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A Journey of Teacher Education…. Meaning of 'Teacher'

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International Journal of Peace, Education and Development
Citation: IJPED: 4(1): 9-17 June 2016

©2016 Renu Publishers. All rights reserved

DOI: 10.5958/2454-9525.2016.00002.0 RUNU PUBLISHERS

A Journey of Teacher Education….

Dori Lal

Assistant Professor, TT&NFE (IASE), Faculty of Education, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi-110025, India
Email: [email protected]

Meaning of ‘Teacher’ In 1906-1956, the program of teacher preparation

was called teacher training. It prepared teachers
A ‘teacher’ is a person who delivers an educational
as mechanics or technicians. It had narrower goals
program, assesses student participation in an
with its focus being only on skill training. The
educational program, and/or administers or
perspective of teacher education was therefore very
provides consistent and substantial leadership to
narrow and its scope was limited.
an educational program.
Teacher education encompasses teaching skills,
Teacher is the second parent who thinks good for
sound pedagogical theory and professional skills.
our future and teacher is the only person who helps
us to make decision then the right for us. Teacher Education = Teaching Skills + Pedagogical
theory + Professional Skills
Meaning of Teacher Education
Teaching skills would include providing training
It is well known that the quality and extent of learner and practice in the different techniques, approaches
achievement are determined primarily by teacher and strategies that would help the 3 teachers to
competence, sensitivity and teacher motivation. The plan and impart instruction, provide appropriate
National Council for Teacher Education has defined reinforcement and conduct effective assessment.
teacher education as – A programme of education, It includes effective classroom management skills,
research and training of persons to teach from pre- preparation and use of instructional materials and
primary to higher education level. communication skills.
Teacher education is a programme that is related Pedagogical theory includes the philosophical,
to the development of teacher proficiency and sociological and psychological considerations that
competence that would enable and empower the would enable the teachers to have a sound basis
teacher to meet the requirements of the profession for practicing the teaching skills in the classroom.
and face the challenges therein. The theory is stage specific and is based on the
According to Goods Dictionary of Education needs and requirements that are characteristic of
Teacher education means, ―all the formal and non- that stage.
formal activities and experiences that help to qualify Professional skills include the techniques, strategies
a person to assume responsibilities of a member and approaches that would help teachers to grow
of the educational profession or to discharge his in the profession and also work towards the
responsibilities more effectively. growth of the profession. It includes soft skills,
 Lal

counselling skills, interpersonal skills, computer specified.

skills, information retrieving and management skills Teacher education has become differentiated into
and above all life-long learning skills. stage-specific programmes. This suggests that the
knowledge base is adequately specialized and
Nature of Teacher Education diversified across stages, which should be utilized
Teacher education is a continuous process and for developing effective processes of preparing
its pre-service and in-service components are entrant teachers for the functions which a teacher
complimentary to each other. According to the is expected to perform at each stage.
International Encyclopedia of Teaching and
Teacher education (1987), Teacher education can Scope of Teacher Education
be considered in three phases: Pre-service, Induction The scope of teacher education can be understood
and In-service. The three phases are considered as in the following ways:
parts of a continuous process.
44 Teacher education at different levels of education.
Teacher education is based on the theory that 44 Triangular basis of teacher education.
Teachers are made, not born‖ in contrary to the 44 Aspects of teacher education.
assumption, Teachers are born, not made. Since
teaching is considered an art and a science, the Teacher Education at different levels of
teacher has to acquire not only knowledge, but also Education
skills that are called tricks of the trade.
Teacher education reaches teachers at all levels of
Teacher education is broad and comprehensive. education, namely Pre-primary, Primary, Elementary,
Besides pre-service and in-service programmes Secondary, Higher Secondary and the Tertiary. The
for teachers, it is meant to be involved in various needs and requirements of students and education
community programmes and extension activities, vary at each level. Hence level and stage-specific
viz. adult education and non-formal education teacher preparation is essential. Teacher education
programmes, literacy and development activities also helps in the development of teaching skills in
of the society. teachers of professional institutions. The teachers in
It is ever-evolving and dynamic. In order to prepare professional institutions have only the theoretical
teachers who are competent to face the challenges of and practical knowledge of their respective subjects.
the dynamic society, Teacher education has to keep They require specialized teacher training inputs
abreast of recent developments and trends. to deal with students entering their professions.
The crux of the entire process of teacher education Teacher education also reaches special education
lies in its curriculum, design, structure, organization and physical education. Thus where there are
and transaction modes, as well as the extent of its teachers, there would be teacher education. The
appropriateness. knowledge base is adequately specialized and
diversified across stages, in order to develop
As in other professional education programmes the
effective processes of preparing entrant teachers for
teacher education curriculum has a knowledge base
the functions which a teacher is expected to perform
which is sensitive to the needs of field applications
at each stage.
and comprises meaningful, conceptual blending
of theoretical understanding available in several Triangular Basis of Teacher education
cognate disciplines. However the knowledge base
in teacher education does not comprise only an Construction of the relevant knowledge base for
admixture of concepts and principles from other each stage of education requires a high degree
disciplines, but a distinct gestalt emerging from of academic and intellectual understanding of
the conceptual blending‘, making it sufficiently matter related to teacher education at each stage.
This involves selection of theoretical knowledge

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 A Journey of Teacher Education….

from disciplines cognate to education, namely, stakeholders of the profession, so that they approach
psychology, sociology and philosophy, and the challenges posed by the environment in a very
converting it into forms suitable for teacher positive manner. It empowers the student teachers
education. Teacher education derives its content with the skills (teaching and soft skills) that would
from the disciplines of Philosophy, Sociology and enable them to carry on the functions in the most
Psychology. These disciplines provide the base for efficient and effective manner.
better understanding and application of Teacher India has a large number of teachers and needs
education. The Philosophical basis provides insights many more. All processes of teacher recruitment,
to the student teachers about the implications of the training, motivation, incentives, retention and
various schools of philosophy, ancient and modern feedback therefore have to be planned on a large
philosophical thoughts, educational thoughts of scale. Further the ultimate goal of in-service teacher
philosophical thinkers on education and its various development should be to ensure that optimal
aspects such as curriculum construction and learning takes place in the classrooms.
discipline. The Sociological basis helps the student
44 To enhance the institutional capacity available
teachers to understand the role of society and its
at present for ensuring the adequate supply of
dynamics in the educational system of a nation
trained teachers for all levels of school education.
and the world at large. It encompasses the ideals
44 To utilize all possible kinds of institutions,
that influence national and international scenes.
including university departments of education
The Psychological basis helps the student teachers
and teacher training institutions in the private
develop insights into students’ psychological make- sector, for in-service training of the existing cadre
up. This enables the student teachers to understand at all levels, in addition to State institutions,
their self, their students and the learning situations including CTEs;
such that they are able to provide meaningful and 44 To recognize teacher education (for all levels
relevant learning experiences to their students. of school education, from pre-school to senior
secondary) as a sector of higher education and
Aspects of Teacher Education to facilitate co-operation and collaboration
Teacher education is concerned with the aspects such between institutes of teacher training and colleges
as, who (Teacher Educator), whom (Student teacher), of general education or universities with a
what (Content) and how (Teaching Strategy). view to enabling interaction between different
Teacher education is dependent upon the quality of departments of a local college (or university)
teacher educators. The quality of pedagogical inputs (e.g. sciences, languages, social sciences) and the
in teacher education programmes and their effective institute of teacher training.
utilization for the purpose of preparing prospective 44 To envision a comprehensive model of teacher
teachers depend largely on the professional education, utilizing the Chattopadhayay
competence of teacher educators and the ways in Commission Report and updating its perspective,
and ensuring that progress towards a new,
which it is utilized for strengthening the teacher
comprehensive model is paralleled by necessary
education programme. Teacher education, thus,
modifications in policies of teacher recruitment,
first deals with the preparation of effective teacher
deployment and service conditions, including
educators. Teacher education reaches out to
emoluments.
the student teachers by providing the relevant
44 To prepare a curriculum policy and framework
knowledge, attitude and skills to function effectively
for teacher education which is consistent with the
in their teaching profession. It serves to equip the
vision of the NCF, 2005, and to translate it into
student teachers with the conceptual and theoretical
imaginative syllabi and textbooks for pre-service
framework within which they can understand the courses and sets of in-service training material
intricacies of the profession. It aims at creating the suited to diverse conditions and needs; and
necessary attitude in student teachers towards the

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 Lal

44 To bring about synergy between institutional ways of creating conductive conditions form
structures operating at different levels, e.g. learning, differences among students in respect
NCERT and NCTE at national level, SCERTs of the kind, pace and styles of learning.
and boards of education at State level, DIETs 44 View knowledge generation as a continuously
and undergraduate colleges at the district level evolving process of reflective learning;
and so on. 44 View knowledge not necessarily as an external
reality embedded in textbooks but as constructed
Vision of Teacher Education
in the shared context of teaching learning and
Teacher education has to become more sensitive to personal experiences;
the emerging demands from the school system. For 44 Be sensitive to the social, professional and
this, it has to prepare teachers for a dual role of: administrative contexts in which they have to
44 Encouraging, supportive and humane facilitator in operate.
teaching-learning situations who enables learners The objectives of teacher education would
(students) to discover their talents, to realize their therefore be to:
physical and intellectual potentialities to the
fullest, to develop character and desirable social 44 Provide opportunities to observe and engage
and human values to function as responsible with children, communicate with and relate to
citizens and children.
44 An active member of the group of persons who 44 Provide opportunities for self-learning, reflection,
make conscious effort to contribute towards assimilation and articulation of new ideas;
the process of renewal of school curriculum to developing capacities for self directed learning
maintain its relevance to the changing societal and the ability to think, be self-critical and to
needs and personal needs of learners, keeping work in groups.
in view the experience gained in the past and the 44 Provide opportunities for understanding self and
concerns and imperatives that have emerged in others (including one‘s beliefs, assumptions and
the light of changing national development goals emotions); developing the ability for self analysis,
and educational priorities. self-evaluation, adaptability, flexibility, creativity
These expectations suggest that teacher operates and innovation.
in a larger context and its dynamics as well as 44 Provide opportunities to enhance understanding,
teacher has to be responsive and sensitive to the knowledge and examine disciplinary knowledge
social context of education, the various disparities and social realities, relate subject matter with the
in background of learners as well as in the macro social milieu and develop critical thinking.
national and global contexts, national concerns for
Newly visualized Teacher Education
achieving the goals of equity, parity, and social
Programme
justice as also excellence.
To be able to realise such expectations, Teacher 44 Emphasizes learning as a self-learning
education has to comprise such features as would participatory process taking place in social
enable each of its learners. That is student teachers context of learner‘s as well as wider social context
to: of the community to nation as a whole.
44 Puts full faith in self learning capacity of school
44 Care for children/learner’s and who love to be
children and student teacher and evolving proper
with them;
educative programme for education.
44 Understand children within social, cultural and
44 Views the learner as an active participative person
political contexts;
in learning. His/her capabilities or potentials are
44 View learning as a search for meaning out of seen not as fixed but capable of development
personal experience; through experiences.
44 Understand the way learning occurs, possible

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 A Journey of Teacher Education….

44 Views the teacher as a facilitator, supporting, the system prevalent in England. It urged the
encouraging learner‘s learning. establishment of training schools in each presidency
44 Does not treat knowledge as fixed, static in India. The Dispatch suggested the introduction
of pupil teacher system (as prevailed in England) in
or confined in books but as something
India and an award/ stipend to the pupil teachers
being constructed through various types and a small payment to the masters of the school to
of experiences. It is created through which they were attached. On successful completion
discussion, evaluate, explain, compare and of the training programme they were to be given
contrasts i.e., through interaction. certificates and employment. So the Dispatch
44 Emphasizes that appraisal in such an introduced sufficient incentive for the would-be
educative process will be continuous, will teachers.
be self-appraisal, will be peer appraisal, will
The Indian Education Commission 1882
be done by teacher educators, and formal
type too. The Indian Education Commission 1882 (The Hunter
Commission) recommended that an examination in
From To the principles and practice of teaching be instituted,
Teacher centric, stable Learner centric, flexible success in which should hereafter be a condition
designs process of permanent employment as a teacher in any
Teacher direction and Learner autonomy Secondary School, Government or Aided. For
decisions graduates it suggested a shorter course of training
Teacher guidance and Facilitates, support and than for others. Pedagogical courses became more
monitoring encourages learning prominent. This also led to the opening of new
Passive reception in Active participation in teacher training institutions and by 1882 there were
learning learning 116 training institutions for men and 15 for women.
Learning within the four Learning in the wider Thus by the close of the 19th century some essential
walls of the classroom social context the class things in teacher training had been established.
room Pedagogical courses had replaced general education,
Knowledge as "given" and Knowledge as it evolves examinations and certificates in teacher training had
fixed and created been instituted and practical aspects in planning
Disciplinary focus Multidisciplinary, and teaching were emphasized.
educational focus
Linear exposure Multiple and divergent Government of India Resolution on Education
exposure Policy, 1904
Appraisal, short, few Multifarious, continuous
It made some very vital suggestions for the
Teacher Education in Pre Independence improvement of the teacher-training Programme.
India These were:
1. Training Colleges: The Resolution enunciated
Wood's Despatch, 1854 that if Secondary Education was to be improved
then the teachers should be trained in the art
It gave some very valuable suggestions for the
of teaching. There were five teacher training
improvement of the education of teachers. It
colleges in all at places like Madras, Kurseong,
suggested that allowances be given to persons
Allahabad, Lahore and Jubbulpur. Intermediates
who possess and aptness for teaching and who
or Graduates could seek admission to these
are willing to devote themselves to the profession
Colleges. The general principles, upon which the
of school master. In suggesting a change in the
training institutions were to be developed, were,
education of teachers, the Dispatch referred to

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 Lal

(i) To enlist more men of ability and experience the various teacher-training colleges. But there
in the work of higher training, (ii) To equip the was much difference in practice followed by them.
training colleges well, (iii) To make the duration The number of supervised lessons varied from
of the training programmes two years and for ten to sixty and the type of practice teaching and
graduates, one year. The course would comprise student teaching varies from one to another. The
knowledge of the principles which underlie the Commission observed-that the training colleges
art of teaching and some degree of technical skill had no basic orientation in the essentials. For
in the practice of the art, (iv) The course would improvement of teacher training, it suggested that
culminate in a university degree or diploma (v) the teacher educators must look at the whole course
There should be a close link between theory from a different angle, that the theory and practice
and practice and practicing schools should be should support each other;
attached to each college. Efforts of Indian Association of Teacher Educators
2. Training Schools: The Resolution recommended (IATE) – At Baroda in 1950 IATE constituted a study
opening of more training schools, particularly group popularly known as Baroda Study Group to
in Bengal. The normal schools were mostly revitalize the B. Ed. Programme.
boarding schools where students with vernacular
education came for training and were given The Secondary Education Commission,
stipends. They received general education (1952 -53)
combined with the instruction in the methods of It analyzed the problems of teachers and the
teaching and practice in teaching. The Resolution training programme in great depth. It emphasized
recommended a minimum course of two years. that the most important factor in educational
It mentioned courses of training specially suited reconstruction is the teacher, his personal qualities,
for teachers of rural schools. his educational qualifications, his professional
3. Saddler Commission of 1917: It recommended training and the place they occupies in the school as
the introduction of education as an optional well as in the community. So the Commission made
subject at the B.A. level, and the introduction recommendations on all these aspects and found
of post graduate degree in education. The some teacher training institutions that is:
recommendations of the Saddler Commission 44 Primary (Basic) Teacher Training,
helped in the improvement of teacher training 44 Secondary Teacher Training Institution and
programme in India. Training Colleges.
4. Hartog Committee 1929: Following the
recommendations of the Saddler Commission, It suggested two types of institutions:
majority of the Universities set up faculties of 44 for those who have taken the school leaving
education. Andhra University started B.Ed. certificate, for whom the period of training be
degree in 1932 and Bombay University launched two years,
the post-graduate degree, M.Ed. in 1936. In 1941,
there were 612 Normal Schools out of which 376 44 for graduates, presently of one academic year
were for men and 236 for women. but extended as a long-term programme to
two academic years. The graduate training
Teacher Education in Post Independence institutions should be recognized and officiated
India to the universities which should grant the degree,
while the secondary grade training institutions
should be under the control of a separate
The University Education Commission (1948-49)
Board. It recommended training in co-curricular
The Commission observed that obviously there activities, refresher courses and research work for
was no difference in the theory papers offered in the M.Ed. degree. In 1995 the All India Council

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 A Journey of Teacher Education….

for Secondary Education was established. The Education was introduced in some universities, such
Council through its Extension Centres imparted as Aligarh, Kurukshetra, Kanpur and some others.
in-service education. In 1957, the All India National Policy Statement on Education (1968)
Council for Elementary Education was formed. Teachers’ emoluments and other service conditions
should be adequate and satisfactory with respect to
The Second Five Year Plan was launched in 1955-56
their qualifications and responsibilities.
and it was contemplated that 68 per cent of teachers
would be trained by 1960. An amount of ` 17 crore The Planning Commission in the Fourth Five
was apportioned for increasing training facilities. Year Plan (1969-74)
All India Council of Secondary Education Established
It laid emphasis on Teacher Education for improving
an Examination Reform Unit in 1951. The Directorate
its quality, training more women teachers and
of Extension Programme for secondary education
teachers from tribal communities, training science
was set-up in 1959 to co-ordinate and run the
and mathematics teachers for the middle classes
extension programmes. In the same year the Central
and organizing in-services training. It suggested
Institute of English was established at Hyderabad
correspondence courses for the training of teachers
to train teachers in English and to conduct research
already in service. It recommended greater co-
in the field.
ordination between the NCERT.
National Council of Educational Research and
First Asian Conference on Teacher Education – The
Training (1961) – Establishment of NCERT merging
conference was held from 14th to 19th June 1971
together the various national level institutions
at Bangalore and recommended that the programs
established in the 40’s and 50’s. The Teachers College,
of school education and teacher education in
Columbia University influenced its functioning in
each country should be modified to meet the new
all areas and the Ohio University team guided the
challenges
NCERT to establish the four Regional Colleges (now
Institutes) of Education and introduced Four Years National Council of Teacher Education (1973) - It
Integrated Secondary Teacher education Programme came out of curriculum framework for different
after 10+2 stage. teacher education programmes in 1978. It was
established as a statutory body through an act of
The Kothari Commission, (1964-66) parliament of 1993 to regulate teacher education in
the country by laying down norms and standards
In 1964 an Education Commission was set-up by
and by undertaking periodical inspections with a
the Government of India under the Chairmanship
view to phase out sub-standard institutions and
of Dr. D.S. Kothari to advice on the educational
to check commercialization in teacher education.
set-up. The Commission observed that a sound
NCTE also brought out national Curriculum
programme of professional Education for teachers
Framework for Quality Teacher Education in 1998.
was essential for the qualitative improvement
of education. The Commission pointed out the National Commission on Teachers–I (1983-85) – a
weakness of the existing system and suggested four year training course after senior secondary, or
ways to improve it. It recommended that isolation preferably a 5 year course leading to graduation and
of teachers' colleges with the universities, schools training is recommended. For elementary teachers
and the teachers' colleges themselves should be it is desirable to have a two year training course
removed. The Commission very correctly diagnosed after Class XII. The integrated four year curriculum
the ills in teacher education and suggested practical for a degree in education should consist of general
remedies. As a result of the suggestions of the education and professional preparation.
Education Commission, 1964-66, some changes were The National Policy of Education (NPE) in 1986
introduced in teacher education. An M.A. degree in and its Programme of Action- Some training
schools were upgraded to District Institutes of

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 Lal

Education and Training (DIETS) and some training on Teacher Education which would be consistent
colleges were upgraded to Colleges of Teacher with the changed philosophy of school curriculum
Education (CTEs) and Institutes of Advanced recommended in the NCF, 2005.The Framework has
Studies in Education (IASES). made several recommendations on the approach
The Acharya Ramamurti Committee (1990) in its and methodology of in-service teacher training
review of the NPE 1986 observed that an internship programmes and has also outlined a strategy for
model for teacher training should be adopted implementation of the Framework. As a natural
because “…the internship model is firmly based corollary to the NCFTE, the NCTE has also
on the primary value of actual field experience in a developed ‘model’ syllabi for various teacher
realistic situation, on the development of teaching education courses. It joined hands with the National
skills by practice over a period of time.” Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) to
foster quality assurance and sustenance. To enhance
Yashpal Committee (1993) – Committee suggested
quality of school education Teacher Eligibility Test
that B.Ed. programme should offer the possibility
(TET) for Teachers and Principal Eligibility Test
of specialization in secondary or elementary or
(PET) are conducted at both level at state and at
nursery education. The duration of the programme
central level. For teacher education UGC conducts
should either be one year after graduation or four
National Eligibility Test (NET) at national level and
years after higher secondary. By the year 1998-99
State Level Eligibility Test (SLET/SET) at state level.
there were 45 District Institutes of Education and
Training (DIETS), 76 Colleges of Teacher Education NCTE Regulations 2014 - NCTE completed and
(CTEs) and 34 Institutes of Advanced Studies in notified the revised Regulations 2014, along with
Education (IASE). Norms and Standards for 15 programmes on
November 28, 2014 under Government of India. A
National Curriculum Framework for Teacher
wide range reforms in Teacher Education which the
Education (2000) – It highlighted continuing
new Regulations 2014 have addressed.
education of in-service teachers’ needs attention
because all their initial education and training may The important highlights of Regulations 2014 are
not remain relevant and effective because of the as under:
present rate of change in content and pedagogy
in the national and world scenario. Offering in- 44 A wide basket with 15 programmes is on
service education in a sustained manner, for which offer, recognizing for the first time three new
programmes – 4-year B.A/B.Sc. B.Ed., 3-year B.Ed.
a cascade model of training is recommended.
(Part-time), and 3-year B.Ed.-M.Ed. programme.
National Curriculum Framework (2005) - Focus 44 The duration of three programmes – B.Ed.,
Group on Teacher Education not only sees B.P.Ed., M.Ed. – has been increased to two years,
Continuous Professional Development (CPD) as providing more professional rigour and at par
the most prominent measure for bridging the with best international standards.
gap between pre-service and in-service education 44 ICT, Yoga Education, Gender and Disability/
of teachers through well designed pre-service Inclusive Education are integral part of each
programmes and on-site support to teachers, but programme curriculum.
also the school- Teacher Education Institutes (TEI) 44 More integrated teacher education programmes
collaboration in this enterprise as crucial. are encouraged.
National Curriculum Framework for Teacher 44 The teacher educator M.Ed. Degree comes with
Education (NCFTE) 2009- This Framework has specialization in either Elementary Education or
been prepared in the background of the NCF, in Secondary/Senior Secondary Education.
2005 and the principles laid down in the Right of 44 In-service teachers have more option to acquire
Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, higher TE qualifications—DElEd (ODL), B.Ed.
2009 which necessitated an altered framework (ODL), B.Ed. (Part-Time).

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 A Journey of Teacher Education….

44 Each teacher education institution to have the teachers, their competencies and skills. These
compulsory accreditation in every 5 years from competencies and skills could not be developed
an accrediting agency recognized by NCTE. (A automatically, for developing these competencies
MoU has already been signed with NAAC in the teacher educators and teacher education system
this regard). are responsible. By Govt. of India efforts have
been initiated over the past few years to gradually
NCTE had constituted a four member review
develop a network of institutions like DIETS, IASE
committee, 2015-16 headed by former NCTE
and CTE with the moderate of providing in-services
Chairperson Mohd. Akhtar Siddiqui, has
and pre-service education to primary and secondary
recommended overhaul of National Council of
school teachers respectively. So far 555 DIETS, 104
Teacher Education (NCTE) and setting up of at least
CTE and 31 IASE and 30 SCERT (MHRD, 2012)
two teacher education universities in each state,
have been set up as teacher education resource
besides bringing down the number of programmes
institutions in the country and yet more efforts and
for them to three. The committee’s report has
tweaks to be needed.
recommended National-level Entrance Examination
for Teacher Education (NEETE), to be conducted References
by NCTE, for admission to teacher education
1. Johnson, K.E. and Golombek, P.R. (Eds.). 2002. Teachers’
programmes. It is suggested that only candidates
narrative inquiry as professional development.
with more than 50% marks be considered for Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
admission. He has also recommended that regional 2. Andrews, S. 2001. The language awareness of the L2
committees (RCs) be disbanded and converted into teacher: Its impact upon pedagogical practice. Language
Teacher Education Resources Centres (TERCs). Awareness, 10(2 & 3): 75−90.
Source: Times of India, April 2016 3. Aoki, N. 1999. Affect and the role of the teacher in the
development of learner autonomy. In J. Arnold (ed.)
Conclusion Affect in language learning (pp. 142-154). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
India has made considerable progress in school and 4. http://mhrd.gov.in/teacher-education-overview
college education since independence with reference 5. http://www.researchinformation.org/files/Jayeeta-
to overall literacy, infrastructure and universal Bhattacharjee_5mdkq2q3.pdf
access and enrolment in schools. But quality of 6. http://www.teindia.nic.in/Files/Guidelines/Guidelines-
education in a nation not only depends on literacy, CSSTE-June-2012.pdf
infrastructure and universal access and enrolment 7. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/
in schools but also depends upon the competence, 10603/35255/11/11_chapter2.pdf
dedication and quality of school teacher. The success 8. http://ncte-india.org/ncte_new/?page_id=782
of any educational programme largely depends on

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