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Q.1

Characteristics of Management

Following are the characteristics of management: Organized Activities: Management is a process of organized activities. Groups of people cannot be involved in the performance of activities without organized a ctivities. Management comes into existence where a group of people are involve d in achieving a common objective. The organized activities may take a variety of forms ranging from a tightly structured organization to a loosely-knit organization. Existence of Objectives: The existence of objectives is a basic criterion of ever y human organization. The organizational objectives are the desired state of affai rs which an organization attempts to realize. This realization of objectives is soug ht through the coordinated efforts of the people constituting an organization. Decision-making: Management process involves decision making at all levels. Decision-making describes the process by which a course of action is selected a s the way to deal with a specific problem. If there is only one alternative, the ques tion of decision making does not arise. The quality of alternatives which a mange r selects determines the organizations performance, and the future of the organi zation. Relationship among resources: The essence of management is integration of various organizational resources. Resources include money, machine, materials, and people. Management is concerned with the proper utilization of human resources which, in turn, utilize other resources. Working with and through people: Management involves working with people and getting organizational objectives achieved through them. Working through pe ople is interpreted in terms of assigning activities to subordinates.

Q.2

Intellectual Abilities

Intellectual Abilities Intellectual abilities are those required to perform mental activities. IQ tests are designed to ascertain one s general intellectual abilities. Examples of such t ests are popular college admission tests such as, the SAT, GMAT, and LS AT. The seven most commonly cited dimensions making up intellectual abiliti es are: number aptitude, verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive re asoning, deductive reasoning, spatial visualization, and memory (Dunnette, 19 76). Dimension Description

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Job Example Number aptitude Ability to do speedy and accurate Accountant arithmetic Verbal Communication Read write speaking ability Senior managers Perceptual Speed Identify similarities and differences Investigators quickly and accurately Inductive reasoning Logical sequence drawing Market Researcher Deductive reasoning Ability to use logic and assess the Supervisors implications of the argument Spatial Visualization Ability to imagine Interior decorator Memory Ability to retain and recall past Sales personRemembering experience customer s name Jobs differ in the demands they place on incumbents to use their intellectual abilit ies. A review of the evidence demonstrates that tests that assess verbal, n umerical, spatial, and perceptual abilities are valid predictors of job proficiency at all levels of jobs. In this regard, the theory of multiple intelligences was developed by Gardner (198 3, 1993). This theory suggests eight different intelligences to account for a bro ader range of human potential in children and adults. It has been claimed that ou r intelligence or ability to understand the world around us is complex. Some peopl e are better at understanding some things than others. For some, it is relatively e asy to understand how an automobile works, but it is immensely difficult for some to understand and use a musical instrument. For others music might be easy but playing football is difficult. The

several different intelligences are listed below: 1. Linguistic intelligence ("word smart"): 2. Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart")

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Spatial intelligence ("picture smart") Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart") Musical intelligence ("music smart") Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart") Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart") Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")

Advantages Highly reliable. Verbal reasoning and numerical tests have shown high validity for a wide range of jobs. The validity rises with increasing complexity of the job. Combinations of aptitude tests have higher validities than individual tests alone. May be administered in group settings where many applicants Can be tested at the same time. Scoring of the tests may be completed by computer scanning equipment. Lower cost than personality tests. Physical Abilities Specific physical abilities gain importance in doing less skilled and more st andardized jobs. Research has identified nine basic abilities involved in the performance of physical tasks. Individuals differ in the extent to which they h ave each of these abilities. High employee performance is likely to be achieved when management matches the extent to which a job requires each of the nine abilities and the employees abilities.

Q.3

Classifications of Personality Types

Personalit y Determinants The factors affecting personality development are illustrated below:

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1. Heredity The relationship of heredity with personality is a well-accepted fact. Traits li ke physique, eye color, hair color, height, temperament, energy level, intelligen ce, reflexes, etc. are generally referred to describe the influence of heredity in developing personality. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate expl anation of an individuals personality is the molecular structure of the genes, locat ed in the chromosomes. Robbins (2003) has argued that the three different s treams of research lend some credibility to the argument that heredity plays an important part in determining an individual's personality. The first looks at th e genetic underpinnings of human behavior and temperament among young children. The second addresses the study of twins who were separated at birth and the third examines the consistency in job satisfaction over time and across s ituations. 2. Environment Environment comprises of culture, family, social and situational factors. The en vironmental factors influence personality of an individual since they provide the basis of certain experiences which determine the individuals view about l ife, both positive and negative. 3. Culture Culture establishes norms, attitudes and values that are passed on from generati on to generation and create consistencies over time. Every culture expects and trains its members to behave in the ways that are acceptable to the grou p. People from different cultural groups have different attitudes towards ind ependence, aggression, competition, cooperation, artistic talent, etc. Howeve r, on the basis of culture, an individuals personality cannot be always assessed, since individuals within t he same culture (but from different family and sub-cultural background) hav e been seen to differ in their behavior. To a marked degree, the child's cult ural group defines the range of experiences and situations he is likely to enco unter and the values and personality characteristics that will be reinforced and hence learned." Culture requires both conformity and acceptance from its members. 4. Family One of the most important determinants of the personality of a person is the imm ediate family. Families influence the behavior of a person especially in the e arly stages of life. The nature of such influence will depend upon the socio-

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economic level of the family, family size, race, religion, parent's educational le vel and geographic location. The parents play an especially important part in the identification process, which is important to the person's early developm ent. According to Mischel, the process can be examined from three different perspecti ves. i. Identification can be viewed as the similarity of behaviour including feelings a nd attitudes between child and model. Parents being the first model. ii. Identification can be looked at as the child's motives or desires to be like the m odel. iii. It can be viewed as the process through which the child actually takes on the attributes of the model. From all three perspectives, the identification proc ess is fundamental to the understanding of personality development. 5. Situation Situational factors also play a crucial role in determining the personality of a pers on. Every individual goes through different type of experiences and events in his/her life. Some of the events and experiences, which an individual go es through in his/her life, can serve as important determinants of his/her persona lity. A trauma suffered by a person in the childhood can sometime change the structure of his/her own personality. 6. Social Factors There is increasing recognition given to the role of other relevant persons, gro ups and especially organizations, which greatly influence an individual's persona lity. This is commonly called the socialization process. Socialization involves the process by which a person acquires, from the enormously wide range of behavio ural potentialities that are open to him or her, those that are ultimately synthesiz ed and absorbed. Socialization starts with the initial contact between a moth er and her new infant. After infancy, other members of the immediate family father, brothers, sisters and close relatives or friends, then the social group: peers, school friends and members of the work group - play influential roles. Q.4 Barriers to Perception It is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory imp ressions. Human sensory organs like ears, eyes, nose, tongue and skin generate various impressions. In general terms, perception is a term by which a person loo

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ks at the world and emotes out his feelings for a particular situation. Perception h elps in understanding percievers own mindset and also helps in understanding h uman behavior in the organization. The barriers to perception are stereotyping, h alo-effect, similar to the effect or projection, selective perceptions, distribution an d contrast effects. Perception is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensor y impressions in order to give relevance and significance to our environment. Human beings are blessed with sensory organs such as ears, eyes, nose, tongue and skin. Through these sensory organs we generate various impression s and expressions. These actions allow our mind to take due attention on the sel ective ones only which has importance and significance in our life. This is called perception. In a nutshell, perception is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give relevance and significanc e to our environment. The dictionary meaning of the word perceive means is to take in mentally, to b ecome aware through the senses. It is defined as the way a person looks at the world and his feelings on a particular situation. Baron defines perception as the process where in we select, organize, and interpret various inputs from our sense organs. Robbins defines perception as a process in which people organize and inte rpret their expressions arising from the sense organs in order to give the feedbac k to the environment around. Many others have also defined perception which concludes the fact that fu nctions of the workers are duly affected by three classes of variables the object s or events being perceived, the environment in which perception occurs and the individual does the perceiving. Perception is very important as it enables the organization to adapt to a co mplex and ever changing factors through perceptual constancies. It helps in eval uating various factors of organization such as size, shape, functions, targets, loca tion, time etc., which gives a concrete idea about the functioning of an organizati on.

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This process includes: 1. Perceptual inputs of stimuli 2. Perceptual Mechanism 3. Perceptual Output 4. Pattern of Behavior It is influenced by three set of factors and they are: 1. Factors in the perceiver- these are the factors related to self concept, att itudes, motives, internal experiences and expectations. 2. Factors in the target- it includes physical appearance, verbal and non ve rbal communication, status, occupation, personal characteristics, novelty a nd motion of targets, sounds, size, background and proximity of the target. 3. Factors in the situation- it includes social context, organizational role, wo rk setting, location and time. Perception helps in understanding of human behavior in the organization. It also helps in understanding perceivers own mindset and tendency in judging others may become the barriers to accurate perception. The important barriers to accur ate perception are stereotyping, halo effect, similar to the effect or projection, sel ective perceptions, distribution and contrast effects. Attributes is a significant phenomenon for understanding perception. This theory describes the external or internal behavior in an individual. Kellys theory of casu al attributes states that we need to focus on three types of information namely dis tinctiveness, consensus and consistency, in order to determine the internal and e xternal behavior of an individual. It has proved important concept for managers a nd its main managerial activities include: advertising, maintaining safety, managi ng impression, building corporate image, managing performance, evaluating perf ormance, judging employees loyalty, self assessment and development and buil ding relationship. Techniques involved in enhancing or encouraging perceptional skills are:

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1. Giving and receiving feedback 2. Having empathy 3. Having Positive Attitudes 4. Enhancing Self Concept 5. Avoiding Common Biases 6. Communication and Correct use of Attribution

Q.5

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction describes how content an individual is with his or her jo b. The happier people are within their job, the more satisfied they are said to be. Job satisfaction is not the same as motivation, although it is clearly linked. Job de sign aims to enhance job satisfaction and performance, methods include job rotat ion, job enlargement and job enrichment. Other influences on satisfaction include the management style and culture, employee involvement, empowerment and au tonomous work groups. Job satisfaction is a very important attribute which is freq uently measured by organizations. The most common way of measurement is th e use of rating scales where employees report their reactions to their jobs. Questi ons relate to rate of pay, work responsibilities, variety of tasks, promotional oppor tunities the work itself and co-workers. Some questioners ask yes or no question s while others ask to rate satisfaction on 1-5 scale (where 1 represents "not at all satisfied" and 5 represents "extremely satisfied").

Q.6

Maslows Need Hierarchy

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation.[2] Maslow subsequentl y extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. His th eories parallel many other theories of human Developmental psychology, all of whic

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h focus on describing the stages of growth in humans. Maslow studied what he called exemplary people such as Albert Einstein, Jane Addams, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass rather than mentally ill or neurotic people, writing that "the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealt hy specimens can yield only a cripple psychology and a cripple philosophy."[3] M aslow also studied the healthiest 1% of the college student population.[citation ne eded] Maslow's theory was fully expressed in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality . [ Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with th e largest and lowest levels of needs at the bottom, and the need for self-actualiza tion at the top, also the needs for people. Deficiency nee ds The lower four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficienc y needs" or "d-needs": physiological (including sexuality), security of position, frie ndship and love, and esteem. With the exception of the lowest (physiological) ne eds, if these "deficiency needs" are not met, the body gives no physical indication but the individual feels anxious and tense. Physiological needs For the most part, physiological needs are obviousthey are the literal requirem ents for human survival. If these requirements are not met (with the exception of clothing, shelter, and sexual activity), the human body simply cannot continue to f unction. Physiological needs include:

Breathing Food Homeostasis

Air, water, and food are metabolic requirements for survival in all animals, includi ng humans. Clothing and shelter provide necessary protection from the elements The intensity of the human sexual instinct is shaped more by sexual competition than maintaining a birth rate adequate to survival of the species. Safety needs With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take pr ecedence and dominate behavior. These needs have to do with people's yearnin g for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are under c ontrol, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work, these sa

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fety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security, gr ievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, reasonable disability accommodations, and the like. For most of human history many individuals have found their safety needs unmet but as of 2009[update] "First World" societies provide most with their satisfaction, although the poor must often still address these needs. Safety and Security needs include:

Personal security Financial security Health and well-being Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts

Love and Belonging After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs are social and involve feelings of belongingness. This aspect of Maslow's hierarc hy involves emotionally based relationships in general, such as:

Friendship Intimacy Family

Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes fro m a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, profession al organizations, sports teams, gangs ("Safety in numbers"), or small social conn ections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidant s). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overco me the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer p ressure; an anorexic, for example, may ignore the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control and belonging. Esteem All humans have a need to be respected and to have self-esteem and self-respec t. Also known as the belonging need, esteem presents the normal human desire t o be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to gain r ecognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contri bution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalance s at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People with l ow self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which a gain depends on others. Note, however, that many people with low self-esteem w ill not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, resp

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ect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. Psychologic al imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-estee m on both levels. Most people have a need for a stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow note d two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the need for self-respect, the need for strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom. The latter on e ranks higher because it rests more on inner competence won through experien ce. Deprivation of these needs can lead to an inferiority complex, weakness and helplessness. Self-actualization What a man can be, he must be. This forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need pertains to what a person's full potential is a nd realizing that potential. Maslow describes this desire as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becomi ng. This is a broad definition of the need for self-actualization, but when applied t o individuals the need is specific. For example one individual may have the stron g desire to become an ideal parent, in another it may be expressed athletically, a nd in another it may be expressed in painting, pictures, or inventions. As mention ed before, in order to reach a clear understanding of this level of need one must f irst not only achieve the previous needs, physiological, safety, love, and esteem, but master these needs. Below are Maslows descriptions of a self-actualized per sons different needs and personality traits. Maslow was a professor of Dr. Wayne Dyer. Dyer suggests that Maslow taught hi m two ways of understanding self-actualization: 1) to be free of the good opinion of others; 2) to do things not simply for the outcome but because it's the reason y ou are here on earth. Marketing Courses in marketing teach Maslow's hierarchy as one of the first theories as a basis for understanding consumers' motives for action. Marketers have histo rically looked towards consumers' needs to define their actions in the market. If p roducers design products meeting consumer needs, consumers will more often c hoose those products over those of competitors. Whichever product better fills th e void created by the need will be chosen more frequently, thus increasing sales. This makes the model relevant to transpersonal business studies.

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