Solar PV Handbook

Design, Installation & Maintenance

About Book
This book presents the explanation of the theory and design of PV solar cells
and systems. It is written to address several audiences: engineers, technicians,
students who desire an introduction to the field of photovoltaic, students
interested in PV science and technology, and end users who require a greater
understanding of theory to supplement their applications.
The book is effectively sectioned into five main blocks: section 1-5.
Section-1 is a general introduction to the field, covers the basic elements of
photovoltaic the individual electricity producing cell. The reader is told how
PV cells work. Section-2 cover the designs of the PV system. It includes the
sample system design considering the losses involved in the system. Section
3-4 cover the installation and maintenance guidelines for the PV system.
In addition, chapter 5 have some MCQs.
SECTION-1................. INTRODUCTION
1.1 What is solar energy?
1.2 Why to choose solar energy?
1.3 Types of solar energy
1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of solar panel
1.5 Solar photo voltaic (SPV) module
1.6 Solar panel
1.7 Main components of solar photo voltaic system
1.8 Types of solar cell
1.9 Factors affecting output
SECTION-2..................DESIGNING OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC
SYSTEM
2.1 Definitions
2.2 Primary phases of designing an SPV system
2.3 Sample system design
SECTION-3.....................INSTALLATION OF SOLAR PANEL
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Testing before installation
3.3 Installation guidelines
SECTION-4......................MAINTENANCE & TROUBLESHOOTING
4.1 Maintenance
4.2 Troubleshooting
SECTION-5......................... MCQ
SECTION-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 What is solar energy?
The energy coming out from the 'Sun' is known as 'Solar Energy'. Every day
the sun radiates an enormous amount of energy in the form of heat and light.
Where does all this energy come from? It comes within the sun itself. Like
other stars, the sun is a big gas ball made up mostly of hydrogen and helium.
The sun generates energy in its core in a process called nuclear
fusion. During nuclear fusion, the sun's extremely high pressure and hot
temperature cause hydrogen atoms to come apart and their nuclei (the central
cores of the atoms) to fuse or combine. Some matter is lost during nuclear
fusion. The lost matter is emitted into space as radiant energy.
It takes millions of years for the energy in the sun's core to make its way to
the solar surface, and then just a little over eight minutes to travel the 93
million miles to earth. The solar energy travels to the earth at a speed of
186,282 miles per second, the speed of light.
Only a small portion of the energy radiated by the sun into space strikes the
earth, one part in two billion.
Where does all this energy go? About 15 percent of the sun's energy that hits
the earth is reflected back into space. Another 30 percent is used to evaporate
water, which, lifted into the atmosphere, produces rain-fall. Solar energy also
is absorbed by plants, the land, and the oceans. The rest could be used to
supply our energy needs.
Energy can be harnessed directly from the sun, even in cloudy weather. Solar
energy is used worldwide and is increasingly popular for generating
electricity or heating and desalinating water.
1.2 Why to choose solar energy?
Solar Energy is available in abundant. It is the prototype of an environmental
friendly energy source. It consumes none of our precious energy
resources(oil, gas etc), makes no contribution to air, water, or noise pollution,
does not pose a health hazard, and contributes no harmful waste products to
the environment.
There are other advantages too. Solar energy cannot be embargoed or
controlled by any one nation. And it will not run out until the sun goes out.
The sun releases energy at a mass–energy conversion rate of 4.26 million
metric tons per second, which produces the equivalent of 384.6 septillion
watts (3.846×1026 W). To put that in perspective, this is the equivalent of
about 9.192×1010 megatons of TNT per second, or 1,820,000,000 Tsar
Bombs – the most powerful thermonuclear bomb ever built!

Some facts of the sun

Mean distance from the Earth: 149,600,000 km (the astronomic unit, AU)
Diameter: 13,92,000 km (109 times that of the Earth)
Volume: 13,00,000 times that of the Earth
Mass: 1.993 x 1027 kg (3,32,000 times that of the Earth)
Density (at its center): >105 kg /m3 (over 100 times that of water)
Pressure (at its center): over 1 billion atmospheres
Temperature (at its center): about 1,50,00,000 K
Temperature (at the surface): 6,000 K
Energy radiation: 3.8 x 1026 W
The earth receives: 1.7 x 1018 W
1.3 Types of solar energy:
Basically the solar energy can be harnessed by two methods which are
explained below:
i) PV system: This is the technology in which the pv(photo-voltaic) cells are
utilized to convert the solar energy directly into electricity. When the sun
shines onto a solar panel, photons from the sunlight are absorbed by the cells
in the panel, which creates an electric field across the layers and causes
electricity to flow.
ii) CSP system: The second technology is concentrating solar power, or CSP.
It is used primarily in very large power plants and is not appropriate for
residential use. This technology uses mirrors to reflect and concentrate
sunlight onto receivers that collect solar energy and convert it to heat, which
can then be used to produce electricity.

In this book we are going to discuss about the solar pv systems throughout.
1.3.1 Solar PV(photovoltaic) technology:
Photovoltaic comes from the words photo meaning "light" and volt, a
measurement of "electricity". Sometimes photovoltaic cells are called PV
cells or solar cells for short. You are probably already familiar with solar
cells. Solar-powered calculators, toys, and telephone call boxes all, use solar
cells to convert light into electricity.
A photovoltaic cell is made of two thin slices of silicon sandwiched together
and attached to metal wires. The top slice of silicon, called the N-layer, is
very thin and has a chemical added to it that provides the layer with an excess
of free electrons. The bottom slice, or P-layer, is much thicker and has a
chemical added to it so that it has very few free electrons.
When the two layers are placed together, an interesting thing happens-an
electric field is produced that prevents the electrons from traveling from the
top layer to the bottom layer. This one-way junction with its electric field
becomes the central part of the PV cell.
When the PV cell is exposed to sunlight, bundles of light energy known as
photons can knock some of the electrons from the bottom P-layer out of their
orbits through the electric field set up at the P-N junction and into the N-
layer.
The N-layer, with its abundance of electrons, develops an excess of
negatively charged electrons. This excess of electrons produces an electric
force to push the additional electrons away. These excess electrons are
pushed into the metal wire back to the bottom P-layer, which has lost some of
its electrons.
This electrical current will continue flowing as long as radiant energy in the
form of light strikes the cell and the pathway, or circuit, remains closed.
1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of solar panel
Advantages

Fuel source for solar panel is direct and endless so no external

fuels required.
Sunlight - free of cost.
Unlimited life of solar modules, fast response and high reliability.
Can operate under high temperature and in open.
Inherently short circuit protected and safe under any load
 condition.
Pollution free.
Minimum maintenance
Independent working
Operation is simple and no electrochemical reaction and no liquid
medium.
Noise free as there are no moving parts.
No AC to DC conversion losses as DC is produced directly.
No transmission losses as installed in the vicinity of the load.
Suitable for remote, isolated and hilly places.
Suitable for moving loads/objects.
Since it is in modular form, provision of future expansion of
capacity is available.
It can generate powers from milli-watts to several mega watts.
It can be used almost everywhere from small electronic device to
large scale MW power generation station.
It can be installed and mounted easily with minimum cost.

Disadvantages

Initial cost is high

Dependent on sunlight
Additional cost for storage battery.
Climatic condition, location, latitude, longitude, altitude, tilt angle,
ageing, dent, bird dropping, etc. affect the output.
It has no self-storage capacity.
Manufacturing is very complicated process.

1.5 Solar photo voltaic (SPV) module

The power generated by a single cell is small and therefore several cells are
interconnected in series/parallel combination to get the required voltage and
current. When a number of solar cells are connected in series to get a specific
voltage the unit so formed is called as solar module. Charging batteries is the
primary use of SPV module. Therefore normally 36 cells are joined in series
to form a standard module, which is capable of charging 12 volts battery. A
terminal box is provided on the backside of the module for external
connections. A bypass diode is connected across +ve and –ve in the terminal
box. Cathode of the diode will be at +ve terminal and anode will be at –ve
terminal of the module.

This diode protects the module cells from overheating due to shadowing of
the module or any cell breakage, generally the rating of bypass diode is 1.5
times of the maximum current of module. The repetitive reverse peak voltage
Vrrm of the diode should be double the string open voltage.
1.6 Solar panel
A solar panel consists of a number of solar modules, which are connected in
series and parallel configuration to provide specific voltage and current to
charge a battery. A diode is connected on the +ve terminal of such string in
forward bias. This is called blocking diode. This diode is provided so that in
daytime current can flow from module to battery, but at night or in cloudy
day current should not flow back from battery to module or from one string
to another string drawing shown in figure below illustrates a solar panel.
1.7 Main components of solar photo voltaic system
The solar power system consists of the following components:
i) Solar array.
ii) Battery Bank.
iii) Solar Charge Controller.
iv) Inverter.
v) Field Junction Box.
vi) Solar Module Mounting Structure.
vii) Earthing kit.
viii) Cables.
1.7.1 Solar array
Solar array consists of series/parallel combination of modules, which are
mounted on the metallic structure in sunny and shadow free area at a fixed
angle as recommended by designer. Cables from the array area will come to
the control and battery room through junction boxes from panels of modules.
Solar panels should always face true south if you are in the northern
hemisphere, or true north if you are in the southern hemisphere. True north is
not the same as magnetic north. If you are using a compass to orient your
panels, you need to correct for the difference, which varies from place to
place.

1.7.2 Battery bank

The battery bank is one of the most complicated and costly components of
any off-grid power system.
Your battery storage needs to be large enough to supply power year-round.
Nothing is more frustrating than suffering a power outage because your
battery bank doesn’t store enough charge.
On the other hand, too much battery capacity means your system won’t be
able to fully recharge. If your battery bank is too large, your batteries can’t
get the full charge, which can ruin the batteries.
Dialing in on the right battery bank is an important step to designing your
off-grid system. A battery bank can be composed of a single battery, or
multiple interconnected batteries that are wired to work as one large battery at
a certain voltage and amp-hour capacity.
The Sun is not always available and it is not regular. However, loads are to be
fed any time of the day. Therefore power should be stored in a battery bank.
The capacity of this battery bank is given in Ampere-Hour (AH) and bus bar
voltage. The bus-bar voltage is decided by the voltage requirement of the
load.
There are mainly two type of solar battery. If you are installing a solar
system with solar battery than you should know about its type and models. It
is also important for their evaluation purpose. Let’s have a look over the
types of solar battery.
i) Tall tubular solar battery
ii) Lithium-ion solar battery
When it comes to evaluating solar battery than you should compare some of
their specifications such as their technology, solar brand, life cycle, and
maintenance etc. Here is mentioned everything about the criteria you should
use to compare energy storage options, as well as different types of solar
batteries.
1.7.2.1 Tall tubular solar battery
Lead acid tall tubular solar battery is the upgraded version of normal batteries
that used at home and other places. These solar battery is specially designed
as per solar application requirement. Solar tubular batteries are fully tested
and reliable solar batteries that has been used in off grid solar system, hybrid
solar system, solar home lighting system and solar street lights since decades.
A lead acid tall tubular solar battery require to top-up with water in every 3 to
6 month.
For solar application, these batteries required to be charge on low ampere. So,
tall tubular solar batteries are C-10 rated batteries for slow charging
capabilities. These solar batteries can store more power than any other
battery. But if we compare than these solar batteries have comparatively short
life and lower DoD(measure of amount of energy that we can draw from
the battery, usually expressed in terms of %).
Tall tubular battery is the most success, oldest and reliable technology in
batteries. Mostly, you will need either 12V 150AH solar battery for home.
Pros – Advantage

High efficiency solar batteries i.e. 1500 life cycles.

Long estimated working life around 5-7 years.
Cost effective solar product.
Easy to maintain, install and access.
No need of heavy maintenance
Very low repair/maintenance cost.

Cons – Disadvantage
 Tall tubular solar batteries are heavy in weight.
You need to refill these solar battery timely.
More space required compare to lithium-ion batteries.

1.7.2.2 Lithium-ion solar battery

There are different types in lithium-ion solar batteries. The best type of
lithium ion battery for your solar power application is lithium iron phosphate
(LiFePO4). LiFePO4 batteries are completely safe, not burnable, stable for 15
to 20 years and maintenance free. It has good electrical performance with low
resistance.
Lithium ion solar battery is generally used in all in one solar street light, solar
power vehicles and mobile battery banks. The main advantage of this battery
is the good thermal stability, increased safety, in addition to the high current
rating and long cycle life if misused.
Solar batteries for home with solar panel are increasingly focused on lithium-
based batteries, which have seen a steady reduction in costs in recent years.
The biggest benefit of lithium-ion batteries is it’s extremely high life-cycle
(up to 5000 cycles) and its high charge and discharge capabilities that help
harvest more energy from your solar panel. They also lose less capacity at
idle, which is useful in solar installations where energy is rarely used.
For these reasons, lithium ion batteries are a good choice for any solar
system whether it is small or large, off grid system or on grid system. The
biggest disadvantage is its high price tag. Lithium-ion solar battery can cost 4
times more than a lead acid battery system.
1.7.3 Solar charge controller
Charge controller is the interface between array and battery bank. It protects
the battery from overcharging and moderate charging at finishing end of
charge of battery bank. Therefore it enhances the life of the battery bank. It
also indicates the charging status of batteries like battery undercharged,
overcharged or deep discharged through LEDs indications. Some switches
and MCBs are also provided for manual or accidental cut-off of charging. In
some charge controllers load terminals are also provided through a low
battery charge cut-off device so that it can protect the battery bank from deep
discharge.
The technology adopted nowadays for manufacturing solar charge controller
is MOSFET/IGBT technology. With this technology the idle current of the
controller is less than 50mA depending upon the rating of the charge
controller and its current. First the controller is connected to battery bank and
then it is connected to solar array/solar module for sensing the voltage from
the module. When the system is put into operation, the SPV modules starts
charging the battery bank. Care should be taken that in no case the battery
connections are removed from the controller terminals when the system is in
operation, otherwise SPV voltage may damage the charge controller, since
the Solar voltage is always higher than the battery voltage.
LED indications of Charge Controller
Sr.
LED Color Indication
No.
1 Green Boost Charging (SPV1 & SPV2)
2 Yellow Float Charging (SPV)
3 Red Battery LOW
4 Red Battery REVERSE with Alarm
5 Red PV REVERSE with Alarm

Types of charge controller

i)PWM
ii)MPPT
1.7.3.1 PWM charge controller
PWM solar charge controllers are the standard type of charge controller
available to solar shoppers. They are simpler than MPPT controllers, and thus
generally less expensive. PWM controllers work by slowly reducing the
amount of power going into your battery as it approaches capacity. When
your battery is full, PWM controllers maintain a state of “trickle”, which
means they supply a tiny amount of power constantly to keep the battery
topped off.
With a PWM controller, your solar panel system and your home battery need
to have matching voltages. In larger solar panel systems designed to power
your whole home, panel and battery voltage aren’t typically the same. As a
result, PWM controllers are more suited for small DIY solar systems with a
couple of low voltage panels and a small battery.
1.7.3.2 MPPT charge controller
The maximum power point tracking (MPPT) charge controller takes the
PWM
to the next level, by allowing the array voltage to vary from the battery
voltage. By varying the array input, the charge controller can find the point at
which the solar array produces the maximum power. The MPPT process
works like this. Imagine having a battery that is low, at 12 V. A MPPT takes
a voltage of 17.6 volts at 7.4 amps and converts it down, so that what the
battery gets is now 10.8 amps at 12 volts. MPPT controllers takes the DC
input from the solar panels, convert it to high frequency AC, and then change
it once again to a different DC voltage and current. The point is the voltage
will exactly adhere to the requirements of the battery. As the MPPT charge
controller uses the negative line as a reference and then switches the positive
line, they can be used in negative ground systems only. It is crucial to
understand that voltage is a potential difference; the ‘difference’ refers to the
difference between ground potential and some potential. This means that the
starting point is below zero, but this is only used as a reference point.
1.7.4 Inverter
Solar inverter also know as solar power inverter or solar energy inverter and
this the heart of solar power system. It is an equipment that converts solar
panel’s DC (direct current) power into AC (alternating current) power. This
intelligent solar inverter also matches the required frequency, volt etc
with electrical grid to run our load to be used at household and commercial
premises.
Apart from solar panel, the most important part of any solar system is solar
inverter, because it converts power from the sun into useful energy.
Before buying solar inverter, few points should be clear.
 Types – On grid, Off-grid or Hybrid
Technology – PWM or MPPT
Feature – Remote or web monitoring
Warranty – 2 years or 5 years

Types of solar inverter

The main roll of all types of solar inverters is to run the connected load on
first priority. In the second priority, inverter exports the balance electricity in
to battery or government grid. Type of inverter we choose as per situation,
grid availability, power cut and load calculation.
Accordingly, solar inverters are classified into three major types:

i. On grid solar inverter

ii. Off grid solar inverter
iii. Hybrid solar inverter

1.7.4.1 On grid solar inverter

On grid inverter also called grid tie or grid connected inverters, generally
used with on grid solar system. This inverter works with grid or government
electricity. On grid solar inverter will continue run your load and send power
to the power grid when solar produce extra electricity.
These inverters are fully automatic and intelligent inverter with inbuilt
protections which protect the complete solar system and solar panel from any
fault. Generally, on grid solar inverter are used for home and commercial use
in urban and industrial areas where electricity bills are high.
Pros & cons of on grid solar
Pros – Advantage

Utilization of 100% solar power.

No limitation of load.
Export extra electricity to grid.
Up to 70% subsidy on on-grid solar.
 Less space for installation.

Cons – Disadvantage

Don’t work without grid.

No electricity generation during power cut.
No battery back-up.
1.7.4.2 Off grid solar inverter

Off grid solar inverter also known as standalone solar inverter or solar
battery inverter, are used in off grid solar system. These inverters draw DC
power from solar battery & solar panel and convert into usable AC power.
These systems place where no electricity is available such as in rural areas,
off grid inverter based system is independent system. The major benefit is
that power outages and other technical issues that the utility grid faces will no
longer be effective, as you have your own independent power system.
Pros & cons of off grid solar
Pros – Advantage

Stand alone inverter and system.

Work even without grid/electricity.
No dependency on govt. electricity.
Peace of mind with battery backup.

Cons – Disadvantage

Load limitation.
Cannot export the electricity to grid.
Costly compare to on grid solar.

1.7.4.3 Hybrid solar inverter

Hybrid inverter is the combination of on-grid and off-grid solar inverter. This
inverter manage solar panel arrays battery storage and utility grid at the same
time. These modern all-in-one inverter are generally highly versatile and can
be used for grid-tie, stand-alone or backup applications.
Pros & cons of hybrid solar
Pros – Advantage

Stand alone system.

Can work without grid.
Store electricity to batteries.
Peace of mind with electricity backup.
Export excess electricity to government grid.

Cons– Disadvantage

Expensive compare to on grid and off grid solar.

Limitation of load.

Solar inverter technologies

PWM (Pulse width modulation)

PWM is an old technology with a maximum output efficiency of 70%. This
technology used in inverters to give a stable output voltage of 230V or 110V
AC regardless of load.
MPPT (Maximum power point tracking)
MPPT is a latest solar technology with maximum efficiency up to 97%.
Maximum power point tracking in RSC control can be realized by adjusting
power or torque commands. Suppose the total power will be controlled from
DFIG. The total power command will be generated through the MPPT
control block. The input of the control section is rotor speed.
1.7.5 Field Junction box (FJB)
FJB is the interface between solar panels and the charge controller. All the
incoming/outgoing cables/wires from solar panel to charge controller are
terminated at FJB.
1.7.6 Solar module mounting structure
This is made up of galvanized iron frames and angles. In this structure
flexibility is provided to change the module-mounting angle seasonally. This
structure is grouted by small civil work and modules are mounted
subsequently. Also, this mounting structure should be earthed suitably at
several places if voltage of the array is more than 50 Volts.
1.7.7 Earthing kit

Earthing kit is provided to ground the mounting structure. When installing a

solar photo-voltaic system (PV), it is extremely important all the equipment
is grounded correctly. Failure to ground the entire system to include all the
individual pieces, can be devastating, especially in an area that experiences
lightning on a regular basis. Even if you seldom have electrical storms, all it
takes is one lightning strike or a single lose wire and all the equipment can be
destroyed. Worse yet, it can start a fire and cause even more damage to your
home.
Electricity follows the path of least resistance, and while it’s almost
impossible to know its exact path, we can take reasonable steps to try and
direct the electricity someplace safe when a surge occurs. The way we do this
is with an earth grounding system.
Every electrical outlet, light socket, electrical device, gas line, copper pipe
and service panel in your house is all tied together by a bare copper wire.
Somewhere, this bare copper wire is either connected to a copper pipe which
is literally buried in the earth, or it may be connected to a piece of re-bar in
your home’s concrete foundation. This is where stray electric current is
directed in the event of a lightning strike or short circuit.
The same thing needs to be done to your solar PV system by connecting all
the equipment together to include the solar panels, PV mounts, combiner box,
inverter, charge controller and any other device that makes up your solar PV
system. Here’s where some people make a major mistake: they don’t tie the
grounding system of the solar panels to the grounding system of the house.
Everything needs to be tied together to the same grounding system. This is
called bonding.

To help ensure the electric current can find its way into the earth, you want a
good conductive earth ground so the path of least resistance is “obvious” for
the lightning strike, faulty wiring or a short-circuit. It is actually preferable to
have several copper pipes buried in the ground on a single bonded earth
grounded system, provided all the equipment and grounding pipes are
securely bonded together. This lowers the electrical potential that can build
on the grounding wire should a lightning strike occur. Therefore, one should
drive multiple pipes deep into the ground, surround them with rock salt, and
moisten the area.
Each grounding pipe should be around 8 feet deep, but no less than 6 feet.
The soil tends to stay moist the deeper you go, due to reduced evaporation.
This increases conductivity between the grounding pipe and the earth. For the
outside grounding wire, use thick enough bare copper wire to handle large
electrical loads, such as lightning. I’d recommend nothing less than 6 AWG
for all outside equipment. Check with your local permit agency.
The theory gets long and complicated, and I’ll leave other websites to explain
that in more detail, but in short, if you have two independent grounding
systems on the same set of connected equipment (some equipment on one
ground and some on another), that’s a problem.
If lightning strikes one system and not the other, or if lightning strikes the
ground nearby, an electrical differential between the two systems will be
created.
Let’s say there is a common earth ground for all the outlets in your home (as
there should be), and your inverter is plugged into one of these outlets. You
also have two thick copper wires, negative and positive, going from your
inverter to your solar panel array outside that also has its own grounding
system, but is not bonded with the house grounding system. If lightning were
to strike the solar panels outside, the electric current may go into the panel
grounding system if you are lucky, or it may travel along the positive and
negative wires going back to the inverter inside your house. Once there, it
could arc again to the house wiring and use its grounding system instead. The
arcing is what could destroy your equipment or worse yet, start a house fire.
Also remember, it doesn’t take a direct hit from a lightning strike to induce
voltage on the wires.
If the grounding systems of the house and the array are tied into together
(bonded), there is a much greater probability that the electric current from the
lightning strike would stay on the common grounding system and not arc to
something else.
There are probably many ways to do it and hundreds of opinions. My system
is permitted and up to code per my city’s requirements. Each city and county
may be different and have their own rules for grounding systems.
1.7.8 Cables
We require different types of cables to connect module to module, modules to
charge controller, charge controller to battery, or connect battery to load as
required. The cable size used for interconnection of SPV module, charge
controller and battery shall be minimum 2 x 2.5 sq. mm Cu. cable. As far as
some hardware is concerned the screws and bolts/nuts are of chrome plated,
stainless steel and brass so that rusting should not be take place.
1.8 Types of solar cell
Solar cell are based on two types of technology as explained below:
i)Silicon based technology.
ii)Thin film technology.
1.8.1 Silicon based technology
There are two types of silicon based solar cells as explained below:
i)Monocrystalline solar cell
ii)Polycrystalline solar cell
1.8.1.1 Monocrystalline solar cell
As the name implies, the entire volume of the cell is a single crystal of
silicon. Monocrystalline solar panels are made from PV cells sliced out of a
silicon ingot grown from a pure single crystal of silicon. When the cylindrical
ingot is sliced its circular shape is squared giving the cell a unique octagonal
shape. This shape distinguishes the cells from the cells made of
polycrystalline silicon.
Further, monocrystalline solar cells have a uniform black color across all the
cells. The PV cells in the panel offer better collection surface because of the
pyramid pattern of the crystal. With proper treatment and addition of other
materials, these cells are durable for up to 30 years or even more and offer
higher efficiency than the other two types of silicon solar panels. The
efficiency of monocrystalline solar panels, between 15-20%, is the highest
among all silicon based solar panels. These cells are also efficient in terms of
space occupied for the same output among all silicon-based cells.
1.8.1.2 Polycrystalline solar cell
Polycrystalline solar panels are made from PV cells cut from multiple silicon
crystals. Melted silicon is poured into square moulds. After the silicon cools
in the moulds it is cut into squares. The perfect square/rectangular shape
distinguishes the polycrystalline cell from the monocrystalline cell (which is
octagonal in shape). These have the same properties as monocrystalline solar
panels but offer lower efficiencies while converting solar energy into electric
energy. These cells are cheaper to make than monocrystalline cells because
there is less wastage of silicon.
1.8.2 Thin film technology
Thin film solar cells are the new generation solar cells that contain multiple
thin film layers of photo voltaic materials. The thin film solar cells (TFSC)
are also known as thin film photo voltaic cell (TFPV). The thicknesses of thin
film layers are very less as (few nano meters) compared to traditional P-N
junction solar cells. According to the type of photo voltaic material used, the
thin film solar cells are classified into four types. They are:

1)Amorphous silicon (a-Si) and other thin film silicon (TF-Si)

2) Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
3)Copper indium gallium deselenide (CIS or CIGS)
4) Dye-sensitized solar cell (DSC) and other organic solar cells
Thin film solar cells provide better ways to produce electricity from sunlight
than any other method. We can implement these panels in forest areas, solar
fields, traffic and street lights, and so on. The cost of this panel is very less as
compared to the older silicon wafer cells.
Structure of thin film solar cell
The structure of thin film solar cell is shown in fig.1.8.2. The structure and
functioning of thin film solar cells are almost same as that of normal silicon
wafer cells. The only difference is, in the thin flexible arrangement of the
different layers and the basic solar substance used. The thin flexible
arrangement of the layers helps to produce very thin form of cells that is
much more efficient than the conventional silicon wafer cells.
The below table is a very brief comparison between silicon based technology
and thin film technology. When choosing a technology, it’s important to do
further research on below topics.

Crystalline
Cell Technology Thin Film
Silicon
Mono-crystalline Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
silicon (c-Si) Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
Poly-crystalline Copper Indium Gallium
Types of Technology
silicon (pc-Si/ Selenide (CIG/ CIGS)
mc-Si) Organic photovoltaic (OPV/
String Ribbon DSC/ DYSC)
Voltage Rating (Vmp/
Voc)
(Higher is better as there 80%-85% 72%-78%
is less gap in Voc and
Vmp)
Lower
Temperature
Higher (Lower is beneficial at high
Coefficients
ambient temperatures)
I-V Curve Fill Factor
(Idealized PV cell is 73%-82% 60%-68%
100%)
Frameless, sandwiched between
With Anodized
Module construction glass;
Aluminum
lower cost, lower weight
Module efficiency 13%-19% 4%- 12%
System designer has to consider
Lower
factor such as temperature
Inverter Compatibility temperature
coefficients,
and Sizing coefficient
Voc-Vmp difference, isolation
is beneficial
resistance due to external factors
Special clips and structures may
Mounting systems Industry standard be needed. In some cases labor
cost is significantly saved
May require more number of
DC wiring Industry standard
circuit combiners and fuses
Residential/
Application Type Commercial/ Commercial/ Utility
Utility
May require up to 50% more
Required Area Industry standard space
for a given project size
1.9 Factors affecting output
i) Standard test conditions: Solar modules produce dc electricity. The dc
output of solar modules is rated by manufacturers under Standard Test
Conditions (STC). These conditions are easily recreated in a factory, and
allow for consistent comparisons of products, but need to be modified to
estimate output under common outdoor operating conditions. STC conditions
are: solar cell temperature = 25 °C; solar irradiance (intensity) = 1000
W/m2 (often referred to as peak sunlight intensity, comparable to clear
summer noon time intensity); and solar spectrum as filtered by passing
through 1.5 thickness of atmosphere (ASTM Standard Spectrum). A
manufacturer may rate a particular solar module output at 100 watts of power
under STC, and call the product a “100-watt solar module.” This module will
often have a production tolerance of +/-5% of the rating, which means that
the module can produce 95 Watts and still be called a “100-watt module.” To
be conservative, it is best to use the low end of the power output spectrum as
a starting point (95 Watts for a 100-watt module).
ii) Temperature: Module output power reduces as module temperature
increases. When operating on a roof, a solar module will heat up
substantially, reaching inner temperatures of 50-75 °C. For crystalline
modules, a typical temperature reduction factor recommended is 89% or 0.89.
So the “100-watt” module will typically operate at about 85 Watts (95 Watts
x 0.89 = 85 Watts) in the middle of a spring or fall day, under full sunlight
conditions.
iii) Dirt and dust: Dirt and dust can accumulate on the solar module surface,
blocking some of the sunlight and reducing output. Although typical dirt and
dust is cleaned off during every rainy season, it is more realistic to estimate
system output taking into account the reduction due to dust buildup in the dry
season. A typical annual dust reduction factor to use is 93% or 0.93. So the
“100-watt module,” operating with some accumulated dust may operate on
average at about 79 Watts (85 Watts x 0.93 = 79 Watts).
iv) Mismatch and wiring losses: The maximum power output of the total
PV array is always less than the sum of the maximum output of the individual
modules. This difference is a result of slight inconsistencies in performance
from one module to the next and is called module mismatch and amounts to
at least a 2% loss in system power. Power is also lost to resistance in the
system wiring. These losses should be kept to a minimum but it is difficult to
keep these losses below 3% for the system. A reasonable reduction factor for
these losses is 95% or 0.95.
v) Dc to Ac conversion losses: The dc power generated by the solar module
must be converted into common household ac power using an inverter. Some
power is lost in the conversion process, and there are additional losses in the
wires from the rooftop array down to the inverter and out to the house panel.
Modern inverters commonly used in residential PV power systems have peak
efficiencies of 92-94% indicated by their manufacturers, but these again are
measured under well-controlled factory conditions. Actual field conditions
usually result in overall dc-to-ac conversion efficiencies of about 88-92%,
with 90% or 0.90 a reasonable compromise.
So the “100-watt module” output, reduced by production tolerance, heat,
dust, wiring, ac conversion, and other losses will translate into about 68
Watts of AC power delivered to the house panel during the middle of a clear
day (100 Watts x 0.95 x 0.89 x 0.93 x 0.95 x 0.90 = 67 Watts).

SECTION-2
DESIGNING OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC
SYSTEM
2.1 Definitions
The following definitions are very important in designing a solar photo
voltaic system.
i) Solar Cell
The basic photovoltaic device, which generates electricity when exposed to
sunlight, shall be called a “solar cell”.
ii) Solar Module
The smallest complete environmentally protected assembly of interconnected
solar cells shall be called “module”.
iii) Solar Panel
A group of modules fastened together, pre-assembled and interconnected,
designed to serve as an installable unit in an array shall be called “panel”.
iv) Solar Array
A mechanically integrated assembly of modules or panels together with
support structure, but exclusive of foundation, tracking, thermal control and
other components, as required to form a dc power producing unit shall be
called an “array”.
v) Solar Irradiation
On any given day the solar radiation varies continuously from sunrise to
sunset and depends on cloud cover, sun position and content and turbidity of
the atmosphere.
The maximum irradiance is available at solar noon which is defined as the
midpoint, in time, between sunrise and sunset. The total solar radiant power
incident upon unit area of an inclined surface (Watt/m²) is called total solar
irradiance.
vi) Insolation
Insolation differs from irradiance because of the inclusion of time. Insolation
is the amount of solar energy received on a given area over time measured in
kilowatt-hours per square meter (kW-hrs/m2) - this value is equivalent to
"peak sun hours".
vii) Peak Sun Hours
Peak sun hours is defined as the equivalent number of hours per day, with
solar irradiance equaling 1000 W/m2, that gives the same energy received
from sunrise to sunset. Peak sun hours is of significance because PV panel
power output is rated with a radiation level of 1000W/m2. Many tables of
solar data are often presented as an average daily value of peak sun hours
(kW-hrs/m2) for each month.
2.2 Primary phases of designing an SPV system
The primary phases of designing a photovoltaic system consists of the
following steps:

I. Planning
II. Collection of information/data
III. Load calculation
IV. Deciding battery capacity
V. Selection of charge controller
VI. Deciding inverter capacity
VII. Selecting solar module.
VIII. Module mounts
IX. Structure
X. Wiring

2.2.1 Planning
Before designing a solar photovoltaic system, several considerations are to be
kept in mind such as

The cost of the system should not be unusually high and at the
same time the quality should also not suffer.
Initial costs and lifetime costs shall also be taken into
consideration.
The system should be simple in design as far as possible with high
reliability and efficiency.
Whether central generation is beneficial or distributed is to be
worked out.
The system to be planned so as to cater for expected future growth.
Prevention of improper load to be ensured.

2.2.2 Collection of Information/Data

Following types of information are to be gathered
i) Load/Application

Voltage system e.g. AC or DC or both

Operating voltage range of load
Daily consumption
Daily duty cycle
Criticality of loads
Monthly/weekly load profile
ii) Climatic conditions

Insolation
Latitude, Longitude
Temperature
Accessibility to site
Terrain
Local knowledge

iii) User compatibility

Understanding technical issues.

Maintenance schedules and mentality.
Whether the controls are field adjustable.
Budget constraints.
Understanding of managing energy budget.

2.2.3 Load Calculation

For calculation of load first need to calculate the number of appliances in our
home, their power ratings and number of hours they are running in a day.
So let's begin with a sample example as shown below for a house. A house
where the appliances, their power rating and their running hours are as
follows:

5x LED Bulb, Power=15W, running hours=10hrs

3x Fans, Power=60W, running hours=12hrs
1x Refrigerator, Power=250W, running hours=12hrs
1xWashing Machine, Power=500W, running hours=1hrs
1xTV, Power=250W, running hours=5hrs

Now we have the input data for calculation of load, lets understand how to
calculate total load requirement of a house by below table:
Total
Power AC
Running Total AC
Sr. Quantity Rating,
Appliances Hours Power,W Energy,
No. (a) W Wh
(c) (axb)
(b) (axbxc)
 1 LED Bulb 5 15 10 75 750
2 Fans 3 60 12 180 2160
3 Refrigerator 1 250 12 250 3000
Washing
4 1 500 1 500 500
Machine
5 TV 1 250 5 250 1250
Total = 1255W 7660Wh
The total load in a day for a particular house we have calculated as 7660wh.
7660wh=7.6 kwh or unit.
2.2.4 Deciding Battery Capacity
For calculating the capacity and number of batteries, first the number of back
up days are to be decided, based on number of consecutive sunless days.
For example back up days for residential load = 3 to 5 days
Back up days for industrial load = 7 to 14 days
Back up days for poor weather = 7 to 14 days
Check manufacturer’s recommended maximum depth of discharge (DoD)
normally it is 80% for deep cycling 59% for shallow cycling. Check the
temperature variations of site and determine the maximum DoD as per data
given by battery manufacturer.

Battery Capacity (In AH) = (AH rating X No. of back up days) /

Max DoD
No. of series Batteries = System DC Voltage / Battery Voltage
No. of Parallel Batteries = Total AH Required / AH of Individual
Battery

If we use lead acid battery/tubular battery then the depth of discharge(DoD)

will be 50%, but if we use Li-ion battery then depth of discharge will be
80% to 90%.
From previous example we have energy requirement of 7.6kwh, now here
comes a trick , we consider the 20% losses in inverter then the energy taken
out from the battery by inverter will be 7.6kwh x 120% = 7.6 x 1.2 = 9.12
kwh. It is clear that we required 9.12kwh of energy from the battery to fulfill
our load requirement. So the battery capacity for one day storage and 50%
DoD is given by:
Required battery capacity=9.12 x 1/0.5 = 18.24kwh.
Now suppose we are using 12V and 200 Ah batteries to store power then
energy storage in one battery is 12v x 200 Ah=2400wh =2.4kwh
Now number of batteries can be given by required capacity divided by energy
storage in one battery as:
Number of battery = 18.24/2.4 = 7.6 or 8 batteries
So we requires 8 batteries of 12V and 200 Ah to fulfill our requirement of
7.6kwh/day.
The fact is when battery stores charge then some power is lost in the battery
in the form of heat, so to proceed for the calculation of charge controller
and solar module we need to consider the energy lost in battery, we
generally consider it as 15%.
2.2.5 Selection of Charge Controller
Charge controllers are included in most PV systems to protect the batteries
from overcharge and/or excessive discharge. The minimum function of the
controller is to disconnect the array when the battery is fully charged and
keep the battery fully charged without damage. The charging routine is not
the same for all batteries. A charge controller designed for lead- acid batteries
should not be used to control Ni-Cd batteries. Charge controllers can be used
in parallel to add more modules to a battery bank.
The charge controller consumes some power so the transfer of power is not
100%. The typical efficiency of charge controller is 85% to 95%.
Salient feature of Charge Controller

Power devices should be of solid state, high efficiency with two

stage charging technique.
Protection against transient/surge.
Prevent discharge of battery through solar panel during night.
Protection against overcharge of the battery.
Protection against reverse connection of battery and module.
Robust enclosure and cooling with heat sink.
Control, temperature compensated set points and equalization.
Suitable MCB’s provided at solar input of 100 Amp.

2.2.6 Deciding Inverter Capacity

An inverter is called the heart of the system because all electronic
management is done by the inverter. As inverter have electronic components
which consumes energy so the efficiency of the inverter will never be 100%.
Typical efficiency of inverter is 80% to 90%.
For good efficient inverter efficiency is 90% to 95%.
For deciding inverter we first see the load. The capacity of inverter must be
slightly above of the load requirement, lets assume for above sample example
we have load of 1255 Watt, so we would consider an inverter of lets say
1500 Watt or 1.5kva.
2.2.7 Selecting Solar Module
To make your technology selection, you must first be aware of several
considerations. PV modules have standard power ratings and so in order to
determine the amount of modules to be connected you must first establish the
load that you want to feed in kw.
2.2.7.1 NOCT and STC
As a reference to compare performances of SPV modules, manufacturers
establish the so-called standard test conditions (STC) and nominal operating
cell temperature (NOCT) which have specific test conditions that allow you
to compare the virtues of each module between them.
STC assume 1kw/m2, 25°C of module operating temperature and 1.5 AM
(Air Mass), while NOCT assume 800W/m2, 45°C operating temperature,
1m/s wind speed, 20°C ambient temperature and that the module has a
ground mounted feature (for air circulation). Under these conditions you must
evaluate:

Open circuit voltage

Short circuit current
Nominal power and current
Voltage and power at MPP

2.2.7.2 Efficiency
Crucial parameter to size your system, among each type of technology there
are also variations in efficiency.
This parameter is associated with the use of available space in m2 to supply
the same amount of power. In other words, the higher your efficiency, the
smaller your panel is to provide the same amount of DC power
2.2.7.3 Temperature Coefficients
Rising temperature values affect the performance of PV modules, they reduce
the efficiency, voltage and current as well.
Although current temperature coefficients are generally provided in the
datasheet, the most important ones are the voltage and efficiency temperature
coefficients, as voltage is severely affected with elevated temperature values.
2.2.7.4 Voltage
As you know connecting modules in series would lead to higher voltages.
Inverters have a range of voltage for MPPT (maximum power point
tracking).
You have to make sure that the operating voltage of your array (at 20°C and
60°C of temperature module) will be within the MPPT range of the inverter.
Besides, there is another limitation in the voltage of the array, each string
cannot exceed 600 Vdc according to American norms and 1000 Vdc
according to European norms.
2.2.7.5 Tolerance
Manufacturing processes are not perfect. That is why manufacturers will
provide a tolerance value for the nominal power output of the module. Less
the tolerance is, the more accurate your design will be.

2.2.7.6 Solar Panel Dimension

Finally, the ultimate consideration is to watch out for the panels dimensions,
you must make sure that the width and length of the panel, suits your
available space, whether it is on the roof or on the ground.
Considering all these factors will reduce the chances that you need to change
your module selection, nevertheless, sometimes you will need to iterate
several solutions according to space, inverter selection and power demand.
The losses in solar panel we consider as 25%. Suppose we need the load of
10kwh then we require solar panel of capacity 1.25x10=12.25kwh.
Sample Example: In the trail sample example we have the energy
requirement of 9.12kwh energy from the battery, now we'll add battery
losses(15%) in it, so it will be
9.12+0.15x9.12 = 10.49kwh
Now we add charge controller losses(5%) then it will be
10.49+10.49x0.05 = 11.015kwh
We need 11.015kwh energy from the solar panel,
Now considering the panel losses(25%) then we have
11.015+11.015x0.25 = 13.77kwh
Important point to consider is the value of solar power potential, means for
how much time the sun is available for your location in a day. Fig2.2.7.6
below provides the clear picture of the available sun hours according to the
world map.
Now if we consider for India, we have 5 hrs of sunshine so the module power
will come
13.77kwh/5hr = 2.75kw
If we use solar module of 250Watt power then we require 11 module to
fulfill the load requirement of 1255 W.
2.2.8 Module Mounts
While mounting the modules, following points should be considered for
getting maximum output from the solar modules:

Modules should be oriented to face the Sun.

The modules produce more power at STC 25°C.
The mounting and color of the modules can sometimes be chosen
 to blend with the architecture.
Tracking the Sun increases the amount of power from an array.

2.2.9 Structure
Select type of structure i.e. ground mount, rooftop mount, pole mount or
tracker. A group of modules mounted on a single unit of structure and
interconnected together is called panel.
Module mounting structures are made of three types of materials. They are
hot dip galvanized iron, aluminum and mild steel (MS).
2.2.9.1 Galvanized Iron
In galvanizing process, zinc coating is applied to iron or steel to prevent it
from rusting. There are several methods of galvanizing. The most common
method employed in module mounting structure is the hot dip galvanization.
In hot dip galvanization, the material to be galvanized is submerged in molten
zinc at a temperature of around 449 °C. The galvanized material (iron or
steel) when exposed to atmosphere, the pure zinc reacts with the oxygen
forming zinc oxide which further reacts with the carbon di-oxide in the
atmosphere to form zinc carbonate. The zinc carbonate is dull grey colored
and strong material. It gives protection to the material beneath the coating
from any corrosion. In solar PV module mounting structure, iron is used for
galvanizing process.
2.2.9.2 Mild Steel
Mild steel is made by melting iron ore and coal together in a furnace. Once
the melting is done, it is moved to another furnace to burn of any
impurities. It has very low carbon content ranging between 0.5% to 0.25% in
weight. Mild steel is not used very often in case of solar PV module
mounting. It is generally used in case of not so strong roofs, when there is a
need for light weight structures. Mild steel has very less carbon. It is very
flexible and can be made in to several shapes as it is machinable.
2.2.9.3 Aluminum
Aluminum is a silvery white, soft, flexible material. It is very resistive to
corrosion and does not corrode easily. Compared to galvanized iron, this is
light weight and cost-effective.
2.2.9.4 Mounting Structure Base
The mounting structure base has to be strong enough to carry the entire load
of the solar PV module mounting structure, solar PV module, other balance
of systems that are placed below the solar PV module. In case of slope roofs
and ground mounting, the base has to be drilled into the roof. In case flat
roofs, the base can be drilled into the roof or can be concealed with a
concrete.
2.2.9.5 Direction of Solar Modules:
The solar modules should be placed in such a way that most of the sunlight
falls on them. The best direction to place the solar modules is the place them
facing the equator. This means, in the northern hemisphere the solar PV
modules should be placed facing true south as the equator is lying to the
south of the northern hemisphere. In case of regions in the southern
hemisphere, the solar PV modules should be placed facing the true north as
the equator is lying to the north of the southern hemisphere. In case of India,
which lies above the equator in the northern hemisphere, it is ideal to place
the solar PV modules facing true south. In case of Australia, which lies in the
southern hemisphere, the equator lies above it. Hence it will be ideal to place
the solar PV modules facing true north in Australia.
There are also installations where the solar PV modules are placed in wave
form in east–west direction and claim to have little more better output when
compared to traditional true south or true north installations.
2.2.10 Wiring
Selecting the correct size and type of wire will enhance the performance and
reliability of PV system. The size of the wire must be large enough to carry
the maximum current expected without undue voltage losses. All wire has a
certain amount of resistance to the flow of current. This resistance causes a
drop in the voltage from the source to the load. Voltage drops cause
inefficiencies, especially in low voltage systems (12V or less). Typical values
of module current and voltages are provided by the manufacturer. Based on
system voltage and current decide size of wire/cable to be used for module
interconnection. Calculate output current and voltage of the panel and decide
specifications of wire/cable for panel interconnection. Always use minimum
possible wire lengths. Always use suitable lugs, connecters etc for
connection. Decide number and type of switches, fuses and circuit breakers
as per load, system and user requirement.
2.3 Sample system design
In solar system design:

Find out the size of components(battery, panel etc).

Match power and energy requirement of appliances.

The designing of a system can be better understood by the following

examples:
2.3.1 Example 1:
S. Appliance Number of Daily Total Total
No. AC appliances usage AC AC
name
Power(W) (b) hours power energy
(a) (c) (a x b) (a x b x
c)
1 Tube Light 40 3 6 120 720
2 Fan 55 2 10 110 1100
3 TV-32" 35 1 6 35 210
4 Refrigerator 120 1 24 120 2880
5 AC 1.5 Ton 1400 1 3 1400 4200
Total= 1785 9110
W Wh/day

As we know the 'current' in a solar photo-voltaic system always flows in

order as shown below(for an AC system):

But for the designing purpose we consider the path in reverse order as shown
below (that means we first figure out the load requirement then we choose the
inverter, then we go for solar batteries, then we look for charge controller and
finally we decide the sizing solar panel):

Now we have calculated the total load in the table above as 1785W and
energy requirement as 9110 Wh/day or 9.1kWh/day. Now the process for
designing the solar system is given as below:
1) Inverter:
For 1785W power requirement the inverter of capacity 2kW or 2kVA
matches very well.
As inverter converts power from dc to ac so there is power loss within the
inverter in the form of heat so we consider the loss as 20%. So the energy
required from the battery will be:
= 9.1kWh +0.2x9.1 kWh = 10.9kWh
2) Battery:
All energy stored in the battery is not available to us this is determined by the
depth of discharge. There is two technology one is lead-acid which have 50%
DOD and second is Li-ion which have 90% DOD. We are taking example of
lead-acid then we have
Battery Size = Energy Required/DOD
Battery Size = 10.9kWh/0.5 = 21.8kWh
So the energy storage will be 21.8kWh but we require energy per day is only
10.9kWh. Now remember batteries are available in the market in V & Ah
rating. Suppose we have battery of 12V & 200Ah, then number of batteries
required will be come out as
No. of batteries required = 21.8kWh/(12V x 200Ah) = 9.08
If we round it off then the number of battery will be '9'. But it's difficult to
connect 9 batteries together so we take 8 or/10 batteries or other option
available is the different sizing of battery. We have calculated battery sizing
for one day storage for 2 days storage we double the number of batteries.
Now input given by charge controller to battery is 10.9kWh plus the losses in
battery(15% battery loss):
Input to battery = 10.9kWh + 10.9x0.15kWh = 12.5kWh
3) Charge Controller:
The charge controller takes care of battery charging & discharging so it has
some electronic components that consumes energy. Lets consider the losses
as 4% then we have required energy from the panel as
Input to charge controller = 12.5kWh + 12.5x0.04kWh = 13kWh

4)Solar Panel:
Energy, panel should supply = 13kWh
Losses within solar panel = 25%
Total energy panel must generate=13kWh + 0.25 x 13kWh
=16.25kWh per day
Suppose we have 5.5 hrs of solar radiation per day then,
Power of solar panel =16.25/5.5 = 2.95kW
Suppose we take 250W panel from market(remember this is peak or
maximum power rating)
Number of panels required= 2950W/250W = 12 Panels
Solar system summary

Load energy required = 9.1 kWh per day

Inverter power rating = 2kVa
Battery storage (1 day) = 21.8 kWh, 9 batteries, 12V, 200Ah
Solar Panel = 2.95kW, 12 panel of 250 W.

2.3.2 Example 2:
Total
Number Daily Total
AC AC
S. Appliance of usage AC
Power(W) energy
No. Name appliances hours power
(a) (a x b x
(b) (c) (a x b)
c)
1 Tube Light 40 4 5 160 800
2 Fan 60 4 12 240 2880
3 TV-32" 35 2 5 70 350
4 Refrigerator 130 1 24 130 3120
Washing
5 400 1 2 400 800
Machine
6 AC 1.5 Ton 1400 1 2 1400 2800
2400 10750
Total= Wh/day
W

Our load requirement comes out to be 2400W and energy requirement

10750Wh/day. Now we will design our system as shown below:
1) Inverter:
Inverter Size = 2.5kW or 2.5kVa
Input to inverter from battery = 10750 + Inverter Loss(20%)
= 10750 + 0.2x10750 = 12900 Wh
= 12.9kWh
2) Battery:
Battery Loss = 15% = 0.15x 12.9 kWh = 1.94kWh
Input to battery from charge controller = 12.9 + battery loss
= 12.9 + 1.94 = 14.84kWh
Battery Size = Energy required/ DOD
= 12.9/0.5 = 25.8kWh
For battery capacity 12V and 200Ah we need following number of batteries:
= 25800Wh/2400Wh
= 10.75
The number of batteries in round figure is coming out to be '11', but for the
ease of connection we can take it as '10' or '12'.
3) Charge Controller:
Input to charge controller = 14.84kWh + charge controller loss
= 14.84 + 14.84 x 0.04
= 15.43kWh

4) Solar Panel:
Energy, panel should supply = 15.4kWh
Losses within solar panel = 25%
Total energy panel must generate = 15.4kWh + 0.25 x15.4kWh
= 19.25kWh per day
Suppose we have 5.5 hrs of solar radiation per day then,
Power of solar panel =19.25/5.5 = 3.5kW
Suppose we take 200W panel from market(remember this is peak or
maximum power rating)
Number of panels required= 3500W/200W = 17.5 = 18 Panels
Solar system summary

Load energy required = 10.75 kWh per day

Inverter power rating = 2.5 kVa
Battery storage ( for 1 day) = 25.8 kWh, 11 batteries, 12V, 200Ah
Solar Panel = 3.5 kW, 18 panel of 200 W.

SECTION-3
INSTALLATION OF SOLAR PANEL
3.1 Introduction
Solar modules are to be installed firmly and permanently on metallic
structures. The structures depend on the application and size of the system.
For smaller systems like solar home systems, simple module mounting
structures are used. For systems like solar streetlights, solar powered signal
lighting, solar pumps etc. pole mounting module frames are used. For bigger
systems like solar power plants and solar powered railway signaling
installations, bigger array mounting structures are used.
3.2 Testing before installation
Before installation the solar panels are tested at the manufacturing unit to
check for the following parameters:

Voc-open circuit voltage

Isc-short circuit current
Vmax- maximum voltage
Imax- maximum current
Pmax- maximum power at standard test conditions or peak power
output.
 The following table shows typical user’s specifications of different
modules:
Peak Nominal Open Short Max. Max
power Voltage circuit circuit voltage current
output voltage current (Vmax) at (Imax) at
(Pmax) (Voc) (Isc) Pmax Pmax
4W 6V >11.5V >0.63A 8.5V 0.47A
4W 12V >21V >0.3A 16.7V 0.23A
8W 12V >21V >0.56A 16.7V 0.47A
10W 12V >21V >0.70A 16.7V 0.59A
12W 12V >21V >0.84A 16.7V 0.71A
18W 12V >21V >1.26A 16.7V 1.07A
35W 12V >21V >2.4A 16.7V 2.09A
40W 12V >21V >2.7A 16.7V 2.39A
50W 12V >21V >3.3A 16.7V 2.99A
65W 12V >21V >4.0A 16.7V 3.89A
70W 12V >21V >4.5A 16.7V 4.19A
75W 12V >21V >5.0A 16.7V 4.49A
90W 12V >21V >6.0A 16.7V 5.38A
The above values are at standard testing conditions such as 25 °C cell
temperature and 1000W/m2 solar radiation. "The output will be reduced as
temperature rises and intensity of sunlight reduces." Although accurate power
is measured with the help of module tester at supplier’s end, however to
check working of module Voc and Isc can be measured at site as shown in
Fig.3.2a (a) & (b) by simple multimeter in two different modes i.e. current
mode and voltage mode when module is placed in sunlight. The solar panel is
kept in such a position that it receives maximum sunlight.
The typical I-V curve of a 35-watt module with 36 series connected cells is
illustrated in Fig 3.2b

3.3 Installation guidelines

The installation of solar power system involves the following major steps:

Civil foundation job

Assembly and fixing of support structure.
Mounting of solar modules on the support structure.
Installation of battery bank.
 Interconnection of SPV panel in series & parallel configuration,
charge control unit and FJB
Connection of battery bank and load
Earthing of lightning protection unit.

3.3.1 Mounting the solar modules

For mounting the solar panels first determine mounting method i.e. roof
mount or ground-mount. While mounting the solar modules, following points
should be considered for getting maximum output from the solar modules:

Modules should be oriented south facing in northern hemisphere

and north facing in southern hemisphere to receive maximum
sunlight.
The modules produce more power at low temperature and full sun.
Tracking the sun increases the amount of power from an array

The solar panels are generally installed in such a way that they can receive
maximum direct sunlight without shade from any building/trees nearby
falling on them at any part of the day.
As we know that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west as a result of
earth’s rotation around its own axis. Also the earth revolves around the sun.
Due to these two movements there is variation in the angle at which the sun’s
rays fall on earth’s surface over a year. At any particular place on earth this
variation in angle in one year may be up to 45 degrees. Considering these
facts the following guidelines are to be kept in mind while installing solar
panels:

1. Solar panels should be installed at an angle of ‘(Latitude of the

place + 10) degree’ from horizontal. For example, New Delhi has a
latitude of 26 degree, hence any solar panel in New Delhi is to be
installed at an angle of 26+10=36 degree inclined to horizontal.
2. Solar panels should be installed south facing in the northern
hemisphere and north facing in the southern hemisphere. The
directions north-south may be found with the help of magnetic
compass. The picture given in Fig 3.3.1(a) illustrates this
3. Any obstruction (such as tree or building) should be avoided in East, West
or South of the place of installation. The following is the criteria:

I. East or West: The distance between solar panel and obstruction

should be more than double the height of obstruction.
II. South: The distance should be more than half the height of
obstruction.

4. The support for the solar panel need to be a robust one and should not be
accessible to general public. It should be so installed that rainwater, bird
dropping, leaves etc. do not accumulate and the top surface can be cleaned
easily.
5. Calculate tilt of array
6. Calculate space between rows to avoid shadow.

I. Distance between adjacent rows of structures have to be

 maintained so that the shadow can be avoided.
II. Calculate or measure panel height H.
III. Locate the PV site latitude.
IV. The minimum panel spacing W is given by the formula W = H X
U
V. Where H is the vertical height of the panel from the base as shown
in fig 3.3.1(b) below.
VI. U can be determined from the table given below, corresponding to
the latitude of PV site.
 LATITUDE U
0 0.614
10 0.885
20 1.259
28 1.699
30 1.842
32 2.001
34 2.195
36 2.404
38 2.667
39 2.818
40 2.972
41 3.166
42 3.359
44 3.844
46 4.499
50 6.547
55 14.520

3.3.2 Electrical interconnections

I) Cables
a) Cable and terminal connectors are provided with the system.
b) Required length of cable shall be cut and terminals to be crimped.
c) Crimping tool to be used for crimping terminal to cable.
d) Wire size shall be increased as the length of the cable increases.
e) All exposed wiring must be in conduits/capping-casing.
f) Wiring through roof must be water proof.
g) Where the wiring is through flammable materials like thatched roof,
they must be in a metal conduit.
II) Connections to the solar module
a) Open the junction box of the module and connect the module cable
with correct polarity.
b) Close the junction box and tie the module cable on the module frame.

(iii) Interconnections between charge controller and solar modules

For interconnections between charge controller and solar modules, the
following general installation guidelines shall be followed:

For interconnecting the SPV/arrays with charge controller and

battery bank, use minimum wire length so as to avoid the DC
voltage drop in the line. At the same time care must be taken to
ensure that no wires are hanged loose.
Connect all modules in series & parallel connections.
Use cable conductor size as given below to avoid voltage drop of
the system:

➢ For series connection of modules – 1x2.5 mm2 PVC sheathed

unarmored.
➢ For parallel connection of modules – 2x2.5 mm2 PVC sheathed
unarmored.
➢ From FJB to charge controller and charge controller to battery
 bank – 2x10 mm2 PVC sheathed unarmored.
Open the junction boxes (FJBs) and remove the fuses provided
inside the junction boxes

Note: Switch OFF MCB of charge controller before any connection.

Connect battery positive (+) and battery negative (-) of charge

controller to the battery bank.
Next connect SPV-1 negative(-) and SPV-1 positive(+) of charge
controller.

Note: Charge controller will be damaged if SPV array is connected

first
then the battery bank.

Battery connections must be given first to charge controller.

Insert and replace all the fuses of junction boxes after connecting
all the cables to charge controller and to the battery bank.
Do not short negative terminals of the system.
All the positive (+) and negative (-) wires will run separately from
the junction boxes

Note: Switch ON MCB of the charge controller when all the

connections are thoroughly checked and fuses are replaced in the
junction boxes.

SECTION-4
MAINTENANCE & TROUBLESHOOTING
4.1 Maintenance
Solar panels requires virtually no maintenance. However the associated
equipments such as batteries and charge controller are to be maintained. Once
a fortnight the surface of the panels should be wiped clean with wet rag to
remove dust, fallen leaves, bird dropping etc. Only water to be used and no
other cleaning agent.
With solar panel secondary battery maintenance becomes minimum. Still
general periodical maintenance of battery should be carried out in usual
manner and as per maintenance manual.
For efficient working of SPV system certain precautions are to be observed
as given below.
4.1.1 Precautions and preventive steps
Please ensure that:
a) SPV modules are connected in parallel and SPV panel output voltage
is less than 25 volts under normal sunshine condition (for 12 V
system/module)
b) All connections are properly made tight and neat using the crimped
red(for +ve) and black(for –ve) wires supplied by the manufacturer in
order to avoid reverse connection.
c) The rating of the fuse in the charge controller is not changed.
d) The SPV panel is installed facing South for Northern hemisphere/North
for Southern hemisphere and with the correct ‘angle of tilt’.
e) There is no shadow on any part of the SPV panel at any time of the
day, to get maximum power.
f) SPV modules are protected against any act of vandalism and
accidental strike or hit by heavy objects, like stone, hammer etc. If the
SPV panel is installed on ground, it must be fenced properly to protect
it from cattle and to prevent from any damage/theft. Fencing should be
made in such a way that no shadow should fall on SPV panel at any
time of the day.
g) Battery bank is placed on a rack or platform insulated from ground and
located in a well ventilated room and also sufficient clearance is there
over the battery.
h) First the battery bank, then SPV panel and then load is connected to
SPV charge control unit and for disconnection reverse sequence is
adopted.
i) Battery terminals are never shorted even momentarily, as shorting will
result in heavy spark and fire. (to avoid the same connect the cable at
charge controller end ‘first’ and then battery end.)
j) Never connect the load directly to the SPV panel as SPV panel may
give higher/lower voltage than required by the load equipment and
hence the equipment may be damaged permanently.
 k) Blocking diode is provided at the array output for protection against
reverse polarity.
l) Make sure that the solar PV module gets direct sunlight throughout
the day where you install it.
m) The green indicator on charge controller is only an indication
for charging. It will glow even at small amount of charging. So to
ensure efficient charging, the availability of direct sunlight over the
solar PV module for the maximum hours of the day should be ensured.
n) It is not heat but light that produces energy. So let direct sunlight to fall
on the module surface without shades.

4.2 Troubleshooting
The SPV power source is reliable source of electrical energy. However, there
may be rare instances, when the SPV power source is not able to drive the
connected equipment.
The diagnosis of the problem in such situations starts with the battery. Check
the voltage of the battery bank. If the voltage of the battery bank is correct as
indicated in charge controller, there may be problem in the inverter or switch
between load and inverter i.e. either inverter is tripped or switch/load MCB is
tripped or load fuse is blown off. If none of the above fault is observed then
check the specific gravity of the electrolyte in the secondary cells of the
battery. There may be two cases:
a) If the specific gravity is above the level 1.2 (hydrometer reading 1200)
value or as specified in the maintenance manual, it implies that the
battery is in order and the problem would be either with the charge
controller or load. Disconnect the load from charge controller and
connect it directly to battery bank. If the equipment operates, the defect
may be with the charge controller. Disconnect the charge controller and
check as per troubleshooting instructions given in the manual supplied
 with it or inform the manufacturer/supplier.
b) If the specific gravity of the electrolyte is below the specified level and
BATT/LOW (Red)) LED is glowing, the problem may be with any of
the following:

i. Load: This may be drawing more current from the battery

than required. In such case, battery is bound to get
discharged, even if SPV panel is functioning properly. This
would result in frequent tripping of the load. To avoid this,
get the load equipment checked and replace any defective
components.
ii. SPV panel: The SPV panel may not be producing required
power for which the power source has been designed. In that
case, check the SPV panel as given below:

Check for any loose connection/breakage of wire in

SPV module interconnections.
If there is no such loose connection, clean the SPV
modules with soft cloth. Whenever there is bright
sunshine, measure the voltage and current of each
module after disconnecting the wire.
If any of the SPV modules gives low voltage/current
output during bright sunlight (sun intensity 1000 W/m2)
inform the manufacturer/supplier with module serial
number along with the measurement taken, for
necessary investigations.

iii. Failure of blocking diode: Blocking diode fails in short

circuit and open circuit mode. If it is failed in short circuit
mode, voltage across its terminal will be zero in place of
0.7V while charging current flows through it. When it fails
in open circuit mode, the current will not flow through the
diode. The diode may be checked as per standard method of
checking of diode by removing from the circuit.

Apart from these some possible complaints and troubleshooting methods for
solar modules are listed in table below:
S. Symptom Possible Failure Probable Action
No. Cause
Conductor
break
Corrosion Replace cable
Loose
Cable connection
Verify the wire
connections are
Improper
tight, corrosion
connection
free and of
correct
polarity.
Defective
connector
1. No output Loose
connection Replace
Connector
Pin loose connector
Corrosion
Improper
fixing
Return to
Mechanical
factory for
damage
Junction box servicing
Connection Connect
problem properly
Electronic Replace charge
Charge controller
failure controller
Return to
Internal
None of the above factory, if
problem
within
warranty
Output
voltage
Return to
OK, but Internal
2. Cell/interconnections factory, if
 no damage within
output warranty
current
Remove the
shades or
change the
location of the
Shading module and
ensure
Solar module maximum
sunlight to fall
No on the module.
charging Clear the
indication Dirt
3. particles on the
on the accumulation
module
charge Breakage
controller Corrosion
Module
Dry solder Replace cable
Cable
Loose
connection
Broken Replace
Module
module module
Electronic Replace charge
Charge controller
failure controller
Remove the
shades or
change the
location of the
Shading module and
ensure
maximum
sunlight to fall
Solar module on the module.

Clear the
Dirt
 accumulation particles on the
module
Place the
module in such
Output a way that
voltage Improper
4. direct sunlight
for installation
falls on the
less module for
duration more hours.
Breakage
Corrosion
Loose
Module cable Replace cable
connection
Dry solder
Corrosion
Charge the
battery to full
charge
Insufficient
condition &
charging
check the
Battery output
duration.
Low capacity,
acid leakage,
Replace battery
terminal
broken
Remove the
shades or
change the
location of the
Shading module and
Solar module ensure
maximum
sunlight to fall
on the module.
Clear the
 Dirt particles on the
accumulation module
Charge the
battery to full
charge
Insufficient
Battery condition and
charging
Always check the
low output
5.
battery duration.
condition Place the
module in such
a way that
Improper
Solar module direct sunlight
installation
falls on the
module for
more hours.
Loose
Replace cable
connection
Fix the cable
Module properly and
Cable ensure that the
Improper
connections are
fixing
tight with
correct
polarity.
Electronic Replace the
Charge failure charge
Controller
Corrosion controller
Front
Mishandling/ Unserviceable,
6. Glass Breakage
transportation replace
broken
No
voltage Diode failed in short Random Replace the
7.
Across circuit mode failure diode
blocking
diode
 Voltage
high
Diode failed in open Random Replace the
8. Across
circuit mode failure diode
blocking
diode
SECTION-5
MCQ
Q.1 What is the rating of power?

1. Joule.
2. Watt-hour.
3. Watt.
4. Calorie.

Answer : Watt.
Solution: The watt (symbol; W) is a unit of power. In the international
system of units (SI) it is defined as a derived unit of 1 joule per second and is
used to quantify the rate of energy transfer.

Q. 2 What does the word photovoltaic means?

1. Sun-powered.
2. Light-cells.
3. Light-electricity.
4. Solar-energy.

Answer: Light-electricity
Solution: 'Photovoltaic' has two parts; photo, derived from the Greek word
for light, and volt, from electricity pioneer Alessandro Volta. And that's
exactly
what photovoltaic systems do turn light into electricity!

Q. 3 Who discovered the photovoltaic effect?

1. American physicist Enrico Fermi.

2. Italian physicist Alessandro Volta.
3. German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.
4. French physicist Edmond Becquerel.

Answer: French physicist Edmond Becquerel.

Solution: Edmond Becquerel was the first person to realize that sunlight
could produce an electric current in a solid material in 1839, but it took more
than a century for scientists to fully understand this process and develop a
practical solar cell.

Q. 4 What are the most common photovoltaic cell used today?

1. Organic cells.
2. Plastic cells.
3. Polymer cells.
4. Crystalline silicon cells.

Answer: Crystalline silicon cells.

Solution: Unveiled by Bell labs in 1954, silicon cells were the very first
successful photovoltaic (PV) technology, and they remain the most common
PV cells in use today.

Q. 5 Which of these is not considered a 'soft cost' of solar power?

1. Connection fees.
2. Labor.
3. Permits.
4. Solar panels.

Answer: Solar panels.

Solution: Solar soft costs are the expenses associated with customer
acquisition, permitting, inspection, interconnection to the electric grid,
installation, taxation, and system financing. These expenses represents up to
64% of the total cost of a solar photovoltaic(PV) system.

Q. 6 What form of energy do concentrating solar power technologies use to

generate electricity?

1. Static.
2. Chemical.
3. Thermal.
4. Magnetic.
Answer: Thermal.
Solution: Concentrating solar power technologies use mirrors to reflect and
concentrate sunlight onto receivers that collect solar energy and convert it to
heat. This thermal energy can then be used to produce electricity via a steam
turbine or heat engine that drives a generator.

Q. 7 Which of the following is not a technology used in concentrating solar

power?

1. Power tower.
2. Linear Fresnel.
3. Cathode ray tube.
4. Parabolic trough.

Answer: Cathode ray tube.

Solution: Parabolic trough, linear fresnel and power tower are all types of
concentrating solar power systems. They may look very different, but they
operate on the same principle, focusing the sun's rays on a central receiver.

Q. 8 About how many mirrors are used at Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating
System, the largest concentrating solar power facility in the U.S.?

1. 350,000
2. 3500
3. 350
4. 35,000

Answer: 350,000
Solution: Spanning 3,500 acres of Southern California desert, Ivanpah's
173,500 'heliostats'(each made up of two mirrors) focus the sun's rays on
three 459 foot tall, heat collecting 'power towers.' Water circulated through
these towers turns to steam, driving turbines that can generate up to 377
megawatts of electricity enough to power 140,000 homes in California.

Q. 9 A module in a solar panel refers to.

1. Series arrangement of solar cells.

 2. Parallel arrangement of solar cells.
3. Series and parallel arrangement of solar cells.
4. None of the above.

Answer: Series and parallel arrangement of solar cells.

Q. 10 The efficiency of solar cell is about.

1. 25 %
2. 15 %
3. 40 %
4. 60 %

Answer: 15%
Solution: The efficiency of a solar cell is determined as the fraction of
incident power which is converted to electricity and is defined as:

Where:
Voc is the open-circuit voltage;
Isc is the short-circuit current;
FF is the fill factor and
η is the efficiency.
The input power for efficiency calculations is 1 kW/m2 or 100 mW/cm2. Thus
the input power for a 100 × 100 mm2 cell is 10 W and for a 156 × 156
mm2 cell is 24.3 W

Q. 11 What is the maximum possible output of a solar array?

1. 300 W/m2
2. 100 W/m2
3. 250 W/m2
4. 500 W/m2

Answer: 250W/m2
Q. 12 The current density of a photo voltaic cell ranges from.

1. 10-20 mA/cm2
2. 40-50 mA/cm2
3. 20-40 mA/cm2
4. 60-100 mA/cm2

Answer: 40-50mA/cm2

Q. 13 A 'pyranometer' is used for the measurement of.

1. Diffuse radiations only.

2. Direct radiations only.
3. Both direct and diffused radiations.
4. None of the above.

Answer: Both direct and diffused radiations.

Q. 14 Reflector mirrors used for exploiting solar energy are called.

1. Mantle.
2. Heliostats.
3. Diffusers.
4. Ponds.

Answer: Heliostats.
Solution: Heliostat is an apparatus containing a movable mirror, used to
reflect sunlight in a fixed direction.
Q. 15 The function of a solar collector is of converting solar energy into.

1. Radiations.
2. Electrical energy directions.
3. Thermal energy.
4. All of these.

Answer: Thermal energy.

Solution: The energy that comes from the temperature of the heated
substance is called thermal energy.

Q. 16 What are 'pyrheliometers'?

1. Instruments measures beam radiations.

2. Diffuse radiations.
3. Direct radiations only.
4. None of the above.

Answer: Instruments measures beam radiations.

Solution: A pyrheliometer is an instrument for measurement of direct beam
solar irradiance. Sunlight enters the instrument through a window and is
directed onto a thermopile which converts heat to an electrical signal that can
be recorded. The signal voltage is converted via a formula to measure watts
per square meter.

Q. 17 Temperature attained by cylindrical parabolic collector is of the order

of.

1. 50-100 °C
2. 100-150 °C
3. 150-200 °C
4. 200-300 °C

Answer: 200-300°C

Q. 18 In a solar collector, why is the transparent cover provided for?

1. Protect the collector from dust.

2. Reduce the heat losses from collector beneath to atmosphere.
3. Transmit solar radiation only.
4. All of the above.

Answer: All of the above.

Q. 19 There are three types of solar cells.

 1. True.
2. False.

Answer: True.
Solution: There are three types of solar cells. Single crystal, polycrystalline,
and amorphous silicon cells are the major types.

Q. 20 Series and parallel combination of the solar cell is known as.

1. Solar array.
2. Solar light.
3. Solar sight.
4. Solar eye.

Answer: Solar array.

Solution: Series and parallel combination of the solar cell is known as solar
array. Shunt diodes are used to avoid the circulating current.

Q. 21 Full form of 'FF' in the solar field is.

1. Form factor.
2. Fill factor.
3. Face factor.
4. Fire factor.

Answer: Fill Factor.

Solution: FF stands for fill factor. It is the ratio of the maximum obtainable
power to the product of the open circuit voltage and short circuit current.

Q. 22 Calculate fill factor using the data: Pmax=15 W, Voc=18 V, Isc=4 A.

1. 0.65
2. 0.59
3. 0 .20
4. 0.98

Answer: 0.20
Solution: Fill factor is the ratio of the maximum obtainable power to the
product of the open-circuit voltage and short circuit current.
FF=Pmax÷(Voc×Isc)=15/72=0.20

Q. 23 The output of solar cell is of the order of.

1. 1 W.
2. 5 W.
3. 10 W.
4. 20 W.

Answer: 1W.

Q. 24 The voltage of a single solar cell is.

1. 0.2 V.
2. 0.5 V.
3. 1.0 V.
4. 2.0 V.

Answer: 0.5V.

Q. 25 A house has appliances of 3 numbers of LED bulbs of each 5W and 2

numbers of ceiling fans of each 70W. What is the total power of their house
appliances?

1. 70 W.
2. 155W.
3. 15W.
4. 140W.

Answer : 155 W.
Solution : Total power of house =(3x5W)+(2x70W) =15W+140W =155W.

Q. 26 What is the unit of 'energy'?

1. Volt.
 2. Watt-hour.
3. Watt.
4. Ampere.

Answer : Watt-hour.
Solution : Energy = Power x time
Unit of energy = Unit of power x unit of time
Unit of energy = W x h = Wh.

Q. 27 A fan of power 50W is used 8 hours per day and a TV of power 40W is
used 6 hours per day. What is the energy consumption of a fan and TV per
month of 30 days.

1. 640Wh.
2. 12000Wh.
3. 7200Wh.
4. 9200Wh.

Answer : 19200 Wh.

Solution : Energy consumption for 1 day = Power x Time
Energy consumption for 1 day = (50W x 8h)+(40W x 6h) = 400 Wh + 240
Wh
=640Wh
Energy consumption for 30 days = 640 Wh x 30 = 19200 Wh

Q. 28 Can we can run load directly through solar panel.

1. True.
2. False.

Answer :Yes by matching voltage & current of the solar panel and load.
Solution : Voltage and current both are important components to run various
loads directly through solar energy.

Q. 29 If the storage of the medium is electricity grid and battery, the solar
system is called.
 1. Off-grid system.
2. Hybrid system.
3. On-grid system.
4. None of these.

Answer : Hybrid system.

Solution : If the storage of the medium is electricity grid and battery,
the solar system is called hybrid system. In this type of system, we can
give extra generated electricity units to the grid or can store the electricity
in
battery and can use them as and when required.

Q. 30 Can '250 Wp ' solar panel available in the market?

1. True.
2. False.

Answer : True.
Solution : 250 Wp solar panel is available in the market.

Q. 31 A solar panel has a Vm of 17.2V and Im of 2.32A. What is the power of

the solar panel?

1. 40 Wp
2. 19.52 Wp
3. 17 Wp
4. 2 Wp

Answer : 40 Wp
Solution : Power = Voltage x current = Vm x Im
= 17.2V x 2.32A = 39.9VA = 39.9W ~ 40W

Q. 32 The life of the solar panels is.

1. 5 Years.
 2. 10 Years.
3. 25 Years.
4. 15 Years.

Answer : 25 years.
Solution : The life of the solar panels is 25 years. Most of the solar panel
manufacturer today also gives the performance warranty of 25 years.

Q. 33 The requirement of the house is 2 kW and the efficiency of the solar

panel is 18%. Total solar panel installation area =.....

1. 6.66 square meter.

2. 11.11 square meter.
3. 10 square meter.
4. 20 square meter.

Answer : 11.11 square meter.

Solution : If the efficiency of solar panel is 18% then the solar module will
produce 180W per square meter.
Total solar panel installation area = 2 kW/180W per square meter
= 2000W/180W per square meter
= 2000/180 square meter
= 11.11 square meter

Q. 34 Four batteries of 12V, 200Ah are connected in series. What will be

the energy stored in the battery?

1. 4.8 kWh
2. 9.6 kWh
3. 2.4 kWh
4. 960Wh

Answer : 9.6 kWh

Solution : Energy stored in the battery = Power x time x no. of batteries
= Voltage x ampere x hour x nos.
= 12 V x 200Ah x 4Nos.
= 9600 VAh = 9600 Wh = 9.6 kWh

Q. 35 Two commonly used technologies in batteries are.

Answer : Lead acid batteries, lithium ion batteries.
Solution : Two commonly used technologies in batteries are lead-acid
batteries, lithium-ion batteries.

Q. 36 If the actual requirements of a house is 1200Wh & DoD is 50% then

how much energy we need to store in the battery?

1. 1.2kWh
2. 2.4kWh
3. 4.8kWh
4. 0.6kWh

Answer : 2.4 kWh

Solution : Useful energy = Storage capacity of battery x DoD
Storage capacity of battery = Useful energy/DoD
= 1200 Wh/50% = 1200 Wh/0.5
= 2400 Wh = 2.4 kWh
Q. 37 Role of electronic management for the battery is.
Answer : Protect battery from overcharge and full discharge.
Solution : The role of electronic management for the battery is
to protect battery from overcharge and discharge. The battery is a
very delicate part of the solar system and it has to be managed well.

Q. 38 The efficiency of the charge controller is.

Answer : 85% to 90%.

Q. 39 A charge controller maximum input is 12V and 5A. Its maximum

output is 6V and 9A. What is the efficiency of the charge controller?
Answer : 90%.
Solution : The efficiency of charge controller = Output/input
= (6V x 9A)/(12V x 5A)
= 54VA/60VA
= 0.9
= 90%

Q. 40 The efficiency of DC Motor is.

Answer : 85% to 95%.

Q. 41 Solar radiation is represented in.

Answer : kWh/m2/day.
Solution : Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear
fusion reaction that creates electromagnetic energy.
Solar radiation is represented in kWh/m2/day.

Q. 42 The solar panel installation angle is the same for all locations.
Answer : False.
Solution : The solar panel installation angle is not the same for all locations.
It changes as per the latitude of the location.

Q. 43 The cost of the DC appliances solar system is more than the AC

appliances solar system.
Answer : False.
Solution : The cost of the DC appliances solar system is less than the AC
appliances solar system. As the energy consumption of DC appliances is less
than that of AC appliances it requires less quantity of solar panels and
battery. And hence the overall cost of the system in the DC appliances solar
system is less than the cost of the system in the AC appliances solar system.

Q. 44 If a house requires AC load daily energy is 1 kWh. Inverter losses are

15% and battery DoD is 50% what is the battery energy required.
Answer : 2.3 kWh
Solution : AC load = 1 kWh per day
Inverter losses = 15%
Loss at inverter = 15% of 1 kWh = 0.15 kWh
Output from battery = 1 + 0.15 = 1.15 kWh
Battery capacity = Output from battery/DoD = 1.15/50%
= 1.15/0.5 = 2.3 kWh
Q. 45 Calculate the battery energy and solar panel power required for the DC
loads of 500 Wh per day. Battery DoD is 80%, battery losses are 15%,
controller losses are 5%, inverter losses are 15%, solar radiation is 5.25
kWh/m2/day, solar panel losses are 25%.

1. 718 Wh, 165 W

2. 656 Wh, 150 W
3. 1050 Wh, 150 W
4. 1150 Wh, 165 W

Answer : 656Wh, 150W

Solution : DC Load = 500Wh per day
Charge controller losses at load side = 5% of 500Wh = 25Wh
Battery output = 500 + 25 = 525Wh
Battery capacity = Battery output/DoD = 525/80% = 525/0.8 = 656.25Wh
Battery losses = 15% of 525Wh = 78.75Wh
Input for battery = 525 + 78.75 = 603.75Wh
Charge controller losses at panel side = 5% of 603.75Wh = 30.19Wh
Output from solar panel = 603.75 + 30.19 = 633.94Wh
Losses at panel = 25 % of 633.94Wh = 158.48Wh
Input at panel = 633.94 + 158.48 = 792.42Wh
Solar radiation = 5.25 kWh/m2/day
Solar panel requirement = Input at panel/sunshine hours
=792.42/5.25=150.93W~150W

Q. 46 Calculate the solar panel size in watt, battery in kWh and charge
controller in watt for the following appliances. Consider losses are 5%
controller losses, 80% battery DoD, 15% battery losses, 25% solar panel
losses, solar radiation is 5 kWh/m2/day appliances: bulb (4 Nos. of 10 W
running for 5 hours), fan (2 Nos. of 25 W running for 12 hours), TV (1 No.
of
20 W running for 6 hours).

1. 580W, 1.2kWh, 120W

2. 290W, 0.6kWh, 60W
3. 290W, 1.2kWh, 120W
4. 120W, 0.966, 120W
Answer : 290W, 1.2 kWh, 120W
Solution : Total load of appliances
=Nos of appliances x Power rating of appliance x Running hours
=(4x10x5)+(2x25x12)+(1x20x6) = 920 Wh/day
Total Load = 920 Wh per day
Charge controller losses at load side = 5% of 920 Wh = 46 Wh
Battery output = 920 + 46 = 966 Wh
Battery capacity = Battery output/DoD = 966 / 80% = 966 / 0.8
= 1207.5 Wh = 1.2 kWh
Battery losses = 15% of 966 Wh = 145 Wh
Input for battery = 966 + 145 = 1111 Wh
Charge controller losses at panel side = 5% of 1111 Wh = 55.55 Wh
Output from solar panel = 1111 + 55.55 = 1166.55 Wh
Losses at panel = 25 % of 1166.55 Wh = 291.64 Wh
Input at panel = 1166.55 + 291.64 = 1458.19 Wh
Solar radiation = 5 kWh/m2/day
Solar panel requirement = Input at panel/sunshine hours
= 1458.19/5= 291.63W ~ 290W
Size of charge controller = {Nos of appliances x Power rating of appliances}
= (4x10)+(2x25)+(1x20) = 110W
Charge controller capacity should be little higher than the requirement so the
capacity can be taken as 120 W.

Q. 47 How much solar energy reaches the earth's surface at any given
moment?

1. 173 terawatts.
2. 1.73 terawatts.
3. 17,300 terawatts.
4. 173,000 terawatts.

Answer: 173,000 terawatts.

Solution: Solar energy is the most abundant energy source on the planet.
Enough sunlight hits the Earth's surface in 1.5 hours to power the entire
world's electricity consumption for a year!
Q. 48 Solar cells are made from bulk materials that are cut into wafer of.....
thickness.

1. 120-180μm
2. 120-220μm
3. 180-220μm
4. 180-240μm

Answer: 180-240μm
Solution: Solar cells are made from the bulk materials that are cut into
wafers of thickness 180-240μm. Many currently available cells are cut into
wafers.

Q. 49 .......photo voltaic devices in the form of thin films.

1. Cadmium Telluride.
2. Cadmium oxide.
3. Cadmium sulphide.
4. Cadmium sulphate.

Answer: Cadmium Telluride.

Solution: Cadmium telluride is the photo voltaic devices in the form of thin
films. Those are used to absorb and convert the sun light into electricity.

Q. 50 .....is a direct band gap material.

1. Copper Indium Gallium Selenide

2. Copper Selenide
3. Copper Gallium Telluride
4. Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide

Answer: Copper Indium Gallium Selenide

Solution: Copper Indium Gallium Selenide is a direct band gap material. It
has the highest efficiency among the film materials. The efficiency is about
20%.

Q. 51 Dye-sensitized solar cells are made from..........organic dye.

 1. Ruthium melallo
2. Aniline
3. Safranine
4. Induline

Answer: Ruthium melallo

Solution: Dye-sensitized solar cells are made from Ruthium melallo organic
dye in the form of mono layer of light absorbing material and mesoporous
layer of nano particles.

Q. 52 Quantum dot solar cells are based on......

1. Gratzel cell
2. Solar cell
3. Voltaic cell
4. Galvanic cell

Answer: Gratzel cell

Solution: Quantum dot solar cells are based on the Gratzel cell or dye
sensitized solar cell. In dye-sensitized solar cell the nano particulate is
titanium dioxide that amplifies the surface area greatly.

Q. 53 The quantum dot used are.......

1. Cds
2. CdTe
3. PbO
4. GaAs

Answer: Cds
Solution: The quantum dot used is generally is Cds. The other quantum dots
that are used is cadmium selluroide, PbS etc.

Q. 54 Organic polymer solar cells are made from Polyphenylene.

1. True
2. False
Answer: True
Solution: Organic polymer solar cells are made from organic semi
conductors. Some of them are Polyphenylene, Vinylene, Carbon fullerenes.
Q. 55 In real case, the charging current for 200Ah battery would be....?

1. 20-22 A
2. 14-16 A
3. 12-14 A
4. 10-12 A

Answer: 20-22A
Solution: Charging current should be 10% of the Ah (Ampere hour) rating of
battery. Therefore, Charging current for 200Ah battery would be = 200Ah x
(10/100) = 20A. But due to losses, the charging current for 200Ah battery
should be 20-22A.

Q. 56 In real case, the charging time for 200Ah battery would be.......?

1. 5 hours
2. 10 hours
3. 11 hours
4. 12 hours

Answer: 11 hours
Solution: Suppose for 200 Ah battery,
First of all, we will calculate charging current for 200 Ah battery. As we
know that charging current should be 10% of the Ah rating of battery.
So charging current for 200Ah Battery = 200 x (10/100) = 20 Amperes.
But due to the losses, we can take 20-22 Amperes for charging purpose.
suppose we took 22 Amp for charging purpose,
Then charging time for 200Ah battery = 200/22 = 9.09 Hrs.
But this was an ideal case…
Practically, this is noted that 40% of losses ( in case of battery charging)
Then 200 x (40/100) = 80 …..(200Ah x 40% of losses)
Therefore, 200 + 80 = 280 Ah ( 200 Ah + Losses)
Now Charging Time of battery = Ah/Charging Current
28/22 = 12.72 or 12.5 Hrs ( in real case)
Therefore, a 200Ah battery would take 12 Hrs for completely charging (with
22A charging current).

Q. 57 The commercial lead acid cell has 13 plates. The number of positive
plates would be...........

1. 6
2. 7
3. 8
4. 9

Answer: 6
Solution: The number of negative plates in a lead acid cell is one more than
the number of positive plates; the outside plates being negative. So the
number of positive plates would be 6.

Q. 58 A lead acid cell has 15 plates. In absence of manufacturer’s data, the

charging current should be....

1. 3A
2. 6A
3. 7A
4. 13A

Answer:7A
Solution: The charging current for battery should be 1A for every positive
plate of a single cell. Also we know that The number of negative plates in a
lead acid cell is one more than the number of positive plates; the outside
plates being negative. therefore, the number of negative and positive plates
would be 8 and 7 respectively. thus, the charging current for this battery
would be 7A.

Q. 59 A battery is a series or parallel combination of electrolytic cells.

1. True.
2. False.
Answer: True.
Solution: An electrolyte cell consists of a positive electrode and a negative
electrode separated from each other by an electrolyte. The electrolyte can be
concentrated aqueous solutions like acids, alkalis or salts, or ionic conductors
like organic salt solutions, polymers, ceramics etc. The electrolyte is a good
conductor of ions, but a bad conductor of electrons. Two or more such cells
connected together in series or in a series-parallel array forms an assembly
called battery.

Q. 60 In a single cell, the two electrodes are separated from each other by

1. 1mm.
2. 1cm.
3. 0.5mm.
4. 0.5cm.

Answer: 1mm.
Solution: In a single electrolytic cell, the positive electrode and negative
electrode have minimum distance between them, about 1mm, so that the
internal resistance is as low as possible. Typical value of this resistance is of
the order of mill-ohms, so that voltage drops between the electrodes is
minimum when drawing huge amount of current

Q. 61 A primary dry cell is called so because..

1. The electrolyte used is completely dry.

2. The electrolyte used is a moist paste.
3. Dry electrodes are used.
4. None of the above.

Answer: The electrolyte used is a moist paste.

Solution: A primary dry cell, also known as Leclanche cell, consists of a
moist paste as its electrolyte. The paste is usually mixture of substances like
ammonium chloride, manganese dioxide, powdered coke, graphite and water.
The paste is contained in a zinc container, which acts as the cathode or the
negative electrode. The container is lined with a non- conducting material to
separate zinc from the paste.
Q. 62 Specific Gravity of a electrolyte in a single cell or a battery is always....

1. Equal to 1.0
2. Greater than 1.0
3. Less than 1.0
4. None of the above

Answer: Greater than 1.0

Solution: Specific gravity of a substance is defined as the ratio of its weight
compared to the weight of same amount of pure water. This term is used to
determine the amount of active ingredient in an electrolyte, to ensure smooth
operation of the cell. Since the electrolyte is a solution of water, the amount
of active ingredient cannot be measured directly.
Any substance which floats on water will have specific gravity less than that
of pure water, i.e. less than 1.0. Since the active ingredient used must sink or
dissolve in water, the specific gravity is usually greater than that of pure
water, i.e. greater than 1.0.

Q. 63 The current in a chemical cell is a movement of

1. Positive ions only.

2. Positive and negative ions.
3. Negative ions only.
4. Positive hole charges.

Answer: Positive and negative ions.

Q. 64 What is C-rating of battery and what does it mean?

Answer: C-rating measures how fast a battery can discharge its energy.
Higher the C-rating the faster the power can leave the battery to turn motors,
power a light bulb etc. Some electronics can use batteries with lower C-
rating(most flashlight, radios, remote control etc.) while others need high C-
rating batteries(electric vehicles, drones etc.)
The C-rating number is the number of times the battery can discharge in one
hour without overheating or damaging the battery. For example, a battery
with 1C can discharge its entire capacity in 1 hour, while 6C battery can in 10
minutes, 10C battery can in 6 minutes.
In solar PV system we generally use 10C rating batteries.

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