Hallmarks of Effective Teaching

Introduction

This learning packet focuses on principles and practices of effective teaching in patient, staff and student
education.

Objectives
1. Describe the different trademarks of effective teaching in Nursing
2. Execute the symbols of effective teaching in the different settings of Nursing

Effective Teaching in Nursing

Teachers have a powerful, long-lasting influence on their students. They

directly affect how students learn, what they learn, how much they learn, Key Points:
and the ways in which they interact with one another and the world around
 Key point: Influence in
them. Considering the degree of the teacher’s influence, it is important to
teaching is seen in how
understand what teachers should do to promote positive results in the lives it affects the learner
of students—with regard to school achievement, positive attitudes toward  Key point: Good
school, interest in learning, and other desirable outcomes. teachers are
characterized by their
Effectiveness is an elusive concept when we consider the complex task of ability to influence
learners
teaching. Some researchers define teacher effectiveness in terms of student
achievement. Others focus on high performance ratings from supervisors. Definition of Terms:
Still others rely on comments from students, administrators, and other
interested stakeholders. In fact, in addition to being uncertain how to define Effectiveness: refers to
effectiveness, we vacillate on just how to refer to successful teachers. usefulness and value of
Cruickshank and Haefele (2001) noted that good teachers, at various times, teaching
have been called ideal, analytical, dutiful, competent, expert, reflective,
satisfying, diversity-responsive, and respected.

As a teacher’s influence is far reaching, it is challenging to define what

outcomes might demonstrate effectiveness and how those outcomes should
be measured. In addition, many variables outside the teacher’s control
affect each of the potential measures of effectiveness. Despite the
complexities surrounding the issue of measuring teacher effectiveness, we
can agree that effective teachers make an extraordinary and lasting impact
on their students’ lives. For instance, research finds that students taught by
highly effective teachers are more likely to attend college, live in better
neighborhoods, and save more for retirement.

To remain current with the changes happening in other sectors, education

and teaching need to continue to evolve. The shift to a knowledge economy,
worldwide in many respects, has brought unparalleled attention to the
quality of education systems and, in particular, to teacher quality. Within
this continuing shift to a 21st century knowledge economy, a primary factor
shaping the workers of the new economy is education quality. Indeed, we
must understand that the nations with the best schools, and the schools
with the best teachers and leaders, will
own the future.

A highly interrelated and competitive world demands that young people be

truly college and career ready. Consequently, particularly within the past
decade or two, numerous and substantial changes have taken place in the
educational realm. Consider just a few of these meta-changes:

1. Unprecedented attention has been paid to teacher performance and

accountability due to a significant body of research identifying the teacher
as the most important in-school factor impacting student success.
2. Conceptions are changing regarding how people learn and what they
need to know in order to compete in the knowledge economy. Key Points:
3. Changing contexts of an increasingly diverse student population are
 Key point: Teaching
calling for growing equality.
requires systematic
promotion of learning
The consequences of these and similar changes shine a bright spotlight on
effective teachers. Teachers must prepare all students to meet world-class
standards, diminish achievement gaps and social inequality, and serve as Definition of Terms:
the linchpin for educational reforms (Cochran-Smith & Villegas, 2015). All
Professional Skills: refers
of these factors, along with many others, place a renewed premium on our
to set of skills reflecting
populating every classroom with the best teachers possible. the capabilities of a
teacher
The Nurse as an Effective Teacher

Teaching is an art and it should be judged for the passion and beauty of the
performance and the meaningfulness of the message conveyed. Teaching is
a complex and demanding activity that involves mastery of content,
classroom control, techniques of organization, and command of teaching
skills. Teaching consists not only of instruction, but also of the systematic
promotion of learning by whatever means. The profiles of effective teachers
are as diverse as the students they teach. Still, the best teachers do share
several characteristics. In Qualities of Effective Teachers, Stronge (2002)
synthesizes research to identify specific teacher behaviors that contribute to
student achievement. Rather than look at outside factors like demographics,
district leadership, and state mandates, Stronge focuses specifically on what
teachers can control-their own preparation, personality, and practices.
Fitzpatrick (2004) comments that though it is important to develop more
comprehensible means to measure effectiveness, it is equally important to
recognize that one may be able to truly measure the art of teaching in
conventional ways.

While these global perspectives are important that they do not identify
many of the specifics that are associated with effective teaching in nursing
education and the means that could or should be used to assess teaching
effectiveness in nurse preparation programs. These specifics include:
determining what are the effective teaching skills, what beliefs about the
teaching and learning process educators and their students hold, what
criteria should be used to assess teaching effectiveness, who should
evaluate the various aspects of teaching, and what other important
elements should and do guide the assessment of effective teaching in
nursing education. Identifying these components is necessary for educators
to improve their teaching and, ultimately, for helping aspiring nurses
acquire the beliefs, the skills, and the knowledge that are needed in nursing
practice.

Many authors have identified professional and personal skills as bases of

effective teachers. Rubio (2010) have proposed the following as professional
and personal skills:

Professional Skills
Key Points:
Effective teachers are distinguished by their dedication to the students and
to the job of teaching and feel responsible for the achievement and success  Key point: Content
of the students and own professional development. Effective teachers really Knowledge is a hall
mark of effective
believe that all students can learn, although all learn differently. They strive teaching
to motivate and engage all their students in learning rather than simple  Key point: A Good Plan
accepting that some students cannot be engaged and are destined to do is facilitates clear
poorly. explanations

Content Knowledge Definition of Terms:

For many, including teachers, the most obvious requirement to be an
Classroom Management:
effective teacher is the content knowledge of the subject. Reynolds and refers to the
Muijs (1999) considered good content knowledge responses to spontaneous organization of
and demanding students questioning. According to the McBer Report student’s needs and
(DFES, 2000) students expect a teacher to have good content knowledge to preferences to create
be considered effective, which inspire the students’ confidence in the learning environment
conducive for learning
teacher. In addition, Ferguson & Womackl (1993) stated that “effective
communication of content knowledge is a hallmark of good teachers”.
However, having good content knowledge is just one of many vital factors
and qualities, which an effective teacher needs to have in order to enhance
learning and achievement.

Good Planning
Having good content knowledge is not so effective without a well-planned
lesson. A lesson plan makes the content and the session interesting and
involving. Good planning facilitates clear explanations, and it provides a
wide range of resources suitable to students’ needs. It assists with effective
use of oral questioning, giving instructions, being flexible, and having an
impact on the students´ stimulation to encourage their interest and
participation. Effective teachers should give meaning to the subject by
facilitating relevant material to the students wherever possible, and by
finding means to stimulate interest on it. Besides, they must be prepared to
reconsider whether the material and methodology is suitable to be re-
presented in the classroom.

Craig and Dickenson (2003) pointed out that good planning ensures that
lessons include periods where students are allowed to have discussion in
open or close groups or in pairs. Good planning organizes the material
which allows doing more and better during a session. Gurney, (2007) also
pointed out that should allow the students to give the teacher their
feedback in order to improve own knowledge, methodology and learning
environment if needed. Cruickshenk & Haefele (2001) stated that “effective
teachers are able to qualitatively do more with the same amount of time”
However, good planning also implies classroom management and
Key Points:
organization to achieve learning.
 Key point: Classroom
Classroom Management and Organization rules enables clear
Effective teachers manage and organize the classroom, in the beginning of instructions and
the year, according to the students’ needs and preferences to create an promote students’
optimistic and warm learning environment for all the students and enhance motivations,
learning. Emmer et al. (1980, 2003) stated that “effective teachers take time enthusiasm and
learning
in the beginning of the year and especially on the first day to school to
 Key point: Classroom
establish classroom management, classroom organization and expectations organization influences
for students’ behavior” the students’ motivation
to learn created from
According to Sokal et al. (2003) classroom management seem to be a high the physical learning
priority for novice and experience teachers. However, management is not environment
parallel to strict rules; in fact, management is to anticipate students´ needs,
Definition of Terms:
and then prepare a suitable year plan, procedures, activities, assessment,
evaluation criteria, and above all, clear instructions to the students to Classroom Behavior:
promote students’ motivation, enthusiasm and learning. Effective teachers refers to expectations
use low classroom rules, and more routines to maintain a relaxed and warm from the learner in
environment to enhance learning. Marzano et al. (2003) stated that relation to behavior in
the class
“minimum number of classroom rules, which tend to focus on expectations
of how to act toward one another, maintain a safe environment, and
participate in learning”. McLeod et al. (2003) distinguished from rules and
stated that is more effective and efficient to use routines in the classroom.
Stronge et al. (2003) also suggested that effective teachers use more routines
for daily tasks than rules. Wong and Wong (2005) distinguished between
routine as what the students do automatically, and procedure as what the
teachers want to be done.

While classroom management focus on instructions which influences the

students in terms of psychological behavior to learn, classroom
organization influences the students’ motivation to learn created from the
physical learning environment. Effective teachers organize the classroom to
promote learning and interaction and have to create an optimal learning
environment where students feel comfortable and relax in terms of
decoration, accessibility and mobility. According to Stronge et al, (2004)
part of the classroom organization is the furniture arrangement, the
accessibility of material, and the decoration. Kohn (1996) stated that the
furniture arrangement facilitate interaction.

Classroom Behavior
Good classroom management and organization, and a good lesson plan
also minimizes the likelihood of misbehavior. Craig and Dickenson (2003)
stated that almost all classroom behavior is learned and that students must
clearly understand what is expected of them. The responsibility lies with
the teachers to explain how and why they want them to work in that way,
and to give positive feedback when students respond positively. In the
McBer Report (DFES, 2000), it is stated that students themselves want a
teacher to keep discipline in the classroom. According to Kyriacou, (1998)
maintaining discipline is necessary for learning to be effective. He also
suggested that students’ misbehavior can be minimized by generally
skillful teaching. Wong and Wong (2005) differentiate between manage and
disciple. They stated that “effective teachers manage their classrooms with
procedures and routines. Ineffective teachers discipline their classrooms
with threats and punishments”. They also underlined that discipline has to
do with how students behave, and management has to do with procedures
on how students have to work in the classroom. Many ineffective teachers
use reward stickers, incentive gifs, infractions cards to discipline their
classroom with punishments. They only waste time, and do not solve the
problem, effective teachers manage the classroom with procedures and
routines to maximize and engage learning time.

Misbehavior such as luck of silence can occur. Some seemed to obtain

virtual silence all the time. Others obtain almost perfect silence, but pupils
need regular reminders, while others, seldom achieved any silence and
pupils’ behavior needed regularly keeping in check. Craig and Dickenson
(2003) pointed out that it is unreasonable to expect total silence for
extended periods. On the other hand, an effective teacher is aware that
some students might prefer to sit quietly and have low active participation
in the classroom activities, although will know how to make the student
participate.

Individual Differences
Many teachers still teach their students in the same way they were taught.
Some because they, erroneously, think that the traditional teaching is more
effective, others because they just do not worry much about alter their own
and bad routine by laziness, and other because they think that students
have to adapt to the teacher own methods. Wickham (2003) warned that the
teaching styles used by each teacher can be strongly influenced by their
own learning style. Effective teachers should be able to personalize the
leaning for their students. They understand that students develop as
different rates and that in every classroom there will be a range of student
abilities and aptitudes. The teacher must feel the pulse of a classroom and
modify the teaching methods to maintain a high level of interest, no matter
what the subject is. They also use their knowledge of learning processed to
determine which will be most effective to help the particular students in
their classes learning successfully. Effective teachers strike the right chord
with the students and have a sixth sense about those who need more help.
For these reasons, it is vital to know the students` needs, their learning
strategies and style, personality, motivation, attitude, abilities, even
background to be able to help them.

In addition, effective teachers use techniques that best serve the learning
needs of their students. They use them to have each student working on
tasks that engage and challenge them to achieve personal best. There are
many things that students can learn themselves through discovery, and/or
in a more direct way. Some students learn by being exposed to learning
opportunities, while others will need concerted direct teaching and
correction by the teacher before they master the learning requirements.
Effective teachers help students learn on their own, as well as from others,
from outside the school, and from various sources such technology,
(Lowman, 1995) Effective teachers must be prepared to reconsider whether
the material and methodology is suitable to be re-presented in the
classroom. In addition, effective teachers understand that students learn
best if their particular culture, background and abilities are acknowledged
by the teacher and the methodology and procedure can be adapted to the
students´ needs, (Zeichner, 1993).

Communication Skills
Communication skills are vital for anyone who has a teaching job. Effective
teachers are always effective communicators. They communicate clearly
about course objectives, content and testing, making sure to provide a
rationale for learning particular material and adapt instruction to their
student's level of knowledge and skill. Lack of communication mean that
the students will not understand key concepts at all, or they will do
incorrectly. Effective teacher can take something that is complex and
present it in a way that can be easily absorbed by the students, and through
different verbal and non-verbal communications (Prozesky, 2000).

Teacher Confidence
Teachers’ confidence pays an important role in effectiveness. Confidence to
teach subject matter influences the teaching outcomes (Bandura, 1997). If
effective teachers believe in themselves, they achieve a lot in the classroom,
and students know who is in charge, and the teacher knows what material
to cover, and how to teach it.

Effective teachers are passionate about teaching and the subject. If the
teachers do not love their job, the students perceive it, influencing in their
low motivation. Besides, if they do not love the subject, therefore, how can
the students are going to love it? Effective teachers have an energy that
almost makes them glow and they tackle each lesson with a sense of
challenge, rather than routine. Wolk (2001) stated that when the teacher is
passionate about learning can create an “infectious classroom environment”
Besides, Gurney (2007) pointed out that when the teachers show
enthusiasm, and there is interaction in the classroom, the work of learning
process is turned into a pleasure. In addition, teachers who are enthusiastic
about their subjects and learning, motivate students, and therefore increase
achievement (Stronge et al., 2004).

Motivation for Learning

Motivating students make them to be more receptive and excited about the
subject, make them be aware of the value and importance of learning, and
have a better attitude to learn. Effective teachers make the students increase
their academic self-concept, their interest in the subject and the desire to
learn more, and therefore to have a high level of achievement (NWREL,
2001). It also been stated that students see the effective teacher as a
motivational and a leader when the teacher encourages them to be
responsible for their own learning. Also, when high standards and
challenge tasks and a variety of strategies such as cooperative learning
(Fisher, 2003); and when relevant reinforcement and feedback have been
provided during the process, enhancing learning as a result. Humor can be
a powerful ingredient in every lesson. Effective teachers do not need to be
clowns, but it is beneficial to have good sense of humor and been willing to
share jokes with the students to break negative-cold barriers.

Respect, Fairness and Equity

Respect, fairness and equity are identified as the prerequisite of effective
teaching in the eyes of students. Kyriacou, (1998) stated mutual respect as
an essential feature of the classroom to establish the right climate for
effective teaching and learning. He also added that respect requires the
students to know that the teacher is competent, interested in their progress
and is committed. Effective teachers should avoid situations of luck of
respect among students who do not respect their peers. Fairness is so
appreciated by the students, and effective teachers respond individually to
misbehavior, rather than to the whole class, (Stronge et al. 2004). He added
that students expect to treat them equitably in any situation, either in case
of misbehavior, assessment results, religion, ethnic background, age, etc.
and to avoid favoritism (Peart & Campbell, 1999). Therefore, effective
teacher continually demonstrate respect to their students (inside or outside
the classroom), fairness and equity regarding individual situations, age,
background, ethnicity, religion, economic status, and so forth).

Assessment and evaluation

Effective teachers really believe every student is capable of achieving
success, and they do all they can to find ways of making each student
successful. Effective teachers´ expectations towards the students, in terms of
standard of learning and their behavior are high, and they help their
students to meet those high expectations which are essential. According to
Graham et al. (2001), a good way to communicate high expectations is
through challenging tasks, case base approach involving real-world
problems, sample cases, and praise.

Assessment can be an effective learning process. Effective teachers have

good expertise in a variety of assessment methods, equitable practice, and a
good and fair evaluation system. They teach to encourage students to take
greater responsibility for their own learning. They also make sure that their
students know what the objectives and goals of the learning program are;
understand how these goals will be assessed; know whether they are on the
pathway to achieve success; and are actively involved in evaluating their
own leaning. Effective teachers request formal and informal responses from
students during the semester and use the information to improve their
courses as they are being taught. According to Cameron (2002), students
should be able to understand that assessment is a part of their learning
process and not just one activity to fill the subject. This benefits students
from learning environments which help peer tutoring, co-operative
learning and questioning, summarizing and collaborative reasoning.
Graham et al. (2001) highlighted that if students are allowed to choose their
own project topics relevant to the course, they are encouraged to express
their own diverse points of view. In the Six Traits of Writing Report (2010),
it is stated that when students write about something they like, they do it
better. According to Graham et al. (2001), well designed discussion
assignments facilitate meaningful cooperation among students. He also
stated that effective teachers also give positive feedback regularly through
the course to inform the students about the learning process. He
distinguishes between information feedback (grades or comments), and
acknowledgment feedback (confirmation of reception of assessment) and
added that deadlines encourage students to spend time on tasks and help
with busy schedules. Besides, evaluation techniques should be clearly
related to course objectives, and have to provide a fair and objective
evaluation of learning.

Teacher Learning Development

Effective teachers have high expectations of students in terms of both their
standard of learning and their behavior, but they also have high
expectations of themselves and their own learning development. Effective
teachers constantly self-evaluate, critique and reflect on how well they are
getting through to their students, and search for better ways of teaching,
new tools, materials and methodologies especially for those who are not
achieving learning as well as others. In order to achieve some of these skills,
many British institutions of higher education require attendance at a short
introductory course on university teaching and learning, but in many
systems voluntary participation is the norm. Effective teachers are willing
to promote their own learning by investing on training and/or inviting
observation and suggestions from colleagues. Collings (1994) stated that a
teacher should be in constant training-learning process and have capacity to
reflect upon own practice. Stronge et al. (2004) stated that staff development
is vital to effective implementation and can help teachers to learn new
strategies to be applied. They also work collaboratively with other staff
members, are willing to share their ideas, and assist other teachers with
difficulties and volunteer to lead work teams and to be mentors to new
teachers, (NETI, 2009). They are informal leaders who are not afraid of
taking risk to innovate or improve education. Therefore, effective teachers
participate in creating a collaborative environment of a positive working
relationship.

Personal Skill
Together with professional skills, effective teachers use their personal skills
with the students as these skills play an important role in students learning
process, achievement, and behavior.

Caring
Effective teachers care about their students in order to bring the best of each
one to encourage learning. According to Gurney (2007), learning has been
considered as an emotional exercise which will allow the students to get
engaged as it appeals to be emotionally. Besides, Eisner (2002) suggests that
“teaching is a caring exercise” which takes an important role in effective
learning process. Showing care includes listening to the students, not only
when they are in the classroom, but also about their particular lives and/or
personal problems. The role of the effective teachers, in this situation, is to
be good listeners, paying attention to, and showing understanding through
tenderness and patience. According to Stronge et al. (2004) students
perceive effectiveness when teachers show kindness, gentleness and
encouragement. Effective teachers demonstrate genuine concern and
empathy toward students through understanding the students´ concerns
and questions. Stronge et al. (2004) stated that effective teachers listen to the
students’ arguments and help and/or indicates them how to resolve their
problems and are willing to talk about their personal lives and experiences
respecting the confidentiality issues. Therefore, there is a more effective
achievement when the teacher demonstrates that cares about the students
and knows them individually.

Knowing the Students Individually

Effective caring teachers also know the students individually and give them
individual attention and develop productive relationships with their
students. They treat their student with respect and expect the same in
return, enhancing the students learning progress. It is not enough to know
the students in their formal setting (in the classroom: their learning
strategies or learning style), but also, to know them in their informal setting
(outside the classroom: likes and dislikes, background, their motivation,
aptitude and attitude to learn). These have great effect on behavior and
performance in the classroom, and in their learning process (Cruickshank &
Haefele, 2001). In addition, according to Stronger et al. (2004) caring goes
beyond listening, understanding and knowing the students, it is also being
patient, kind, warm, sensitive, human with them. It is to be adaptable to
particular students’ situations, honest, trustworthy, encouraged, and
having and showing affection and love for them. Sizer (1999) stated that
students cannot be taught well if we do not know them.

Teacher-Students Relationship
Effective teachers do not only have a teacher-student relationship in the
classroom, but also demonstrate interest in students´ lives beyond the
classroom, using a wide variety of strategies to interact with them outside
the class, and the educational institution. This also encourages students to
perform their best in the classroom (Kohn, 1996). The election on the type of
social event can be easier if the teacher knows the students’ preferences.
Students really appreciate the teacher who attends social event with them,
such as the graduation, the end course dinner, a visit to a museum, a local
event, a concert, etc. According to Stronge et al. (2004) the social interactions
between the teacher and students encourage students leaning and Key Points:
achievement. Besides, this helps introvert or low self-esteem learners to be
better integrated in the group. This increases students´ participation and  Key point: Principles in
motivation, which enhance a more favourable leaning environment, and Undergraduate
challenge the students to succeed. Wolk, (2002) stated that strong Education are
pedagogical standards
relationship with the students helps to decrease discipline problems.
to improve teaching
Therefore, a teacher who spends more time interacting socially with the and learning process
students, working directly with them, and demonstrates a sense of fun and
willingness to participate, in a friendly and personal manner, is considered
to be effective. Knowing the students and having a teaching-student Definition of Terms:
relationship with them creates a warm classroom and learning
Reciprocity: refers to
environment.
mutuality in learning

Classroom Environment
Wang et al. (1997) found classroom climate to be one of the most important
factors to affect students’ achievement, although, on the contrary, it has
been a strong predictor of students’ aggression. However, having an
optimal relationship with the students helps to create a warm and safe
classroom environment so that students can achieve their potential, as they
feel safe and confident to attempt new tasks and participate (Reynolds and
Muijs, 1999)

Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education

Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education” first

appeared in the American Association for Higher Education (AAHE)
Bulletin in 1987. In this article, Arthur Chickering and Zelda Gamson
describe a set of pedagogical standards derived from decades of
educational research and designed to improve the quality of teaching and
learning in colleges and universities. These principles have had an
enormous impact on university teaching influencing research, faculty
development and student learning across the world. They are referenced,
quoted and remain a cornerstone of teaching and learning practices to this
day.

Chickering and Gamson state that good practice in undergraduate teaching:

1. Encourages contacts between students and faculty

Frequent student-faculty contact in and out of classes is the most important
factor in student motivation and involvement. Faculty concern helps
students get through rough times and keep on working. Knowing a few
faculty members well enhances students' intellectual commitment and
encourages them to think about their own values and future plans. Some
examples: First year seminars on important topics, students taught by
senior faculty members, establish an early connection between students and
faculty

2. Develops reciprocity and cooperation among students

Learning is enhanced when it is more like a team effort that a solo race.
Good learning, like good work, is collaborative and social, not competitive
and isolated. Working with others often increases involvement in learning.
Sharing one's own ideas and responding to others' reactions sharpens
thinking and deepens understanding. Some Examples: Even in large lecture
classes, students can learn from one another. Learning groups are a
common practice. Students are assigned to a group of five to seven other
students, who meet regularly during class throughout the term to solve
problems set by the instructor. Many institutions use peer tutors for
students who need special help.

3. Uses active learning techniques

Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just by sitting
in classes listening to teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and
spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write
about it, relate it to past experiences and apply it to their daily lives. They
must make what they learn part of themselves. Some examples: Active
learning is encouraged in classes that use structured exercises, challenging
discussions, team projects, and peer critiques. Active learning can also
occur outside the classroom. There are thousands of internships,
independent study, and cooperative job programs across the country in all
kinds of colleges and universities, in all kinds of fields, for all kinds of
students. Students also can help design and teach courses or parts of
courses.

4. Gives prompt feedback

Knowing what you know and don't know focuses learning. Students need
appropriate feedback on performance to benefit from courses. When getting
started, students need help in assessing existing knowledge and
competence. In classes, students need frequent opportunities to perform
and receive suggestions for improvement. At various points during college,
and at the end, students need chances to reflect on what they have learned,
what they still need to know, and how to assess themselves. Some
examples: No feedback can occur without assessment. But assessment
without timely feedback contributes little to learning. Institutions assess
entering students as they enter to guide them in planning their studies. In
addition to the feedback students receive from course instructors, students
in many colleges and universities receive counseling periodically on their
progress and future plans.

5. Emphasizes time on task

Time plus energy equals learning. There is no substitute for time on task.
Learning to use one's time well is critical for students and professionals
alike. Students need help in learning effective time management. Allocating
realistic amounts of time means effective learning for students and effective
teaching for faculty. How an institution defines time expectations for
students, faculty, administrators, and other professional staff can establish
the basis of high performance for all. Some examples: Mastery learning,
contract learning, and computer-assisted instruction require that students
spend adequate amounts of time on learning. Extended periods of
preparation for learning also give students more time on task. Providing
students with opportunities to integrate their studies into the rest of their
lives helps them use time well.

6. Communicates high expectations

Expect more and you will get more. High expectations are important for
everyone -- for the poorly prepared, for those unwilling to exert themselves,
and for the bright and well-motivated. Expecting students to perform well
becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy when teachers and institutions hold high
expectations for themselves and make extra efforts. Some examples: In
many colleges and universities, students with poor past records or test
scores do extraordinary work. Sometimes they outperform students with
good preparation. Most important are the day-to-day, week-in and week-
out expectations students and faculty hold for themselves and for each
other in all their classes.

7. Respects diverse talents and ways of learning

There are many roads to learning. People bring different talents and styles
of learning to college. Brilliant students in the seminar room may be all
thumbs in the lab or art studio. Students rich in hands-on experience may
not do so well with theory. Students need the opportunity to show their
talents and learn in ways that work for them. Then they can be pushed to
learn in new ways that do not come so easily. Some examples:
Individualized degree programs recognize different interests. Personalized
systems of instruction and mastery learning let students work at their own
pace. Contract learning helps students define their own objectives,
determine their learning activities, and define the criteria and methods of
evaluation.