Cliimatic Factors and Comfort
Cliimatic Factors and Comfort
Cliimatic Factors and Comfort
The tropical and subtropical regions can be divided into many different climatic zones, but for
practical reasons, in this publication three main climate zones are considered:
the hot-arid zone, including the desert or semi desert climate and the hot-dry maritime
climate
the warm-humid zone, including the equatorial climate and the warm-humid island
climate
the temperate zone, including the monsoon climate and the tropical upland zone
The main climatic factors relevant to construction are those affecting human comfort:
air temperature, its extremes and the difference between day and night, and between
summer and winter temperatures
humidity and precipitation
incoming and outgoing radiation and the influence of the sky condition
air movements and winds
a. Human physiology
b. Thermal comfort zone
c. Requirements for buildings according to their functions
d. Limitations
One of the main functions of buildings is to protect the inhabitants from outdoor climatic
conditions which are often harsh and hostile. The building must provide an environment that
does not harm the health of the inhabitants. Moreover, it should provide living and working
conditions which are comfortable.
To achieve this, the physiological functions of the human body are to be considered. It is
also necessary to know under which thermal conditions human beings feel comfortable.
a. Human physiology
Physiological factors are of primary importance with regard to comfort. The internal
temperature of the human body must always be kept within narrow limits at around 37°C. Any
fluctuation from this value is a sign of illness, and a rise of 5°C or a drop of 2°C from this value
can lead to death.
The body has the ability to balance its temperature by various means. This thermal
balance is determined, on the one hand, by the "internal heat load" and on the other, by the
energy flow (thermal exchange) between the body and the environment. The thermal exchange
between the body and the environment takes place in four different ways: conduction,
convection, radiation and evaporation (perspiration and respiration).
Ways of thermal exchange by the human body
Conduction
The contribution that conduction makes to the heat exchange process depends on
the thermal conductivity of the materials in immediate contact with the skin. Conduction
usually accounts for only a small part of the whole heat exchange. It is limited to local
cooling of particular parts of the body when they come in contact with materials which
are good conductors. This is of practical importance in the choice of flooring materials,
especially where people usually sit on the floor.
Convection
Heat exchange by convection depends primarily on the temperature difference
between the skin and the air and on air movement. It can, to a certain extent, be
controlled by adequate clothing. The insulation effect of clothing can be expressed by a
clothing-value ("clo-value").
Insulation values of different kind of clothing (1 clo = 0.155 m²K/W)
Radiation
Radiation takes place between the human body and the surrounding surfaces such
as walls and windows; and, in the open air, the sky and sun. In this process temperature,
humidity and air movement have practically no influence on the amount of heat
transmitted. This amount of heat depends mainly on the difference in temperature
between the person's skin and the surrounding or enclosing surface.
The body may gain or lose heat by above described processes depending on
whether the environment is colder or warmer than the body surface. When the
surrounding temperature (air and surfaces) is above 25°C, the clothed human body cannot
get rid of enough heat by conduction, convection or radiation.
The optimum thermal condition can be defined as the situation in which the
least extra effort is required to maintain the human body's thermal balance. The greater
the effort that is required, the less comfortable the climate is felt to be.
The maximum comfort condition can usually not be achieved. However, it is the
aim of the designer to build houses that provide an indoor climate close to an optimum,
within a certain range in which thermal comfort is still experienced. This range is called
the comfort zone. It differs somewhat with individuals. It depends also on the clothing
worn, the physical activity, age and health condition. Although ethnic differences are not
of importance, the geographical location plays a role because of habit and of the
acclimatization capacity of individuals.
Four main factors, beside of many other psychological and physiological factors,
determine the comfort zone:
air temperature
temperature of the surrounding surfaces (radiant heat)
relative humidity
air velocity
The relation of these four factors is well illustrated in the bioclimatic chart.
Bioclimatic chart
The chart indicates the zone where comfort is felt in moderate climate zones,
wearing indoor clothing and doing light work. It also assumes that not only the air
temperature, but also the temperature of surrounding surfaces lie within this range.
Air- and surface temperatures often differ. This is especially the case where there
are great differences between day and night temperatures and also where building
components receive strong solar radiation. To a certain extent, high air temperatures can
be compensated by low surface temperatures or vice versa, as is shown in the graph
below.
The temperature difference between air and surfaces, however, should not exceed
10 - 15°C if comfort is still to be maintained. As research has shown, this fact is less
valid for walls, but especially important for ceilings.
The graph shows how people react to different surfaces which have a temperature
differing from the temperature of the other surfaces.
Percentage of dissatisfied persons in relation to uneven surface temperatures
The design of the roof is therefore of the utmost importance. The fact that the roof
receives the greatest amount of solar radiation and re-radiates most at night is a further
reason for the importance of roof design. A typical example of the effect of the roof
design on inside temperatures is the plain concrete roof slab under a tropical sun which
can result in an unbearable indoor climate in the evening, with inside surface
temperatures of up to 50 or 60°C.
Humidity
The humidity level affects the amount that a person perspires. It also influences,
therefore, how temperatures are felt. High humidity reduces the comfortable maximum
temperature; low humidity allows a tolerance for higher temperature. At the lower limit
of the comfort level humidity has little influence.
Range of comfort in relation to humidity, with light summer clothes or 1 blanket at night
Humidity % Day temp °C Night temp °C
0-30 22-30 20-27
30-50 22-29 20-26
50-70 22-28 20-26
70-100 22-27 20-25
Humidity alone does not have a very significant influence on the comfortable
temperature range, but in combination with air circulation it gains much importance.
Wind speed
As the figures below shows, air circulation influences the temperature felt. The
cooling effect of wind increases with lower temperatures and higher wind speed.
This increased cooling effect of enhanced wind speed has another important
consequence: the higher the air temperature, the higher the wind speed which is still felt
to be comfortable.
The table below shows an example of the seasonal changes in the comfort zone as
observed in Dhahran.
Changes between indoor and outdoor climate
Drastic changes which can occur, especially in air-conditioned buildings, may
give discomfort (stress situation) and may also be negative for health.
The figure below illustrates this relationship. The temperatures are valid for
middle-European conditions.
The white and shaded areas indicate an incidence of less than 10% of persons
dissatisfied (PPD). This illustrates that the higher the clo value or the activity level of a
person, the greater his tolerance for differences in temperature will be.
Example:
For a seated person wearing a suit (clo = 1.0; met = 1.2) the ideal room
temperature is 21.5°C with a tolerance of +-2°C.
Other factors
Factors other than climatic ones influence also the well being of the inhabitants,
for example, psycho-social condition, age and health condition, air quality and acoustical
and optical influences. Although these factors cannot be improved by climatically
adapted construction, they should not be forgotten, because they may considerably reduce
the tolerance. For example, ill people lying in a hospital or people under extreme noise
stress are much more sensitive to climate than people enjoying a garden restaurant.
Conclusions
Due to the many factors described above which determine the comfort zone, it is not
possible to describe it accurately in a single figure or chart. Summarizing, the bioclimatic
diagram may be applied considering the following parameters:
Air and surface temperature may not differ more than 10 - 15°C.
The temperature of the ceiling should not be much higher than the room temperature.
At the upper limit of comfort, the temperature should be lower with increasing
humidity.
With increased air temperature, air circulation should be enhanced.
The temperature that is felt to be comfortable changes with the seasons.
The temperature that is felt to be comfortable also depends on the degree of
acclimatization.
The temperature that is felt to be comfortable is affected by the clothing worn and the
physical activity level.
With additional clothing and increased activity, the tolerable temperature range extends.
Drastic temperature changes, as may be the case in air-conditioned buildings, should be
avoided.
Factors other than climatic ones (e.g. psycho-sozial factors) may decrease the tolerable
temperature range.
Comfort conditions as described are not usually found outdoors and clothing alone is
often not sufficient to compensate. An important function of buildings is to provide the necessary
protection against the outdoor climate. However, not all types of buildings and not all rooms in a
building have to fulfill the same requirements.
While designing a building and working out the thermal concept, the following functional
parameters should be analyzed and considered:
What type of activities and functions will be carried out in the building ?
When do these activities take place during the course of the day ?
Where and in which room do these activities take place ?
What are the anticipated seasonal changes for these functions ?
Working space
Such areas are usually used in daytime only. As a consequence the design should be
optimized such as to provide favourable conditions in daytime. The performance at night is of
little importance. In areas where hard physical labour is carried out, the temperature should be
generally lower than in areas, where sitting activities are predominate.
Residential space
Structures for residential purposes are generally occupied throughout day and night. They
should therefore be designed for an optimization over the whole period. Special attention should
be paid to sleeping areas and their nighttime conditions, as the body is more sensitive to
discomfort when at rest.
Seasonal differences
Similarly, requirements for buildings and rooms may differ throughout the seasons. A
house which is used mainly in summer would certainly differ from a house used mainly in
winter.
The daily routine of the inhabitants may also vary with the seasons. For example, in the
hot season, people may start work early, thus benefiting from favourable temperatures. During
the hottest hours a break may be taken. At this time the indoor temperature should still be at a
comfortable level to allow relaxation. The late afternoon and evening hours may be spent
outdoors when the temperature is past its peak. In the cold season the customs may be different:
activities are started later in the morning, a great part of the day is spent outdoors and the
evening is spent inside.
d. Limitations
No ideal solution
From the technical and economical point of view it is usually impossible to provide
buildings that fulfill the climatic requirements of all the inhabitants and under all prevailing
climatic conditions throughout the year. As a general rule, buildings may be designed to satisfy
about 80-% of the inhabitants during approximately 90% of the time during the course of the
year. On exceptionally hot or cold days a greater degree of discomfort may be acceptable. The
hottest and coldest 10% of days do generally not have to be considered.
Physics
Obviously, indoor climate depends largely on outdoor climate, especially in the case of
passive buildings that are neither heated nor cooled. To a certain extent, however, the indoor
climate can be influenced with the help of appropriate designs and materials. This influence
depends on the physical processes that occur.
General principles
In order to gain a general understanding of the most important processes, the main
physical principles are explained. The main physical processes that govern the indoor climate
are:
Thermal radiation
Heat transmission
Convection
Heat storage and time lag
Internal heat sources
To verify the exact thermal performance of building components is a rather complex task.
Detailed information and calculation methods necessary for the study of specific problems can
be obtained from various technical books.
Thermal radiation
Radiation is the heat transfer from a warmer surface to a cooler surface which are facing
each other. This happens in the form of waves and a transmitting media (e.g. air) is thus not
required.
Emittance
The warmer surface emits thermal energy in the form of radiant heat always towards a
cooler surface. The quantity of emitted energy depends on the temperature difference between
the surfaces, and also on the material property (emissivity) of the warmer surface.
Emittance
Balancing effect
As a consequence of this radiation, the warmer surface cools down and the cooler surface
heats up.
Heat transmission
Heat always flows from a higher temperature to a lower temperature. The quantity of heat
transmitted through a material depends on
its conductivity;
the temperature difference between outside and inside;
the thickness of the material; and
the surface conductance.
Resistance R (m²K/W)
The resistance depends on the conductivity and the thickness of a material.
It is defined as thickness / k = R.
How much heat is prevented from passing through a non-homogenuous
section? The total resistance of a composite construction is the sum of the
resistance of its components, thus R1 + R2 + R3....= R total.
Resistance R
For internal surfaces this resistance (fi) is around 0.15-m²°C/W, and for
external surfaces (fo) it varies between 0.1 and 0.01 m²°C/W depending on wind
exposure.
Transmittance U (W/m²K)
Adding the surface resistance 1/f to R total, the total heat transmission can
be calculated:
This value, however, is only valid for the theoretical case of stable
temperature conditions over a longer period. In reality, the outdoor temperature
fluctuates during the course of the day. This is of special relevance in the case of
warm climates, where the houses are neither heated nor cooled and the heat flow
is thus not unidirectional. Here the time lag, the decrement factor and the thermal
capacity play important roles.
Heat storage
Decrement factor
The decrement factor is the ratio between the temperature fluctuation on the outer and the
inner surface. It is the measure of the damping effect. Generally, the higher the thermal capacity
or the higher the thermal resistance of a material, the stronger is the damping effect. The time
lag can be controlled by the selection of materials and their thickness. It depends on the thermal
capacity Q and the resistance R.
For heavy materials the time lag can be roughly calculated using the formula
As this value can be related to the increase in the inner surface temperature, a
performance standard can be established on the basis of experience. Its value should not exceed
4% in warm-humid climates or 3% in hot-dry climates.
A graphic method exists for calculating the SHF. For instant practical use a table with
the values for common constructions can be used.
Vapour diffusion
Water in the form of vapour diffuses through the outer building shell when the outside
and inside vapour pressures differ. Vapour usually diffuses from the warmer towards the cooler
side of the shell. This phenomenon requires attention in the case where there is likely to be an
area of condensation inside the shell (e.g. "vapour barrier" on the cooler side). This happens
when the saturation point is reached, particularly in heated or constantly cooled buildings. In air-
conditioned buildings, especially, this aspect requires consideration. However, in naturally
climatized buildings such conditions usually do not occur. Hence vapour diffusion is not dealt
with in this publication.