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The relationship between employee

engagement and organizational
citizenship behaviour in Thailand
a b
Suthinee Rurkkhum & Kenneth R. Bartlett
a
Faculty of Management Sciences , Prince of Songkla University ,
Prince of Songkla, Sonhkhla , Thailand
b
College of Education and Human Development, University of
Minnesota , Minnesota , USA
Published online: 21 Mar 2012.

To cite this article: Suthinee Rurkkhum & Kenneth R. Bartlett (2012) The relationship between
employee engagement and organizational citizenship behaviour in Thailand, Human Resource
Development International, 15:2, 157-174, DOI: 10.1080/13678868.2012.664693

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 Human Resource Development International
Vol. 15, No. 2, April 2012, 157–174

The relationship between employee engagement and organizational

citizenship behaviour in Thailand
Suthinee Rurkkhuma* and Kenneth R. Bartlettb
a
Faculty of Management Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Prince of Songkla, Sonhkhla,
Thailand; bCollege of Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota, Minnesota, USA
Downloaded by [University of Chicago Library] at 10:45 11 October 2014

(Received 9 January 2012; final version received 23 January 2012)

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between employee
engagement and organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) in Thailand. The
influence of employee perceptions of human resource development (HRD)
practices as potential moderators were also examined. Data were collected from
522 employees from four large Thai organizations. The results found support
for positive relationships between employee engagement and every component
of OCB. The relationship was found to be strongest for the civic virtue
component of OCB. However, no support was found for the hypothesized
moderating effect of HRD practices between employee engagement and OCB.
Discussion and recommendations for future research and practice are also
provided.
Keywords: employee engagement; organizational citizenship behaviour; human
resource development practices; cultural issues; Thailand

Introduction
The concept of employee engagement has received significant recent attention in the
popular business press and a slower, but steadily growing body of empirical research
noting desired outcomes for both employees and organizations (Shuck and Reio
2011; Shuck and Wollard 2010). The interest in engagement stems from reports of
relationships to positive job attitudes, reduced burnout, and higher levels of
performance at the individual, unit and organizational levels (Alarcon, Lyons, and
Tartaglia 2010; Bakker, van Emmerik, and Euwema 2006; Harter, Schmidt, and
Hays 2002; Jones and Harter 2005; Langford 2009; Salanova, Agut, and Peiro 2005;
Sanchez and McCauley 2006). Engagement has also been viewed as feeling
responsible for and committing to higher levels of job performance both for
required aspects of work as well as discretionary effort (Britt 2003; Christian, Garza,
and Slaughter 2011; Crawford, LePine, and Rich 2010; Shuck, Reio, and Rocco
2011). However, the majority of existing studies on the links between employee
engagement and discretionary behaviours have been conducted in Western or
developed countries with little empirically known about the relationship of
engagement to organizational outcomes from research in other international

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

ISSN 1367-8868 print/ISSN 1469-8374 online

Ó 2012 Taylor & Francis
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 158 S. Rurkkhum and K.R. Bartlett

settings. The setting for this study is Thailand, a country noted for the level of
significant change in many areas of business and society which presents a unique
context for human resource research (Koonmee et al. 2010).
The focus of this study was to explore the relationship between employee
engagement and behaviour that extends beyond the formal requirements and
defined job scope. Discretionary job performance, defined in this study as
organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) refers to employee behaviour that goes
beyond formal job requirements, is increasingly important to the achievement of
organizational goals and performance. The value of OCB is heightened in the
boundary-spanning nature of work roles that characterize today’s business
climate. OCB may also be increasingly important within international contexts
experiencing significant business and societal change as organizations accept
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that performance requires both in-role and discretionary aspects (Liu and Cohen
2010).
The selection of OCB for this study rather than in-role performance measures
was driven by the fact that OCB is not a cultural free construct (Blakely, Srivastava,
and Moorman 2005; Farh, Zhong, and Organ 2004; Felfe, Yan, and Six 2008; Rego
and Cunha 2010). The uniqueness of Thai culture (Hofstede 2001) and level of
change and development occurring in the country (World Bank 2006) make
Thailand an appropriate setting to examine the relationship between employee
engagement and OCB. Second, OCB and other related constructs can also facilitate
performance through the impact on organizational contexts, culture, and individual
productivity (Farh, Zhong, and Organ 2004; Podsakoff et al. 2000). Thus, examining
the potential relationship between employee engagement and OCB in a collectivist
country like Thailand contributes to the knowledge development of established
constructs in a broader international level.
Another important contribution of this study is the use of employee perceptions
related to human resource development (HRD) practices as potential moderators in
the relationship between employee engagement and OCB. Wollard and Shuck (2011)
noted that there is an absence of studies specifically focused on the role of HRD,
organizational development, and human resource management practices as
antecedents of employee engagement, although it is a highly suggested antecedent.
However, some authors have proposed that opportunities for learning (Czarnowsky
2008) are antecedents to engagement. If HRD-related practices do play an
antecedent role in engagement, then the perceptions related to HRD may play a
moderation effect when focusing on the relationship between engagement and OCB.
Including potential variables likely to cause moderated effects in the model can lead
to a better understanding about the complex organizational phenomena related to
employee behaviour. Based on existing employee engagement theory and research, it
was hypothesized that positive employee perceptions of HRD practices might
strengthen the association between engagement and OCB. In the following
paragraphs, the literature review, method, results, discussion, and recommendations
are presented.

Literature review
A broad range of literature was reviewed to frame this study and construct the
conceptual framework. The sections below review literature related to the key
constructs under investigation in this study.
 Human Resource Development International 159

Employee engagement
Employee engagement refers to the positive psychological conditions that lead
employees to invest themselves actively in their role and organization. This definition
derives from the work of Kahn (1990) who was one of the pioneers in applying the
concept of engagement to the workplace (Avery, McKay, and Wilson 2007). Since
the work of Kahn, a broad literature base on employee engagement has developed,
although most of this is dominated by reports from professional consulting firms,
not rigorous research-based studies.
Despite two decades of research interest in employee engagement, the concept is
still characterized by a lack of consensus on the definition and inconsistencies over
the conceptualization and measurement (Shuck and Wollard 2010). Results have
shown that although the concept of employee engagement shares aspects with other
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work-related attitudes, such as job satisfaction, job involvement and affective

organizational commitment, employee engagement is not just simply an aggregate of
existing established constructs (Christian, Garza, and Slaughter 2011; Hallberg and
Schaufeli 2006; Macey and Schneider 2008). A growing number of studies show
positive relationships between employee engagement and desired outcomes, leading
to continued interest in the concept.

Organizational citizenship behaviour

OCB refers to employee behaviour that goes beyond formal job requirements and
employees can decide whether they want to perform OCB and to what degree. This
definition is largely derived from the work of Organ (1988). Employees can
demonstrate their citizenship behaviour in five ways: (1) altruism, which refers to
behaviour directed towards a specific person with an organizationally relevant
problem, (2) conscientiousness, which refers to behaviour that goes beyond the
minimum required expectation, (3) sportsmanship, which refers to behaviour such as
tolerating inconvenient situations without complaints, (4) courtesy, which refers to
behaviour that helps to prevent problems in advance, and (5) civic virtue, which
refers to behaviour involving participation in overall organizational issues (Organ
1988).
Previous studies have found desired outcomes from OCB, leading to continued
interest in the OCB concept. While previous studies have reported a relationship
between employee engagement and OCB (Avey, Wernsing, and Luthans 2008;
Babcock-Roberson and Strickland 2010; Christian, Garza, and Slaughter 2011),
little is known of this potential relationship in other more collectivist cultures. Also,
given the rapidly changing employment relationship and workplace management
practices in many international business settings, it is important to further confirm
the linkages between employee engagement and OCB. Thus, the first hypothesis of
the study was:

Hypothesis 1: There is a positive relationship between employee engagement and OCB.

Employee perceptions of HRD practices

The development of human resources in now recognized as a pivotal process in
organizations (Vince 2003). HRD functions are responsible for dealing with the most
important organizational assets; employees and knowledge (Gold, Rodgers, and
 160 S. Rurkkhum and K.R. Bartlett

Smith 2003). The American Society for Training and Development (2010) reported
that despite one of the most challenging business years, the total investment in
learning and development from the US organizations remained steady, emphasizing
the importance of HRD towards the success of organizations.
Despite the strategic importance of HRD practices (Torraco and Swanson 1995),
little is empirically known about the influence of employee perceptions of HRD
practices in the relationship between employee engagement and desired organiza-
tional outcomes (Shuck, Reio, and Rocco 2011). Employee perceptions of HRD are
increasingly recognized as being vital to understanding how learning and
development relates to individual, team, and organizational effectiveness (Dysvik
and Kuvaas 2008; Kraiger and Ford 2007). Research has shown that employee
perceptions of training and development can be strong predictors of desired
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workplace attitudes (Bartlett 2001). Recent studies have confirmed that employee
assessments of their organization’s long-term and continuous commitment to
helping them learn to identify new skills and competencies are related to work place
attitudes and different facets of work performance (Kuvaas and Dysvik 2009, 2010).
This study investigated five significant employee perceptions of HRD practices:
organizational support, access to HRD opportunities, support for HRD opportu-
nities, perceived benefits of training, and formal career management support. The
selection of these five perceptions related to HRD was based on previous research
which has confirmed the importance of employee beliefs towards HRD practices and
desired workplace attitudes (Bartlett 2001; Ensher, Thomas, and Murphy 2001;
Gebauer, Lowman, and Gordon 2008; Gilbert, Laschinger, and Leiter 2010;
Johnson et al. 2009; Truss et al. 2006). Two research hypotheses explored these
potential relationships:

Hypothesis 2: There is a positive relationship between employee engagement,

perceptions of HRD practices, and OCB.
Hypothesis 3: Employee perceptions of HRD practices are expected to moderate the
relationship between employee engagement and OCB.

The following section explains each hypothesis related to employee perceptions

of HRD practices in details. Literature has confirmed the importance of social
exchange and perceived fairness (Brandes, Dharwadkar, and Wheatley 2004;
Johnson et al. 2009; Messer and White 2006; Wright and Sablynski 2008). High
levels of employee engagement are likely to occur when workers believe that they are
valued, treated fairly, and perceive that the organization shows a willingness to
invest in their development (Cardona, Lawrence, and Bentler 2004; Gebauer,
Lowman, and Gordon 2008; Tsui et al. 1997; Turnley et al. 2003), leading to the
following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3a: Organizational support is expected to positively moderate the relation-

ship between employee engagement and OCB.

Numerous studies have confirmed the importance of HRD practices, specifically

training and career advancement opportunities, towards the development of
employee engagement (Gebauer, Lowman, and Gordon 2008; Kahn 1990; Truss
et al. 2006). Helping employees gain employability through enhancing skill and
knowledge is a significant agenda for contemporary organizations (Mondy 2010).
 Human Resource Development International 161

Thus, training and career advancement opportunities were expected to positively

moderate the relationship between employee engagement and OCB as stated in the
remaining hypotheses.

Hypothesis 3b: HRD opportunities are expected to positively moderate the relationship
between employee engagement and OCB.
Hypothesis 3c: Support for HRD opportunities from senior staff and colleagues are
expected to positively moderate the relationship between employee engagement and
OCB.
Hypothesis 3d: Perceived benefits of training are expected to positively moderate the
relationship between employee engagement and OCB.
Hypothesis 3e: Formal career management support is expected to positively moderate
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the relationship between employee engagement and OCB.

Method
This section describes the method with details on the sample, instrumentation, and
data analysis techniques.

Sample
The population for this study consisted of employees from four large organizations
in Thailand: two publicly traded (one in the petrochemical industry and one in the
energy industry) and two privately owned companies (one in the agribusiness
industry and one in the industrial materials industry). Although these firms were
chosen based on personal contacts, they were fairly representative of many well-
established large public and private organizations in Thailand, but somewhat
contrasting to small- and medium-sized organizations (Browell 2000). Each
participating organization could choose either a paper-and-pencil or an online
format of the survey.
The sample was drawn from non-managerial employees at each of the four
companies. It was expected that the majority of the participants would be young
employees with the Bachelor’s degree who are viewed as the future of the
organizations talent and would receive investments in HRD (Sturges et al. 2002).
A total of 1567 eligible employees were invited with 522 completed and usable
surveys returned. Response rates ranged from 20 to 81% with the overall average
response rate 33%.
Of the 522 respondents, 274 were female (52.5%). The majority were aged 25–29
(n ¼ 149, 28.5%). The average time employed at the current organization was 8.76
years (SD ¼ 7.14). Most respondents (n ¼ 282, 54%) reported completion of a four-
year college degree. The current positions of the respondents varied from officers to
section managers. Table 1 presents the demographic characteristics of the 522
respondents.

Instrumentation
This study relied on previously developed and validated scales. All scales were
translated from the English original version to Thai following the translation
approach of Brislin (1970, 1986). After the final back translation step, the Thai
 162 S. Rurkkhum and K.R. Bartlett

Table 1. Sample demographic variables.

Variables Values Frequency Percentage

Gender Female 274 52.5
Male 248 47.5
Age 20–24 years 29 5.6
25–29 years 149 28.5
30–34 years 136 26.1
35–39 years 91 17.4
40 years 117 22.4
Education High school degree 24 4.6
Vocational education 79 15.1
Associate’s degree 23 4.4
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Bachelor’s degree 282 54.0

Post-baccalaureate 114 21.8
Experience at this organization 51 year 37 7.1
1 but less than 3 years 94 18.0
3 but less than 5 years 80 15.3
5 but less than 10 years 105 20.1
10 years 206 39.5
Positions Juniors 356 68.2
Seniors 57 10.9
Supervisors 71 13.6
Assistant section managers 15 2.9
Section managers 9 1.7
Omission 14 2.7

version of the questionnaire was shown to a six-person expert panel of international

HRD academics fluent in Thai and English. The conclusion of the expert panel was
that the final version of the instrument had ‘linguistic congruence and cultural
relevancy’ (Yu, Lee, and Woo 2004, 310).
Prior to data collection, a pilot test was conducted with a convenience sample of
51 employees from Thai publicly traded organizations. The results of the pilot test
confirmed the appropriateness of the instrument and data collection procedures. In
the following sections, the measurement instrument for each variable is described.

Employee engagement
Drawing in part from the characteristics of Kahn’s (1990) conceptualization of
engagement, Schaufeli and colleagues developed the Utrecht Work Engagement
Scale (UWES) (Schaufeli and Bakker 2003). The shortened version of the scale
consisting of nine items was developed in 2006, with reliability reported as 0.92
(Schaufeli, Bakker, and Salanova 2006). The nine-item version was chosen for this
study because it has often been used in international settings and has good measures
of internal consistency. Although the original form of the instrument was developed
to measure three conditions of employee engagement, the short version has been
found to conform to a one-factor model (Schaufeli, Bakker, and Salanova 2006;
Shimazu et al. 2008). In the current study, the results from exploratory factor
analysis (EFA) revealed that the one-factor model best fit the data with the reliability
reported at 0.93. Table 2 presents the results from the EFA.
 Human Resource Development International 163

Table 2. EFA for the employee engagement scale.

Component
1
At my work, I feel bursting with energy. 0.85
At my job, I feel strong and vigorous. 0.85
I am enthusiastic about my job. 0.88
My job inspires me. 0.81
When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work. 0.82
I feel happy when I am working intensely. 0.81
I am proud of the work that I do. 0.76
I am immersed in my work. 0.70
I get carried away when I am working. 0.82
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Organizational citizenship behaviour

The 24 item-scale developed by Podsakoff et al. (1990) was used to measure OCB.
The developers of this scale reported reliability at 0.96, whereas in the current study
the reliability was 0.87 (civic virtue, a ¼ 0.78; altruism and sportsmanship, a ¼ 0.77;
courtesy and conscientiousness, a ¼ 0.67). It is important to note that in this study,
an employee self-rating approach was used rather than supervisory ratings as in the
original version. All items were reworded to reflect this change in focus.

Employee perceptions of HRD practices

Employee perceptions of HRD practices were measured by five separate scales to
assess attitudes that employees may have in relation to the access, support, and
benefits from participating in HRD activities. More specific details on each of these
measures are provided in the following paragraphs.
Organizational Support measured employee perceptions that an organization
shows an interest in them in terms of both work and non-work issues (Eisenberger
et al. 1986). The scale was measured by 16 items with reliability originally reported at
0.97, and 0.92 in the current study.
Access to HRD Opportunities measured the degree to which employees believe
that HRD opportunities are available regardless of actual participation (Bartlett
2001). The scale was measured by three items with the reliability reported as 0.77 in
the original, and an improved 0.84 in the current study.
Support for HRD Opportunities measured employee perceptions that they are
provided support from their senior staff and colleagues to participate in HRD
opportunities and then to apply skills and knowledge learned back on the job (Noe
and Wilk 1993). The scale is composed of two sub-scales: support for HRD
opportunities from senior staff (17 items a ¼ 0.96.), and from colleagues (6 items
a ¼ 0.83). The overall reliability for the current study was 0.95 (support from senior
staff, a ¼ 0.96; support from colleagues, a ¼ 0.66).
Benefits of Training measured employee perceptions that effort expended
participating in HRD opportunities will result in skills, knowledge, and abilities,
leading to positive, desired, and valued outcomes (Noe et al. 1997). The scale consists
of three sub-scales: personal benefits (five items a ¼ 0.88), job benefits (three items
a ¼ 0.74), and career benefits (six items a ¼ 0.70). The overall reliability in the
current study was 0.90. However, the results of EFA revealed a two-factor model,
 164 S. Rurkkhum and K.R. Bartlett

instead of the three-factor model as the original version. The personal benefits
(a ¼ 0.87) was one factor, whereas the second factor was a combination between job
and career benefits (a ¼ 0.84).
Formal Career Management Support refers to employee perceptions that their
career growth opportunities are supported by their organization. The six-item scale
of Sturges et al. (2002) was used to measure whether employees perceive their
organization as having formal career management practices that influence career
growth. The scale reliability as originally reported was a ¼ 0.77, and an improved
0.87 in the current study.

Data analysis
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Although well-established and previously developed scales were used to measure the
variables, these had not previously been translated into Thai for data collection in
Thailand. Therefore, it was considered important to conduct EFA. The results of
EFA showed that scales measuring employee engagement, access to HRD
opportunities, and formal career management support produced the same factor
structures as the original versions. However, the OCB scale produced an alternative
factor structure, resulting in a revised measure with 20 items. The organizational
support, support for HRD opportunities, and benefits of training scales also had
different factor structures from the original versions. As a result, minor revisions
were made. In almost all instances, the factor structure of these revised scales was
made satisfactory with the removal of negative or reverse-worded items, perhaps
highlighting an additional language issue related to translation and change of
meaning in the Thai context. All revised scales confirmed to factor structures
supported by theory and within acceptable limits for reliability.
A series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted. Demo-
graphic variables were used as a control variable. Each possible moderator was
entered in order into the regression model based on existing theories and research
findings about the expected contribution to the variance in OCB (Gebauer, Lowman,
and Gordon 2008; Kahn 1990; May, Gilson, and Harter 2004; Schaufeli and Bakker
2004; Truss et al. 2006). The mean-centred variables were used in the study because
of concerns with multicollinearity (Ho 2006; Howell 2007).

Results
A comparison test found no significant difference between the two groups of
employees from publicly traded and privately owned companies. Table 3 presents the
Pearson correlation coefficient values for all variables showing correlations that
ranged from 0.12 to 0.48. Positive relationships between employee engagement and
every component of OCB were found, providing full support for the first hypothesis.
Positive relationships between employee engagement, perceptions of HRD practices,
and OCB were also found, providing full support of the second hypothesis. The
results of the multiple regression analysis showed that employee engagement
explained 23% of the variation in civic virtue, 18% of altruism, 13% of con-
scientiousness, 7% of sportsmanship, and 1% of courtesy. Table 4 presents the
hierarchical regression analysis.
Employee engagement (b ¼ 0.27, t ¼ 6.18, p ¼ 0.000), personal benefits of
training (b ¼ 0.23, t ¼ 5.37, p ¼ 0.000), support for HRD opportunities from senior
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Table 3. Pearson correlation matrix for all variables.

Variables EE OS AHR HRC HRS BJ BP CM AL SP CV CO

EE
OS 0.44**
AHR 0.37** 0.49**
HRC 0.14** 0.22** 0.15**
HRS 0.43** 0.53** 0.45** 0.25**
BJ 0.28** 0.52** 0.36** 70.05 0.41**
BP 0.35** 0.50** 0.45** 0.13** 0.44** 0.62**
CM 0.42** 0.66** 0.62** 0.20** 0.76** 0.45** 0.59**
AL 0.42** 0.34** 0.24** 0.20** 0.36** 0.25** 0.38** 0.36**
SP 0.27** 0.12** 0.16** 0.31** 0.19** 0.02 0.15** 0.17** 0.40**
CV 0.48** 0.45** 0.38** 0.09** 0.37** 0.38** 0.42** 0.44** 0.42** 0.26**
CO 0.12** 0.08 0.09* 0.14** 0.16** 0.06 0.20** 0.12** 0.39** 0.29** 0.25**
CON 0.36** 0.17** 0.12** 0.04 0.20* 0.20** 0.22** 0.22** 0.51** 0.30** 0.37** 0.30**

Note: *p 5 0.05, **p 5 0.01. EE, employee engagement scale; OS, revised organizational support scale; AHR, access to HRD opportunities scale; HRC, revised HRD
support from colleagues scale; HRS, revised HRD support from senior staff scale; BJ, revised job-related and career benefits of training scale; BP, revised personal benefits of
training scale; CM, formal career management support scale; AL, altruism scale; SP, revised sportsmanship scale; CV, revised civic virtue scale; CO, revised courtesy scale;
CON, revised conscientiousness scale.
Human Resource Development International
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166

Table 4. Summary hierarchical regressions with significant variables correlating OCB.

OCB
Conscientious-
Altruism Sportsmanship Civic virtue Courtesy ness
Variables b DR2 b DR2 b DR2 b DR2 b DR2
Step 1: Control (Demographic) 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.03
S. Rurkkhum and K.R. Bartlett

Step 2: Main effect 0.25 0.15 0.31 0.04 0.13

Engagement 0.27 0.21 0.28 0.09 0.37
Organization support – – 0.29 – –
HRD support from senior staff 0.12 – – – –
HRD support from colleagues 0.10 0.29 – – –
Personal benefits of training 0.23 – 0.30 0.16 –
Step 3: Interaction – – 0.01 – –
OrgSup 6 PersonBenefit – – 0.16 – –
Total R2 0.27 0.17 0.35 0.05 0.13
 Human Resource Development International 167

staff (b ¼ 0.12, t ¼ 2.61, p ¼ 0.009), and from colleagues (b ¼ 0.10, t ¼ 2.43,

p ¼ 0.015), were statistically significant with the altruism component. Together,
these variables accounted for approximately 27% of the variation in altruism, with
the set of demographic variables accounting 2.1% of the variation.
The sportsmanship component was statistically related to support for HRD
opportunities from colleagues (b ¼ 0.29, t ¼ 7.07, p ¼ 0.000), and employee
engagement (b ¼ 0.21, t ¼ 5.11, p ¼ 0.000). Together, these variables accounted
for approximately 17% of the variation in sportsmanship, with the demographic
variables accounting for 1.9% of the variation.
Personal benefits of training (b ¼ 0.30, t ¼ 4.91, p ¼ 0.000), organizational
support (b ¼ 0.29, t ¼ 5.71, p ¼ 0.000), and employee engagement (b ¼ 0.28,
t ¼ 6.88, p ¼ 0.000), were statistically related to the civic virtue component.
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Together, these variables accounted for approximately 35% of the variation in civic
virtue, with the set of demographic variables accounting for 4% of the variation.
Personal benefits of training (b ¼ 0.16, t ¼ 3.51, p ¼ 0.000), and employee
engagement (b ¼ 0.09, t ¼ 2.01, p ¼ 0.045), were statistically related to the courtesy
component. Together, these variables accounted for approximately 5% of the
variation in courtesy, with 1% of the variation accounted for with the set of
demographic variables.
Finally, only employee engagement (b ¼ 0.37, t ¼ 8.70, p ¼ 0.000) was found to
be statistically significant with the conscientiousness component. This variable alone
accounted for approximately 13% of the variation in conscientiousness, with the set
of demographic variable accounting for 0.4% of the variation.
The moderating effects were tested to examine whether employee perceptions of
HRD practices moderated the relationship between employee engagement and OCB.
However, no moderating effects were found, providing no support of Hypothesis 3.
In summary, the first and second hypotheses were supported, confirming positive
relationships between employee engagement, employee perceptions of HRD
practices, and OCB. However, no support was found for the hypothesized
moderating effect of HRD practices.

Discussion
The results show support for a positive relationship between employee engagement
and OCB in a sample of non-managerial employees in Thailand. The results extend
existing research adding further support for a global dimension of employee
engagement and highlighting the importance of this construct as a desired workplace
attitude. Although it was hypothesized that moderating effects related to HRD
would exist on the relationships between employee engagement and OCB, the
findings provided no support of moderation.
To date there has been limited international HRD research exploring the
relationship between employee engagement and OCB despite growing interest in
both constructs. Furthermore, employee perceptions of HRD practices on
established job attitude relationships have been largely overlooked. Although no
support was found for moderating effects, the results of the study contribute to the
knowledge of employee engagement and OCB which are noted as being key areas of
research need in HRD (Shuck and Wollard 2010; Wollard and Shuck 2011). As has
been noted, detecting moderating effects in non-experimental studies is difficult
(McClelland and Judd 1993). Additionally, based on the fact that the majority of the
 168 S. Rurkkhum and K.R. Bartlett

sample of this study was relatively homogenous in terms of holding junior non-
managerial positions with similar levels of education, it may have weakened the
detection of moderating effects (Bennett 2000). Although the moderating effects were
not found in the study, the finding encourages continued exploration of HRD
variables that may influence the relationship between employee engagement and
desired workplace attitudes and behaviours.
The findings from this study emphasize the importance of positive employee
perceptions of HRD practices, especially perceived personal benefits of training,
support for HRD opportunities from both senior staff and colleagues, and
organizational support. This supports the notion that investment in HRD activities
can be aimed not only at improving work performance but also to creating and
reinforcing positive employee perceptions towards the organization which later may
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encourage desired behaviour. Additionally, the significance of supportive colleagues

and senior staff will not only positively influence employee perceptions and
behaviours, but also creates a better work environment (Bakker, van Emmerik,
and Euwema 2006; Salanova, Agut, and Peiro 2005; Shuck, Reio, and Rocco 2011;
Stairs and Galpin 2010).
Perceived organizational support was found to be an essential contributor of the
civic virtue component of OCB. When employees perceived sincere interest from an
organization in terms of their well-being and development opportunities, employees
were likely to reciprocate by willingly participating in non-mandatory activities
hosted by an organization. Surprisingly, only employee engagement was found to be
an essential contributor of the conscientiousness component of OCB. This perhaps
highlights the importance of employee engagement on driving behaviours beyond
the minimum roles requirements, which most organizations desire from their
employees (Wright and Sablynski 2008).
The results of this study suggest that there is still an active role for HRD to
strengthen employee engagement to gain desired outcomes, especially in relation to
the performance of in-role and extra-role behaviours. A recent meta-analysis study
revealed the most significant antecedents of employee engagement were job
characteristics, leadership and dispositional characteristics (Christian, Garza, and
Slaughter 2011). Incorporating these results with existing studies related to employee
engagement suggests that HRD can implement interventions related to job design,
assignment of challenging tasks, supportive management practices and policies as
well as the provision of HRD opportunities to positively influence employee
engagement (May, Gilson, and Harter 2004; Richman et al. 2008; Schaufeli and
Bakker 2004; Shuck, Reio, and Rocco 2011; Truss et al. 2006; Zhu, Avolio, and
Walumbwa 2009).

Recommendations
In the following section, recommendations for both research and practice are
presented.

Recommendations for research

The study revealed positive relationships between employee engagement and facets
of OCB, supporting that employee engagement is not limited to in-role performance.
However, additional research is needed to more fully explore this relationship,
 Human Resource Development International 169

especially in a broad global context. Additionally, it is important to further explore

the reasons why employee engagement is positively related to both in-role and extra-
role performance: because of shifting economic and society forces resulting in
employees defining their formal role so broad or perhaps because they efficiently
perform formal roles, leading to efforts to go further with extra-role performance
(Christian, Garza, and Slaughter 2011). This study also contributes to knowledge of
the consequences of employee engagement and confirms the importance of positive
attitudes and social relationships as antecedents of OCB. However, future research
related to OCB is needed to focus on the consequences of OCB towards individual,
group, and organizational performance, as well as the outcomes for those employees
who perform OCB (Podsakoff et al. 2009; Spitzmuller, Van Dyne, and Ilies 2008).
Additionally, this study has highlighted the need for researchers to consider other
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variables, especially those related to HRD, and the potential effect on the relation-
ship between employee engagement and OCB. Future research should avoid
examining only independent and dependent variables as the relationship between
high levels of employee engagement and the performance of OCB is potentially
impacted by individual, supervisory, and organizational level variables. Further
consideration of additional variables likely to cause either mediated or moderated
effects in the model can help researchers discover how and when the relationship
between employee engagement and OCB occurs and functions (Bennett 2000).
Recommendations are also made regarding the need to conduct research on the
constructs of employee engagement and OCB in different cultural contexts. The
perceptions and understanding of Thai people of employee engagement and OCB are
different from Western countries where the overwhelming majority of existing
research has been conducted. It is possible that some widely accepted components of
OCB developed in Western countries might not be considered as behaviours of going
beyond the minimum requirements, but rather expected and normal behaviours
within the Thai cultural context (Chompookum and Derr 2004). This highlights the
need and echoes previous calls for studies related to OCB in different cultural
contexts (Farh, Earley, and Lin 1997; Organ, Podaskoff, and MacKenzie 2006; Paine
and Organ 2000). This recommendation for a more international perspective
towards engagement and OCB research may lead to the development of specific
instruments representing the main characteristics in a particular culture (Meyer et al.
2002).

Recommendations for practice

Each construct and variable used in this study reflected job-related attitudes that can
be influenced by management action, emphasizing the recognition that employee
engagement can be enhanced by organizations (Kahn 1990; Richman et al. 2008;
Schaufeli and Bakker 2004; Shuck and Reio 2011). The results from this study have
confirmed that employee engagement is important and related to desired workplace
outcomes such as OCB in Thailand. This study should encourage further
consideration of the adoption of a high engagement human resource strategy
(Macey and Schneider 2008).
The findings from this study encourage HRD professionals to contribute to
ongoing conversation that advocates for embracing a broader multidisciplinary,
multilevel, and global perspective on the benefits of training and development for
individuals and teams, organizations and society (Aguinis and Kraiger 2009). The
 170 S. Rurkkhum and K.R. Bartlett

results of this study have also highlighted the importance of employee perceptions
related to HRD. The strategic position of HRD in an organization should
acknowledge that employee perceptions of personal benefits from participating in
HRD programmes are essential and contribute to positive behaviours (Dysvik and
Kuvaas 2008; Kuvaas and Dysvik 2009). Consequently, HRD professionals should
pay attention to the marketing role of HRD (McLagan 1989) to shape employee
perceptions on the benefits from participation in organizational learning events.
Creating supportive relationships among employees and a supportive work
environment is also important. As noted, organizations can enhance employee
engagement, especially through the leadership behaviours. Managers have a key role
in influencing employee perceptions, behaviours and organizational culture (Cheng
and Chiu 2008; Harter and Blacksmith 2010; Stairs and Galpin 2010). This provides
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HRD an opportunity to offer leadership development activities for leaders who can
encourage employees to fully engage with an organization. Additionally, HRD
professionals should continue to consider and promote the relationship of HRD to
desired workplace attitudes including OCB.

Limitations of the study

Although the study contributes new knowledge on the variables of interest, several
limitations must be acknowledged. First, the study relied on previously developed
and validated instruments which were originally created in Western countries.
Although all necessary steps in the translation process were implemented, it is almost
impossible that the translated instrument would produce perfectly equivalent
meanings from two different languages (Yu, Lee, and Woo 2004). This limitation is
perhaps more significant than other potential international HRD settings given the
different cultural context between Thailand and Western countries (Hofstede 2001;
Triandis 2001).
An additional limitation was the use of self-report data. Although the study
assured respondents’ confidentiality, it is unlikely to have completely eliminated all
aspects of social desirability in responses, leading to the potential problems about
common method variance bias. Thus, care must be particularly taken to interpret the
results and avoid generalizing the findings beyond the setting.

Conclusion
This study found support for positive relationships between employee engagement
and OCB in Thailand. Although not all the tested hypotheses were supported, the
study contributes to HRD theory and practice, especially in Thailand where limited
research regarding employee engagement and OCB has been conducted. The
construct of employee engagement is continuing to develop a robust academic
literature and sustainable ongoing interest in the professional press. Efforts to
explore the relationships between employee engagement and desired workplace
attitudes such as OCB are needed for HRD professionals to fully leverage
investments in training and development. While not all HRD activity should
consider workplace attitudes, such as OCB, as the only desired outcome (Klein
2001), the role of employee attitudes is noted as an important aspect of training
evaluation (Kraiger, Ford, and Salas 1993). Affective outcomes do not necessarily
translate into other more tangible outcomes, however, exploring the links between
 Human Resource Development International 171

engagement and OCB and the potential role of HRD in moderating this relationship
in diverse international settings helps support the importance of HRD.

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