovering natural and universal laws
regulating and determining individual and social behaviour”(Cohen et al., 2007, p.7).
However, another view of social science “emphasizes how people differ from inanimate
natural phenomena and, indeed, from each other” (Cohen et al., 2007, p.7). Thus, the
methodology of the social sciences differs from the natural sciences. It is based on the
following principles:
-The use of qualitative data
-The use of the inductive approach
-Reliance on interpretation
-Interaction between researcher and participants
-Subjectivity
In order to be scientific, the methodology of the social sciences has started to employ a
combination or mixture of qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Kothari (2004, p.6) states that: Research is equally important for social scientists in studying
social relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems… Research in social
sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and with knowledge for what it
can contribute to practical concerns.
Generally speaking, research in social sciences deals with the relationship between the
individual and society. Thus, its methodology relies on the opinions and attitudes of the
informants and the researcher.
References:
- Cohen, Louis, Manion, Lawrence, and Morrison, Keith. (2007). Research Methods in
Education. New York: Routledge.
- Kothari, C.R. ( 2004).Research Methodology. India: New Age International Publishers.
Methodology in the Human Sciences
 Lecture 5

Methodology in human sciences

Oxford dictionary defines human science as “a branch of study which deals with people
or their actions”. In fact, human sciences include civilization, literature, religion, art and
music. The methodology of human sciences differs from the natural and social sciences. It is
based on the following principles:
-Social reality is produced by human beings
-Giving importance to criticism
-Subjectivity
-The use of qualitative data
-Understanding and interpretation
-Emancipation and freedom
The human sciences or humanities often imply qualitative methodology which involves
the researcher’s subjectivity. According to Hall (2005, p.247):
Qualitative researchers are interested or committed to the idea that much that is of
interest in a situation is not amenable to counting or measuring, or that richer and valuable
understandings can be reached by paying attention to detail and specificity without premature
generalisation and categorisation.
Hence, The methodology of human sciences relies on qualitative research instruments but it
may employ some quantitative tools since “.. counting often usefully complements more
qualitative understandings” (Hall, 2005, p.247). Human sciences focus on the interpretation
and analysis of texts. Moreover, they are based on deconstruction which implies
deconstructing a text to interpret and explain its meaning.

References:
-Cohen, Louis, Manion, Lawrence, and Morrison, Keith. (2007).Research Methods in
Education. New York: Routledge.
- Hall, Geoff. (2005). Literature in Language Education. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan. Methodology in the Human Sciences
 Lecture 6

RESEARCH METHODS

• The historical method: it focuses on the study of the past. This method may study the
origin and the growth of a problem.

• Ethnography: it is the study of specific groups. It may focus on the culture, behaviour
and language of a group. There are two famous types of ethnography. The realist ethnography
relies on objectivity. The critical ethnography studies issues of inequality and dominance to
call for freedom of marginalized individuals or groups in terms of class, race or gender.

• Phenomenology: it is related to the disciplines of philosophy and psychology. It

concerns the study of experience and consciousness. Phenomenology is a method that
attempts to understand human experiences. It studies a phenomenon using description and
interpretation.

• The narrative method: it is used in literature, history, sociology, sociolinguistics and

education. It concerns the description of events and people’s experiences. It may focus on the
life experience of a person, the story of a specific organization and the stories of women. Its
purpose is to show how people are reinforced or constrained by their social environment.

• The comparative method: it is based on the comparison of groups or phenomena. It aims

at explaining the similarities and differences of two elements.

References:
-Cohen, Louis, Manion, Lawrence, and Morrison, Keith. Research Methods in Education.
New York: Routledge. 2007.
-Creswell, John. Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches.
USA : Sage Publications.2007.
 Lecture 7

THE EXPERIMENT

The experiment is a method applied in order to test hypotheses and find the cause of
problems. It may take place at the laboratory or it may be in the form of a test or trial under
controlled conditions. According to Perry (2005, p.89), the experiment involves:
…manipulating the independent variable(s) and observing the change in the dependent
variable(s). The goal of this genre of design in comparison to others is that researchers try to
control changes in the variance of the independent variable(s) without allowing the
intervention of other unwanted variables.
In fact, the experiment is based on observation, experimentation, deduction and induction.
Experimentation refers to the procedures used to get results. It involves the use of the
scientific method which relies on the following characteristics:
- Empiricism
- Rationality
- Objectivity
- Neutrality and Autonomy
- Replication
- Progress

The experiment attempts to formulate scientific theories. Moreover, “Experimental approach

is characterised by much greater control over the research environment and in this case some
variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables” (Kothari, 2004,p.5).
Hence, it is more reliable than other methods.
Generally speaking, the experiment aims at providing an understanding of the studied
phenomena through a scientific method and the use of quantitative data. It helps to find
solutions for the research problems.

References:
- Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology. India: New Age International Publishers.
- Perry, Fred. (2005). Research in Applied Linguistics: Becoming a Discerning Consumer.
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
 Lecture 8

THE SURVEY METHOD

A survey is a method of research that focuses on the description of a phenomenon. According

to Cohen et al. (2007, p.205):

Surveys gather data at a particular point in time with the intention of describing the
nature of existing conditions, or identifying standards against which existing conditions can
be compared, or determining the relationships that exist between specific events. Thus,
surveys may vary in their levels of complexity from those that provide simple frequency
counts to those that present relational analysis.
In fact, a survey may be used to describe general characteristics of a phenomenon. In this
respect, Kothari states that:
In an experiment the investigator measures the effects of an experiment which he conducts
intentionally. Survey refers to the method of securing information concerning phenomena
under study from all or a selected number of respondents of the concerned universe. In a
survey, the investigator examines those phenomena which exist in the universe independent of
his action (2004, p.95)
Thus, a survey relies on gathering information from a large population. Moreover, it attempts
to investigate general features of a research topic. The main principles of the survey method
are:
-The use of qualitative and quantitative data
-The use of questionnaires and interviews
-Objectivity
-Focusing on facts
-Attempting to make generalizations

Generally speaking, a survey provides descriptive information about educational programmes,

teaching methods, textbooks and learning objectives.

References:
-Cohen, Louis, Manion, Lawrence, and Morrison, Keith.(2007).Research Methods in
Education. New York: Routledge.
-Kothari, C.R. (2004).Research Methodology. India: New Age International Publishers.
 Lecture 9

THE CASE STUDY

The case study is a method of research that provides a description and analysis of the
studied object. It deals with one entity. “The case study method is a very popular form of
qualitative analysis and involves a careful and complete observation of a social unit, be that
unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or even the entire community”
(Kothari, 2004, p.113). Therefore, this method concerns one unit.
It is important in case studies for events and situations to be allowed to speak for themselves,
rather than to be largely interpreted, evaluated or judged by the researcher. In this respect the
case study is akin to the television documentary (Cohen et al., 2007; p.254)

This means that it focuses on observation of the studied unit to provide a deep analysis of
events, conditions or behaviour. The case study has the following characteristics:

- It takes one single unit or a situation.

- It makes an intensive investigation of the studied unit.
- It extends over a period of time to provide enough information.
- It studies relationships and causes.
- It studies the object directly.
- It gives rich data.
- It provides results concerning hypotheses.
- It helps to generalize knowledge.

The case study relies on various tools including questionnaires, interviews and observation.
Generally speaking, case studies have many advantages. They help to understand social units
and provide suggestions for social change.

References:
-Cohen, Louis, Manion, Lawrence, and Morrison, Keith.(2007).Research Methods in
Education. New York: Routledge.
-Kothari, C.R. (2004).Research Methodology. India: New Age International Publishers.
 Lecture 10

The Choice of a Topic

The choice of a topic is the first step in research. In this context, Khan (2011, p. 33)
claims that “the selection of a research topic is the most important factor that one has to make
in doing research. In fact, it is a very vital work for a researcher”. You must select a good
topic of research. Thus, you have to take into consideration the following principles. It is
wise to avoid a topic that is overly ambitious and overly challenging …It always makes sense
to choose a topic that is interesting and personally meaningful… Remember that conducting
research demands ruthless honesty and objectivity… Finally, you need to select a topic that
has the potential to make an original contribution to the field and allow you to demonstrate
your independent mastery of subject and method (Rudestam and Newton, 2007, p. 10-11) In
fact, the choice of a topic is based on the researcher’s experience and reading. It is believed
that reading books is essential for the researcher as it helps to limit the field of research.
Moreover, personal experience is very important.

The Choice of a Topic (part 2)

The first step in research is to find a topic. This is why the researcher should think
carefully about the problem that has to be studied. First, he has to focus on library research
and study the literature review of the topic. After getting enough information, the researcher
makes the final decision concerning the topic of research.
In fact, the research topic should turn around a specific problem that has to be carefully
selected depending on the researcher’s background. Kothari (2004, p. 26) mentions a set of
criteria for topic selection. They are as follows:
- Controversial subjects should not be chosen.
- Vague problems should be avoided.
- The subject of research should be feasible
- Materials and sources of research should be available
- Current literature on the subject should be available
- The importance of the subject, the qualifications of the researcher and the time factor have to
be taken into consideration.
References:
- Khan, J.A .( 2011).Research Methodology. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation.

-Kothari, C.R. ( 2004).Research Methodology. India: New Age International Publishers.

- Rudestam, Kjell Eric, and Newton, Rae. (2007).Surviving Your Dissertation: A
Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process. USA: Sage Publications.
 Lecture 11

Sources of Data

The researcher relies on various sources of data. “There are several ways of collecting
the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other
resources at the disposal of the researcher” (Kothari, 2004, p. 17). These sources can be
primary or secondary. “Primary sources of data have been described as those items that are
original to the problem under study and may be thought of as being in two categories” (Cohen
et al., 2007; p.193). Primary data can be collected through questionnaires, interviews,
observation or documents.
On the other hand, “secondary sources are those that do not bear a direct physical
relationship to the event being studied. They are made up of data that cannot be described as
original” (Cohen et al., 2007; p.194). They include books and encyclopaedias.
When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he has to look into various sources
from where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not confronted with the problems
that are usually associated with the collection of original data. Secondary data may either be
published data or unpublished data (Kothari, 2004, p. 111). In fact, primary and secondary
sources help the researcher to collect data and provide arguments.

References:
- Cohen, Louis, Manion, Lawrence, and Morrison, Keith. (2007).Research Methods in
Education. New York: Routledge. .
- Kothari, C.R. (2004).Research Methodology. India: New Age International Publishers.
 Lecture 12

Data Collection
Data collection is an important process in research. There are two types of data. According to
Kothari:
The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus
happen to be original in character. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which
have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the
statistical process (2004, p. 95).
Data can be collected through various instruments. The collection of primary data relies on
the use of observation, questionnaires and interviews. The collection of secondary data
involves the use of published and unpublished materials. The collected data are classified into
two types quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative data are numerical.Qualitative data refer
to descriptive information.
The process of data collection relies on the following principles:
-The collected data should be suitable to the studied object.
-The collected data should be reliable.
-The use of adequate tools.
-Research ethics are important.

References:
-Cohen, Louis, Manion, Lawrence, and Morrison, Keith. (2007).Research Methods in
Education. New York: Routledge.
- Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology. India: New Age International Publishers.
 Lecture 13

The Questionnaire
The questionnaire is a research tool used to collect qualitative and quantitative data. It is a
set of written questions. The questionnaire may include close-ended questions, multiple
choice questions and open-ended questions. The form of the questionnaire is important.
According to Cohen et al. (2007, p.336):
The ordering of the questionnaire is important, for early questions may set the tone
or the mindset of the respondent to later questions. For example, a questionnaire that makes a
respondent irritated or angry early on is unlikely to have managed to enable that respondent’s
irritation or anger to subside by the end of the questionnaire.
General guidelines:
- The questionnaire should be short and simple
- The questions should be simple.
- They should be clear.
- They should move from closed questions to open-ended questions.
- There should be a balance of questions that ask for facts and opinions.
- The researcher should consider the reading and writing abilities of the respondents.
- The researcher should ensure that the respondent knows how to reply like circling, ticking or
writing.
- Piloting the questionnaire is necessary.
Advantages:
- The questionnaire helps to collect data in an easy and economical way.
- The questionnaire may be more representative.
 Lecture 14

The Interview
The interview is a conversation between the researcher and the informant. Its main
purpose is to collect data about people’s opinions and attitudes. The interview often includes
more open-ended questions.
Interviews enable participants – be they interviewers or interviewees – to discuss their
interpretations of the world in which they live, and to express how they regard situations from
their own point of view. In these senses the interview is not simply concerned with collecting
data about life: it is part of life itself (Cohen, 2007, p.349)
General guidelines:
- The interviewer should prepare a plan in advance.
- The interviewer should take into consideration the following factors: the objectives of the
interview, the nature of the topic and the respondent’s level of education.
- He/ she must make the interviewee feel at ease during the interview.
- The questions should be well-formulated.
- The interviewer should have the ability to discuss and listen to help the interviewee to
collaborate and participate in the conversation.
Advantages:
- The interview can provide more information.
- The interviewer has the opportunity to restructure the questions and can record the answers.
- The interviewer can control the sample.
Disadvantages:
- The interview may introduce bias.
- The interview is time-consuming.
- The respondent may give unreliable information.

References:
- Cohen, Louis, Manion, Lawrence, and Morrison, Keith. (2007). Research Methods in
Education. New York: Routledge.
- Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology. India: New Age International Publisher
 Lecture 15

Observation
Observation is a research tool used to examine persons in natural settings. “Because
observed incidents are less predictable there is a certain freshness to this form of data
collection that is often denied in other forms, e.g. a questionnaire or a test” (Cohen et al.,
2007,p. 396). Therefore, observation helps the researcher to get a deep understanding of the
studied phenomenon.
General guidelines:
- The researcher should think about when, where, how and what to observe.
- He/ she should think about the duration of the period of observation.
- The researcher should take into consideration the timing of the observation (morning or
afternoon).
- He/ she should think about the context of the observation.
- He/ she should concentrate and be attentive.
- The researcher has to focus on details.
- The researcher has to record the events of the observation
Advantages:
- The researcher can record information about the natural behaviour of a group.
- The researcher can collect reliable information easily.
- The subjectivity of the informants is eliminated.
Disadvantages:
- The researcher may not control the observation.
- The observer may be subjective.
- The collected information may be limited.

References:
- Cohen, Louis, Manion, Lawrence, and Morrison, Keith (2007).Research Methods in
Education. New York: Routledge.
- Kothari, C.R. (2004).Research Methodology. India: New Age International Publishers.
 Lecture 16

Tests
A test is a tool of evaluation. It is defined by Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary as
“an examination of somebody’s knowledge or ability, consisting of questions…to answer or
activities…to perform.” Moreover, a test can be used as a research instrument. “In tests,
researchers have at their disposal a powerful method of data collection, an impressive array of
tests for gathering data of a numerical rather than verbal kind” (Cohen et al., 2007, p.414).
General guidelines:
When constructing a test, the researcher should take into consideration the following
elements:
- The purposes of the test
- The content of the test
- The format of the test
- The validity and reliability of the test
- The timing of the test.
- The scoring of the test.
Advantages:
- Tests provide information about learners’ knowledge.
- The results of tests help the researcher to make a comparison between different groups of
learners.
- Tests are more reliable.
Disadvantages:
- Tests may be expensive.
- They may not be flexible.
- Tests can be subjective.

References:
-Cohen, Louis, Manion, Lawrence, and Morrison, Keith. (2007). Research Methods in
Education. New York: Routledge.
-Perry, Fred. (2005). Research in Applied Linguistics: Becoming a Discerning Consumer.
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
 Lecture 17

Data Analysis
The collected data can be analysed quantitatively and qualitatively.
Quantitative data analysis relies on statistics. According to Kothari ( 2004, p. 131):
The role of statistics in research is to function as a tool in designing
research, analysing its data and drawing conclusions therefrom. Most research studies result
in a large volume of raw data which must be suitably reduced so that the same can be
read easily and can be used for further analysis.
Quantitative data analysis helps to provide evidence and understand the results through the
explanation of numerical data. It helps to summarize data using frequencies and percentages.
It enables the researcher to get more reliable results. Moreover, it is less time consuming.
Quantitative data analysis is mainly based on descriptive statistics like measures of central
tendency including the mean, median and mode.
The mean refers to the average. Thus, M= ΣX/N
M=mean , X= scores, N= number
The median is the middle value. For an odd number, the median is the middle score. For
example: 10,9, 8, 11, 10 ( the median=10).
For an even number, the median is the average of the two middle scores.
For example: 9, 10, 11, 8, 6, 10, 9, 12 (the median is 7).
The mode is the repeated number. For example: 10, 9, 11, 9, 8, 9 , 12 ( the mode is 9)
The analysed data are often presented in tables, bar graphs and pie charts.

References:
- Cohen, Louis, Manion, Lawrence, and Morrison, Keith.( 2007).Research Methods in
Education. New York: Routledge.
- Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology. India: New Age International Publishers.
 Lecture 18

Data Analysis
Qualitative data analysis involves summarising the collected data and organising them
using description, explanation and interpretation. It relies on coding which means using
symbols to organize similar answers as well as the classification of data. Then, the researcher
has to comment and explain.
According to Cohen et al.( 2007, p.469), “the analysis here is almost inevitably
interpretive, hence the data analysis is less a completely accurate representation… the
researcher brings to the data his or her own preconceptions, interests, biases, preferences.”

Qualitative data analysis provides textual data; it may also rely on the use of tables to
summarize the results. It focuses on the meaning of the study. It helps to make inferences and
draw conclusions.
Advantages:
- Qualitative data analysis provides a detailed description.
- It allows the researcher to give his opinion and provide a deep understanding of the topic.
- Qualitative data analysis is more flexible.
Disadvantages:
- Qualitative data analysis is time consuming.
- The results may not be generalizable.
- Qualitative data analysis is subjective
Generally speaking, the researcher has to rely on qualitative and quantitative data
analysis in order to provide more evidence.

References:
- Cohen, Louis, Manion, Lawrence, and Morrison, Keith (2007). Research Methods in
Education. New York: Routledge.
- Perry, Fred.(2005). Research in Applied Linguistics: Becoming a Discerning Consumer.
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
 Lecture 19

Writing a Thesis
Writing a research paper or a thesis is an important process. Hartley (2008, p. 82) claims
that in the arts and humanities, there is emphasis on opinions and writers provide arguments
for new perspectives concerning the topic they discuss. Thus, in human sciences, theses are
subjective and personalised. However, in the social sciences, theses attempt to change the
situation. Therefore, the arguments are based on evidence.
When writing a research paper, the researcher should follow these steps: “(a) logical
analysis of the subject-matter; (b) preparation of the final outline; (c) preparation of the rough
draft; (d) rewriting and polishing; (e) preparation of the final bibliography; and (f) writing the
final draft” ( Kothari, 2004, p.347). According to Kothari (2004,p.349), “a comprehensive
layout of the research report should comprise (A) preliminary pages; (B) the main text; and
(C) the end matter.” The front matter or the preliminary pages include the front page,
acknowledgements, abstract, table of contents, list of tables and figures. The main text
includes the general introduction, the main chapters and the general conclusion. The end
matter or the back matter includes the bibliography and the appendices.

References:
- Hartley, James.(2008). Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Handbook. London:
Routledge.
- Kothari, C.R.(2004). Research Methodology. India: New Age International Publishers.
 Lecture 20

Quoting
Quoting implies writing the author’s words as they are. Kothari (2004, p.354) states that:

Quotations should be placed in quotation marks and double spaced, forming an

immediate part of the text. But if a quotation is of a considerable length (more than four or
five type written lines) then it should be single-spaced and indented at least half an inch to the
right of the normal text margin.
Quoting helps the researcher to avoid plagiarism. It provides arguments and gives more
evidence. When quoting, you should introduce quotations and comment on them.

References:
- Hartley, James. (2008). Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Handbook. London:
Routledge.
- Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology. India: New Age International Publishers
 Lecture 21

References:

-Brown, James Dean. (1988).Understanding Research in Second Language Learning.

Cambridge: CUP.

-Cohen, Louis, Manion, Lawrence, and Morrison, Keith. (2007). Research Methods in
Education. New York: Routledge.

-Johnstone, Barbara. (2000). Qualitative Methods in Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

-Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology. India: New Age International Publishers

First Semester Programme Second Semester

1. Definitions of research 1. Data collection
2. Types and purposes of research 2. Principles of data collection
3. Definitions of methodology 3. Research tools
4. Research methodology in social sciences -The questionnaire
5. Research methodology in human sciences -The interview
6. Research methods -Observation
-Phenomenology -Tests
-Ethnography
-The historical method 4. Data analysis
-The narrative method -Quantitative data analysis
-The comparative method -Qualitative data analysis
7. The experiment 5. Writing a thesis
8. The survey 6. Quoting
9. The case study 7. Summarising and paraphrasing
10. The choice of a topic 8. Writing a bibliography
11. Characteristics of a good research topic -Exercises
12. Sources of data