Ethics and Professional Practice

Code of Ethics
Engineering is considered to be a "profession" rather than an "occupation" because of several important characteristics
shared with other recognized learned professions, law, medicine, and theology: special knowledge, special privileges, and
special responsibilities. Professions are based on a large knowledge base requiring extensive training. Professional skills
are important to the well-being of society. Professions are self-regulating, in that they control the training and evaluation
processes that admit new persons to the field. Professionals have autonomy in the workplace; they are expected to utilize
their independent judgment in carrying out their professional responsibilities. Finally, professions are regulated by ethical
standards. (Harris, C.E., M.S. Pritchard, & M.J. Rabins, Engineering Ethics: Concepts and Cases, Wadsworth Publishing
company, pages 27–28, 1995.)

The expertise possessed by engineers is vitally important to societal welfare. In order to serve society effectively, engineers
must maintain a high level of technical competence. However, a high level of technical expertise without adherence to
ethical guidelines is as much a threat to public welfare as is professional incompetence. Therefore, engineers must also be
guided by ethical principles.

The ethical principles governing the engineering profession are embodied in codes of ethics. Such codes have been adopted
by state boards of registration, professional engineering societies, and even by some private industries. An example of one
such code is the NCEES Rules of Professional Conduct, found in Section 240 of the Model Rules and presented here. As
part of his/her responsibility to the public, an engineer is responsible for knowing and abiding by the code. Additional rules
of conduct are also included in the Model Rules.

The three major sections of the Model Rules address (1) Licensee's Obligation to the Public, (2) Licensee's Obligation to
Employers and Clients, and (3) Licensee's Obligation to Other Licensees. The principles amplified in these sections are
important guides to appropriate behavior of professional engineers.

Application of the code in many situations is not controversial. However, there may be situations in which applying
the code may raise more difficult issues. In particular, there may be circumstances in which terminology in the code is
not clearly defined, or in which two sections of the code may be in conflict. For example, what constitutes "valuable
consideration" or "adequate" knowledge may be interpreted differently by qualified professionals. These types of questions
are called conceptual issues, in which definitions of terms may be in dispute. In other situations, factual issues may also
affect ethical dilemmas. Many decisions regarding engineering design may be based upon interpretation of disputed or
incomplete information. In addition, tradeoffs revolving around competing issues of risk vs. benefit, or safety vs. economics
may require judgments that are not fully addressed simply by application of the code.

No code can give immediate and mechanical answers to all ethical and professional problems that an engineer may face.
Creative problem solving is often called for in ethics, just as it is in other areas of engineering.

Model Rules, Section 240.15 Rules of Professional Conduct

To safeguard the health, safety, and welfare of the public and to maintain integrity and high standards of skill and practice in
the engineering and surveying professions, the rules of professional conduct provided in this section shall be binding upon
every licensee and on all firms authorized to offer or perform engineering or surveying services in this jurisdiction.
A. Licensee’s Obligation to the Public
1. Licensees shall be cognizant that their first and foremost responsibility is to safeguard the health, safety, and
welfare of the public when performing services for clients and employers.
2. Licensees shall sign and seal only those plans, surveys, and other documents that conform to accepted engineering
and surveying standards and that safeguard the health, safety, and welfare of the public.
3. Licensees shall notify their employer or client and such other authority as may be appropriate when their
professional judgment is overruled when the health, safety, or welfare of the public is endangered.
4. Licensees shall, to the best of their knowledge, include all relevant and pertinent information in an objective and
truthful manner within all professional documents, statements, and testimony.
5. Licensees shall express a professional opinion publicly only when it is founded upon an adequate knowledge of the
facts and a competent evaluation of the subject matter.
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6. Licensees shall issue no statements, criticisms, or arguments on engineering and surveying matters that are inspired
or paid for by interested parties, unless they explicitly identify the interested parties on whose behalf they are
speaking and reveal any interest they have in the matters.
7. Licensees shall not partner, practice, or offer to practice with any person or firm that they know is engaged in
fraudulent or dishonest business or professional practices.
8. Licensees who have knowledge or reason to believe that any person or firm has violated any rules or laws applying
to the practice of engineering or surveying shall report it to the board, may report it to appropriate legal authorities,
and shall cooperate with the board and those authorities as requested.
9. Licensees shall not knowingly provide false or incomplete information regarding an applicant in obtaining
licensure.
10. Licensees shall comply with the licensing laws and rules governing their professional practice in each of the
jurisdictions in which they practice.
B. Licensee’s Obligation to Employer and Clients
1. Licensees shall undertake assignments only when qualified by education or experience in the specific technical
fields of engineering or surveying involved.
2. Licensees shall not affix their signatures or seals to any plans or documents dealing with subject matter in which
they lack competence, nor to any such plan or document not prepared under their responsible charge.
3. Licensees may accept assignments and assume responsibility for coordination of an entire project if each technical
segment is signed and sealed by the licensee responsible for preparation of that technical segment.
4. Licensees shall not reveal facts, data, or information obtained in a professional capacity without the prior consent
of the client, employer, or public body on which they serve except as authorized or required by law or rules.
5. Licensees shall not solicit or accept gratuities, directly or indirectly, from contractors, their agents, or other parties
in connection with work for employers or clients.
6. Licensees shall disclose to their employers or clients all known or potential conflicts of interest or other
circumstances that could influence or appear to influence their judgment or the quality of their professional service
or engagement.
7. Licensees shall not accept compensation, financial or otherwise, from more than one party for services pertaining
to the same project, unless the circumstances are fully disclosed and agreed to in writing by all interested parties.
8. Licensees shall not solicit or accept a professional contract from a governmental body on which a principal or
officer of their organization serves as a member. Conversely, licensees serving as members, advisors, or employees
of a government body or department, who are the principals or employees of a private concern, shall not participate
in decisions with respect to professional services offered or provided by said concern to the governmental body that
they serve.
9. Licensees shall not use confidential information received in the course of their assignments as a means of making
personal profit without the consent of the party from whom the information was obtained.
C. Licensee’s Obligation to Other Licensees
1. Licensees shall not falsify or permit misrepresentation of their, or their associates’, academic or professional
qualifications. They shall not misrepresent or exaggerate their degree of responsibility in prior assignments nor the
complexity of said assignments. Presentations incidental to the solicitation of employment or business shall not
misrepresent pertinent facts concerning employers, employees, associates, joint ventures, or past accomplishments.
2. Licensees shall not offer, give, solicit, or receive, either directly or indirectly, any commission, or gift, or other
valuable consideration in order to secure work, and shall not make any political contribution with the intent to
influence the award of a contract by public authority.
3. Licensees shall not injure or attempt to injure, maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, the professional
reputation, prospects, practice, or employment of other licensees, nor indiscriminately criticize other licensees’
work.
4. Licensees shall make a reasonable effort to inform another licensee whose work is believed to contain a material
discrepancy, error, or omission that may impact the health, safety, or welfare of the public, unless such reporting is
legally prohibited.

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Model Law, Section 110.20 Definitions

A. Engineer
1. Engineer—The term "Engineer," within the intent of this Act, shall mean an individual who is qualified to practice
engineering by reason of engineering education, training, and experience in the application of engineering
principles and the interpretation of engineering data.
2. Professional Engineer—The term "Professional Engineer," as used in this Act, shall mean an individual who has
been duly licensed as a professional engineer by the board. The board may designate a professional engineer, on the
basis of education, experience, and examination, as being licensed in a specific discipline or branch of engineering
signifying the area in which the engineer has demonstrated competence.
3. Professional Engineer, Retired—The term "Professional Engineer, Retired," as used in this Act, shall mean an
individual who has been duly licensed as a professional engineer by the board and who chooses to relinquish or not
to renew a license and who applies to and is approved by the board to be granted the use of the title "Professional
Engineer, Retired."
4. Engineer Intern—The term "Engineer Intern," as used in this Act, shall mean an individual who has been duly
certified as an engineer intern by the board.
5. Practice of Engineering—The term "Practice of Engineering," as used in this Act, shall mean any service or
creative work requiring engineering education, training, and experience in the application of engineering principles
and the interpretation of engineering data to engineering activities that potentially impact the health, safety, and
welfare of the public.
The services may include, but not be limited to, providing planning, studies, designs, design coordination,
drawings, specifications, and other technical submissions; teaching engineering design courses; performing
surveying that is incidental to the practice of engineering; and reviewing construction or other design products for
the purposes of monitoring compliance with drawings and specifications related to engineered works.
Surveying incidental to the practice of engineering excludes the surveying of real property for the establishment
of land boundaries, rights of way, easements, and the dependent or independent surveys or resurveys of the public
land survey system.
An individual shall be construed to practice engineering, within the meaning and intent of this Act, if he or she
does any of the following:
a. Practices any discipline of the profession of engineering or holds himself or herself out as able and entitled to
practice any discipline of engineering
b. Represents himself or herself to be a professional engineer by verbal claim, sign, advertisement, letterhead, or
card or in any other way
c. Through the use of some other title, implies that he or she is a professional engineer under this Act
6. Inactive Status—Licensees who are not engaged in engineering practice that requires licensure in this jurisdiction
may be granted inactive status. No licensee granted inactive status may practice or offer to practice engineering in
this jurisdiction unless otherwise exempted in this Act.
B. Professional Surveyor (Professional Land Surveyor, Professional Surveyor and Mapper, Geomatics Professional, or
equivalent term); See Model Law.
C. Board—The term "Board," as used in this Act, shall mean the jurisdiction board of licensure for professional engineers
and professional surveyors, hereinafter provided by this Act.
D. Jurisdiction—The term "Jurisdiction," as used in this Act, shall mean a state, the District of Columbia, or any territory,
commonwealth, or possession of the United States that issues licenses to practice and regulates the practice of
engineering and/or surveying within its legal boundaries.
E. Responsible Charge—The term "Responsible Charge," as used in this Act, shall mean direct control and personal
supervision of engineering or surveying work, as the case may be.
F. Rules of Professional Conduct—The term "Rules of Professional Conduct," as used in this Act, shall mean those rules
of professional conduct, if any, promulgated by the board as authorized by this Act.
G. Firm—The term "Firm," as used in this Act, shall mean any form of business or entity other than an individual
operating as a sole proprietorship under his or her own name.
H. Managing Agent—The term "Managing Agent," as used in this Act, shall mean an individual who is licensed under this
Act and who has been designated pursuant to Section 160.20 of this Act by the firm.
I. Rules—The term "Rules," as used in this Act, shall mean those rules and regulations adopted pursuant to Section
120.60 A, Board Powers, of this Act.

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J. Signature—The term "Signature," as used in this Act, shall be in accordance with the Rules.
K. Seal—The term "Seal," as used in this Act, shall mean a symbol, image, or list of information.
L. Licensee—The term "Licensee," as used in this Act, shall mean a professional engineer or a professional surveyor.
M. Person—The term "Person," as used in this Act, shall mean an individual or firm.
N. Authoritative—The term "Authoritative," as used in this Act or Rules promulgated under this Act, shall mean being
presented as trustworthy and competent when used to describe products, processes, applications, or data resulting from
the practice of surveying.
O. Disciplinary Action—The term "Disciplinary Action," as used in this Act, shall mean any final written decision or
settlement taken against an individual or firm by a licensing board based upon a violation of the board’s laws and rules.
P. Positional accuracy—The extent to which horizontal and vertical information on a map or in a digital database matches
true or accepted values that are relative to the earth’s surface or other reference datum
Q. Georeferenced—Being referenced, measured, or described in spatial terms relative to the earth’s surface or other
reference datum
R. Surveying deliverables—Any map, database, report, or other similar electronic or printed deliverable that shows the
authoritative location of features or coordinate systems. Surveying deliverables provide spatial information to a level of
positional accuracy, whether that accuracy is stated, regulated, or implied.
Model Law, Section 130.10 General Requirements for Licensure
Education, experience, and examinations are required for licensure as a professional engineer or professional surveyor as
set forth by the jurisdiction.
A. Eligibility for Licensure
To be eligible for licensure as a professional engineer or professional surveyor, an individual must meet all of the
following requirements:
1. Be of good character and reputation
2. Satisfy the education criteria set forth by the board
3. Satisfy the experience criteria set forth by the board
4. Pass the applicable examinations set forth by the board
5. Submit five references acceptable to the board
B. Engineering
1. Certification or Enrollment as an Engineer Intern
The following shall be considered as minimum evidence that the applicant is qualified for certification as an
engineer intern.
a. Graduating from an engineering program of four years or more accredited by the Engineering Accreditation
Commission of ABET (EAC/ABET), graduating from an engineering master’s program accredited by EAC/
ABET, or meeting the requirements of the NCEES Engineering Education Standard
b. Passing the NCEES Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) examination
2. Licensure as a Professional Engineer
a. Initial Licensure as a Professional Engineer
An applicant who presents evidence of meeting the applicable education, examination, and experience
requirements as described below shall be eligible for licensure as a professional engineer.
(1) Education Requirements
An individual seeking licensure as a professional engineer shall possess one or more of the following
education qualifications:
(a) A degree in engineering from an EAC/ABET-accredited bachelor’s program
(b) A degree in engineering from an EAC/ABET-accredited master’s program
(c) A bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree in engineering from a non-EAC/ABET-accredited program.
This individual’s education must be shown to meet the NCEES Engineering Education Standard.
(2) Examination Requirements
An individual seeking licensure as a professional engineer shall take and pass the NCEES Fundamentals of
Engineering (FE) examination and the NCEES Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) examination as
described below.
(a) The FE examination may be taken by a college senior or graduate of an engineering program of four
years or more accredited by EAC/ABET, of a program that meets the requirements of the NCEES
Engineering Education Standard, or of an engineering master’s program accredited by EAC/ABET.

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(b) The PE examination may be taken by an engineer intern.

(3) Experience Requirements
An individual seeking licensure as a professional engineer shall present evidence of a specific record of
four years of progressive engineering experience after a qualifying degree is conferred as described in a(1)
above. This experience should be of a grade and character that indicate to the board that the applicant may
be competent to practice engineering. The following educational criteria may apply as a substitute to the
length of experience set forth above:
(a) An individual with a master’s degree in engineering acceptable to the board:
three years of experience after the qualifying bachelor’s degree is conferred as described in a(1)(a) or
a(1)(c) above
(b) An individual with an earned doctoral degree in engineering acceptable to the board and who has
passed the FE exam: two years of experience
(c) An individual with an earned doctoral degree in engineering acceptable to the board and who has
elected not to take the FE exam: four years of experience
A graduate degree that is used to satisfy education requirements cannot be applied for experience credit
toward licensure. To be eligible for experience credit, graduate degrees shall be relevant to the applicant’s
area of professional practice.
Experience credit for a graduate degree cannot be earned concurrently with work experience credit.
b. Licensure by Comity for a Professional Engineer
The following shall be considered as minimum evidence satisfactory to the board that the applicant is qualified
for licensure by comity as a professional engineer:
(1) An individual holding a certificate of licensure to engage in the practice of engineering issued by a proper
authority of any jurisdiction or any foreign country, based on requirements that do not conflict with the
provisions of this Act and possessing credentials that are, in the judgment of the board, of a standard
that provides proof of minimal competency and is comparable to the applicable licensure act in effect
in this jurisdiction at the time such certificate was issued may, upon application, be licensed without
further examination except as required to examine the applicant’s knowledge of statutes, rules, and other
requirements unique to this jurisdiction; or
(2) An individual holding an active Council Record with NCEES, whose qualifications as evidenced by the
Council Record meet the requirements of this Act, may, upon application, be licensed without further
examination except as required to examine the applicant’s knowledge of statutes, rules, and other
requirements unique to this jurisdiction.
C. Surveying; See Model Law
Model Law, Section 150.10, Grounds for Disciplinary Action—Licensees and Interns
A. The board shall have the power to suspend, revoke, place on probation, fine, recover costs, and/or reprimand, or to
refuse to issue, restore, or renew a license or intern certification to any licensee or intern that is found guilty of:
1. Any fraud or deceit in obtaining or attempting to obtain or renew a certificate of licensure
2. Any negligence, incompetence, or misconduct in the practice of engineering or surveying
3. Conviction of or entry of a plea of guilty or nolo contendere to any crime that is a felony, whether or not related
to the practice of engineering or surveying; and conviction of or entry of a plea of guilty or nolo contendere to
any crime, whether a felony, misdemeanor, or otherwise, an essential element of which is dishonesty or which is
directly related to the practice of engineering or surveying
4. Failure to comply with any of the provisions of this Act or any of the rules or regulations of the board
5. Discipline (including voluntary surrender of a professional engineer’s or professional surveyor’s license in order to
avoid disciplinary action) by another jurisdiction, foreign country, or the United States government, if at least one
of the grounds for discipline is the same or substantially equivalent to those contained in this Act
6. Failure to provide information requested by the board as a result of a formal or informal complaint to the board that
alleges a violation of this Act
7. Knowingly making false statements or signing false statements, certifications, or affidavits in connection with the
practice of engineering or surveying
8. Aiding or assisting another person in violating any provision of this Act or the rules or regulations of the board
9. Violating any terms of any Order imposed or agreed to by the board or using a seal or practicing engineering or
surveying while the licensee’s license is inactive or restricted

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10. Signing, affixing, or permitting the licensee’s seal or signature to be affixed to any specifications, reports, drawings,
plans, plats, design information, construction documents or calculations, surveys, or revisions thereof which have
not been prepared by the licensee or under the licensee’s responsible charge
11. Engaging in dishonorable, unethical, or unprofessional conduct of a character likely to deceive, defraud, or harm
the public
12. Providing false testimony or information to the board
13. Habitual intoxication or addiction to the use of drugs or alcohol
14. Providing engineering or surveying services outside any of the licensee’s areas of competence
B. In addition to or in lieu of any other sanction provided in this section, any licensee or intern that violates a provision of
this Act or any rule or regulation of the board may be assessed a fine in an amount determined by the board of not more
than [insert amount] dollars for each offense
1. Each day of continued violation may constitute a separate offense.
2. In determining the amount of fine to be assessed pursuant to this section, the board may consider such factors as the
following:
a. Whether the amount imposed will be a substantial economic deterrent to the violation
b. The circumstances leading to the violation
c. The severity of the violation and the risk of harm to the public
d. The economic benefits gained by the violator as a result of noncompliance
e. The interest of the public
f. Consistency of the fine with past fines for similar offenses, or justification for the fine amount
Model Law, Section 150.30 Grounds for Disciplinary Action—Unlicensed Individuals
A. In addition to any other provisions of law, the board shall have the power to fine and recover costs from any unlicensed
individual who is found guilty of:
1. Engaging in the practice or offer to practice of engineering or surveying in this jurisdiction without being licensed
in accordance with the provisions of this Act
2. Using or employing the words "engineer," "engineering," "surveyor," "surveying," or any modification or
derivative thereof in his or her name or form of business activity except as licensed in this Act
3. Presenting or attempting to use the certificate of licensure or seal of a licensee
4. Engaging in any fraud or deceit in obtaining or attempting to obtain a certificate of licensure or intern certification
5. Impersonating any licensee
6. Using or attempting to use an expired, suspended, revoked, inactive, retired, or nonexistent certificate of licensure
B. A fine assessed under this section may not exceed [insert amount] dollars for each offense.
C. Each day of continued violation may constitute a separate offense.
D. In determining the amount of fine to be assessed pursuant to this section, the board may consider such factors as the
following:
1. Whether the amount imposed will be a substantial economic deterrent to the violation
2. The circumstances leading to the violation
3. The severity of the violation and the risk of harm to the public
4. The economic benefits gained by the violator as a result of noncompliance
5. The interest of the public
6. Consistency of the fine with past fines for similar offenses, or justification for the fine amount
Model Law, Section 160.10 General Requirements for Certificates of Authorization
A. A firm that practices or offers to practice engineering or surveying is required to obtain a certificate of authorization by
the board in accordance with the Rules.
B. This section shall not require a certificate of authorization for a firm performing engineering or surveying for the firm
itself or for a parent or subsidiary of said firm.
C. The secretary of state of this jurisdiction shall not accept organizational papers nor issue a certificate of incorporation,
organization, licensure, or authorization to any firm which includes among the objectives for which it is established or
within its name, any of the words "engineer," "engineering," "surveyor," "surveying," or any modification or derivation
thereof unless the board has issued for said applicant a certificate of authorization or a letter indicating the eligibility of
such applicant to receive such a certificate. The firm applying shall supply such certificate or letter from the board with
its application for incorporation, organization, licensure, or authorization.

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D. The secretary of state of this jurisdiction shall decline to authorize any trade name, trademark, or service mark that
includes therein such words as set forth in the previous subsection, or any modifications or derivatives thereof, except
licensees and those firms holding certificates of authorization issued under the provisions of this section.
Model Law, Section 160.70 Grounds for Disciplinary Action—Firms Holding a Certificate of
Authorization
A. The board shall have the power to suspend, revoke, place on probation, fine, recover costs, and/or reprimand, or to
refuse to issue, restore, or renew a certificate of authorization to any firm holding a certificate of authorization that is
found guilty of:
1. Any fraud or deceit in obtaining or attempting to obtain or renew a certificate of authorization
2. Any negligence, incompetence, or misconduct in the practice of engineering or surveying
3. Conviction of or entry of a plea of guilty or nolo contendere to any crime that is a felony, whether or not related
to the practice of engineering or surveying; and conviction of or entry of a plea of guilty or nolo contendere to
any crime, whether a felony, misdemeanor, or otherwise, an essential element of which is dishonesty or which is
directly related to the practice of engineering or surveying
4. Failure to comply with any of the provisions of this Act or any of the rules or regulations of the board
5. Discipline (including voluntary surrender of an engineering or surveying license in order to avoid disciplinary
action) by another jurisdiction, foreign country, or the United States government, if at least one of the grounds for
discipline is the same or substantially equivalent to those contained in this Act
6. Failure to provide information requested by the board as a result of a formal or informal complaint to the board that
alleges a violation of this Act
7. Knowingly making false statements or signing false statements, certifications, or affidavits in connection with the
practice of engineering or surveying
8. Aiding or assisting another person in violating any provision of this Act or the rules or regulations of the board
9. Violating any terms of any Order imposed or agreed to by the board or using a seal or practicing engineering or
surveying while the firm’s certificate of authorization is inactive or restricted
10. Engaging in dishonorable, unethical, or unprofessional conduct of a character likely to deceive, defraud, or harm
the public
11. Providing false testimony or information to the board
B. In addition to or in lieu of any other sanction provided in this section, any firm holding a certificate of authorization that
violates a provision of this Act or any rule or regulation of the board may be assessed a fine in an amount determined
by the board of not more than [insert amount] dollars for each offense.
1. Each day of continued violation may constitute a separate offense.
2. In determining the amount of fine to be assessed pursuant to this section, the board may consider such factors as the
following:
a. Whether the amount imposed will be a substantial economic deterrent to the violation
b. The circumstances leading to the violation
c. The severity of the violation and the risk of harm to the public
d. The economic benefits gained by the violator as a result of noncompliance
e. The interest of the public
f. Consistency of the fine with past fines for similar offenses, or justification for the fine amount
C. In addition to any other sanction provided in this section, the board shall have the power to sanction as follows any
firm where one or more of its managing agents, officers, directors, owners, or managers have been found guilty of any
conduct which would constitute a violation under the provisions of this Act or any of the rules or regulations of the
board:
1. Place on probation, fine, recover costs from, and/or reprimand
2. Revoke, suspend, or refuse to issue, restore, or renew the certificate of authorization

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Model Law, Section 170.30 Exemption Clause

This Act shall not be construed to prevent the following:
A. Other Professions—The practice of any other legally recognized profession
B. Contingent License—A contingent license may be issued by the board or board administrator to an applicant for licensure
by comity if the applicant appears to meet the requirements for licensure by comity. Such a contingent license will be in
effect from its date of issuance until such time as the board takes final action on the application for licensure by comity. If the
board determines that the applicant does not meet the requirements for issuance of a license, the contingent license shall be
immediately and automatically revoked upon notice to the applicant and no license will be issued.
C. Employees and Subordinates—The work of an employee or a subordinate of an individual holding a certificate of licensure
under this Act, or an employee of an individual practicing lawfully under Subsection B of this section, provided such work
does not include final engineering or surveying designs or decisions and is done under the responsible charge of and verified
by an individual holding a certificate of licensure under this Act or an individual practicing lawfully under Subsection B of this
section.

Intellectual Property
Intellectual property is the creative product of the intellect and normally includes inventions, symbols, literary works,
patents, and designs.

A number of options are available to individuals who wish to protect their intellectual property from being claimed or
misused by others. There are four protection categories used to offer varying degrees of protection to intellectual property
owners: Patents, Trademarks, Copyrights, and Trade Secrets.

Patents
A patent for an invention is the grant of a property right to the inventor, issued by the United States Patent and Trademark
Office. Generally, the term of a new patent is 20 years from the date on which the application for the patent was filed
in the United States or, in special cases, from the date an earlier related application was filed, subject to the payment of
maintenance fees. U.S. patent grants are effective only within the United States, U.S. territories, and U.S. possessions.

There are three types of patents:

1 Utility patents may be granted to anyone who invents or discovers any new and useful process, machine, article of
manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereof;

2 Design patents may be granted to anyone who invents a new, original, and ornamental design for an article of
manufacture; and

3 Plant patents may be granted to anyone who invents or discovers and asexually reproduces any distinct and new variety
of plant.

Trademarks
A trademark is a word, name, symbol, or device that is used in trade with goods to indicate the source of the goods and to
distinguish them from the goods of others. Trademark rights may be used to prevent others from using a confusingly similar
mark, but not to prevent others from making the same goods or from selling the same goods or services under a clearly
different mark.

Copyrights
A copyright is a form of protection provided to the authors of "original works of authorship" including literary, dramatic,
musical, artistic, and certain other intellectual works, both published and unpublished. The 1976 Copyright Act generally
gives the owner of copyright the exclusive right to reproduce the copyrighted work, to prepare derivative works, to
distribute copies or phonorecords of the copyrighted work, to perform the copyrighted work publicly, or to display the
copyrighted work publicly.

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Trade Secrets
A trade secret applies to a formula, pattern, compilation, program, device, method, technique, or process. To meet the most
common definition of a trade secret, it must be used in business and give an opportunity to obtain an economic advantage
over competitors who do not know or use it. Trade secrets offer little protection without a written agreement between the
involved parties.

United States Patent and Trademark Office, https://www.uspto.gov/patents-getting-started/general-information-concerning-patents#headings-2.

Societal Considerations
"Creating a sustainable world that provides a safe, secure, healthy life for all peoples is a priority of the US engineering
community. Engineers must deliver solutions that are technically viable, [economically] feasible, and environmentally and
socially sustainable."

Reddy, K.R., C. Cameselle, and J.A.A. Adams, Sustainable Engineering: Drivers, Metrics, Tools, and Applications, 1st ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2019.

Sustainable approaches during planning, design, and construction or manufacture will carry forward throughout a project’s
or product’s operation and maintenance to end-of-life. Sustainable principles include consideration of:

• Safety

• Public health

• Quality of life

• Resource allocation

• Non-renewable resources

Life-cycle analysis (cradle to grave) involves assessing the potential environmental consequences associated with a
project or product from design and development through utilization and disposal. Engineers must employ concern for
environmental health and public safety by addressing such things as:

• Landscape aesthetics

• Protection of ecosystems

• Resource conservation

• Air and water pollution

• Atmospheric emissions

• Collection and processing of waste

Adapted from: United States General Services Administration, “Sustainable Design” page,
https://www.gsa.gov/real-estate/design-construction/design-excellence/sustainability/sustainable-design.

Dennis, “What is the Triple Bottom Line?” The Education Center (blog), RMA Environmental Services,
https://www.rmagreen.com/rma-blog/what-is-the-triple-bottom-line.

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