Climatic Factors and Comfort

The tropical and subtropical regions can be divided into many different climatic zones, but for
practical reasons, in this publication three main climate zones are considered:
 the hot-arid zone, including the desert or semi desert climate and the hot-dry maritime
climate
 the warm-humid zone, including the equatorial climate and the warm-humid island
climate
 the temperate zone, including the monsoon climate and the tropical upland zone

The main climatic factors relevant to construction are those affecting human comfort:
 air temperature, its extremes and the difference between day and night, and between
summer and winter temperatures
 humidity and precipitation
 incoming and outgoing radiation and the influence of the sky condition
 air movements and winds

Human requirements regarding indoor climate

a. Human physiology
b. Thermal comfort zone
c. Requirements for buildings according to their functions
d. Limitations

One of the main functions of buildings is to protect the inhabitants from outdoor climatic
conditions which are often harsh and hostile. The building must provide an environment that
does not harm the health of the inhabitants. Moreover, it should provide living and working
conditions which are comfortable.
To achieve this, the physiological functions of the human body are to be considered. It is
also necessary to know under which thermal conditions human beings feel comfortable.

a. Human physiology

Physiological factors are of primary importance with regard to comfort. The internal
temperature of the human body must always be kept within narrow limits at around 37°C. Any
fluctuation from this value is a sign of illness, and a rise of 5°C or a drop of 2°C from this value
can lead to death.

The body has the ability to balance its temperature by various means. This thermal
balance is determined, on the one hand, by the "internal heat load" and on the other, by the
energy flow (thermal exchange) between the body and the environment. The thermal exchange
between the body and the environment takes place in four different ways: conduction,
convection, radiation and evaporation (perspiration and respiration).
 Ways of thermal exchange by the human body

Conduction
The contribution that conduction makes to the heat exchange process depends on
the thermal conductivity of the materials in immediate contact with the skin. Conduction
usually accounts for only a small part of the whole heat exchange. It is limited to local
cooling of particular parts of the body when they come in contact with materials which
are good conductors. This is of practical importance in the choice of flooring materials,
especially where people usually sit on the floor.

Convection
Heat exchange by convection depends primarily on the temperature difference
between the skin and the air and on air movement. It can, to a certain extent, be
controlled by adequate clothing. The insulation effect of clothing can be expressed by a
clothing-value ("clo-value").
 Insulation values of different kind of clothing (1 clo = 0.155 m²K/W)

Radiation
Radiation takes place between the human body and the surrounding surfaces such
as walls and windows; and, in the open air, the sky and sun. In this process temperature,
humidity and air movement have practically no influence on the amount of heat
transmitted. This amount of heat depends mainly on the difference in temperature
between the person's skin and the surrounding or enclosing surface.
The body may gain or lose heat by above described processes depending on
whether the environment is colder or warmer than the body surface. When the
surrounding temperature (air and surfaces) is above 25°C, the clothed human body cannot
get rid of enough heat by conduction, convection or radiation.

Evaporation (perspiration and respiration)

In this case the sole compensatory mechanism is evaporation by the loss of
perspiration, together with, to a certain extent, respiration. During evaporation water
absorbs heat, and as humans normally lose about one litre of water a day in perspiration,
a fair amount of heat is taken from the body to evaporate it. The lower the vapour
pressure (dry air) and the greater the air movement, the greater is the evaporation
potential. This explains why extreme temperatures in humid climates are less bearable
compared to the same temperatures in dry climates.

Internal heat load

The "internal heat load" of a body depends on its metabolic activity and varies greatly

Metabolic rate of different activities (1 met = 58 W/m²)

b. Thermal Comfort Zone

The optimum thermal condition can be defined as the situation in which the
least extra effort is required to maintain the human body's thermal balance. The greater
the effort that is required, the less comfortable the climate is felt to be.

The maximum comfort condition can usually not be achieved. However, it is the
aim of the designer to build houses that provide an indoor climate close to an optimum,
within a certain range in which thermal comfort is still experienced. This range is called
the comfort zone. It differs somewhat with individuals. It depends also on the clothing
worn, the physical activity, age and health condition. Although ethnic differences are not
of importance, the geographical location plays a role because of habit and of the
acclimatization capacity of individuals.

Four main factors, beside of many other psychological and physiological factors,
determine the comfort zone:
 air temperature
 temperature of the surrounding surfaces (radiant heat)
 relative humidity
 air velocity

Physical factors of climatic comfort

The relation of these four factors is well illustrated in the bioclimatic chart.

Bioclimatic chart
 The chart indicates the zone where comfort is felt in moderate climate zones,
wearing indoor clothing and doing light work. It also assumes that not only the air
temperature, but also the temperature of surrounding surfaces lie within this range.

The sol-air temperature

Radiation and temperature act together to produce the heat experienced by a body
or surface. This is expressed as the sol-air temperature and is composed of three
temperatures:

a) outdoor air temperature

b) solar radiation absorbed by the body or surface
c) long-wave radiant heat exchange with the environment

Air- and surface temperatures often differ. This is especially the case where there
are great differences between day and night temperatures and also where building
components receive strong solar radiation. To a certain extent, high air temperatures can
be compensated by low surface temperatures or vice versa, as is shown in the graph
below.

Comfort zone in differing air and surface temperatures

The temperature difference between air and surfaces, however, should not exceed
10 - 15°C if comfort is still to be maintained. As research has shown, this fact is less
valid for walls, but especially important for ceilings.

The graph shows how people react to different surfaces which have a temperature
differing from the temperature of the other surfaces.
 Percentage of dissatisfied persons in relation to uneven surface temperatures

The design of the roof is therefore of the utmost importance. The fact that the roof
receives the greatest amount of solar radiation and re-radiates most at night is a further
reason for the importance of roof design. A typical example of the effect of the roof
design on inside temperatures is the plain concrete roof slab under a tropical sun which
can result in an unbearable indoor climate in the evening, with inside surface
temperatures of up to 50 or 60°C.

Humidity
The humidity level affects the amount that a person perspires. It also influences,
therefore, how temperatures are felt. High humidity reduces the comfortable maximum
temperature; low humidity allows a tolerance for higher temperature. At the lower limit
of the comfort level humidity has little influence.

Range of comfort in relation to humidity, with light summer clothes or 1 blanket at night
Humidity % Day temp °C Night temp °C
0-30 22-30 20-27
30-50 22-29 20-26
50-70 22-28 20-26
70-100 22-27 20-25

Humidity alone does not have a very significant influence on the comfortable
temperature range, but in combination with air circulation it gains much importance.

Wind speed
As the figures below shows, air circulation influences the temperature felt. The
cooling effect of wind increases with lower temperatures and higher wind speed.
 This increased cooling effect of enhanced wind speed has another important
consequence: the higher the air temperature, the higher the wind speed which is still felt
to be comfortable.

Acclimatization and seasonal changes

To a certain extent human beings have the ability to become acclimatized.
Therefore the resident population feels less stressed by a harsh climate than a passing
traveler coming from another type of climate would. Analogously this can also be said
for seasonal climatic changes, to which people can become adjusted. A certain
temperature may be felt to be too cool in summer but too hot in winter.

The table below shows an example of the seasonal changes in the comfort zone as
observed in Dhahran.
Changes between indoor and outdoor climate
Drastic changes which can occur, especially in air-conditioned buildings, may
give discomfort (stress situation) and may also be negative for health.

Clo-value and met-value, tolerance

As mentioned above, clothing and metabolic activity have a great effect on the
comfort zone. Moreover, they also influence the acceptable temperature range
(tolerance). A physically highly active person can bear quite wide temperature
differences, whereas a sleeping person is more sensitive to differences.

The figure below illustrates this relationship. The temperatures are valid for
middle-European conditions.

Optimum room temperature in relation to activity and clothing

Source: ISO 7730 (1984): Moderate environment, Determination of the PMV and PPD indices
and specifications for thermal comfort, and element 29, Zurich, 1990

The white and shaded areas indicate an incidence of less than 10% of persons
dissatisfied (PPD). This illustrates that the higher the clo value or the activity level of a
person, the greater his tolerance for differences in temperature will be.

Example:
For a seated person wearing a suit (clo = 1.0; met = 1.2) the ideal room
temperature is 21.5°C with a tolerance of +-2°C.

Other factors
Factors other than climatic ones influence also the well being of the inhabitants,
for example, psycho-social condition, age and health condition, air quality and acoustical
and optical influences. Although these factors cannot be improved by climatically
adapted construction, they should not be forgotten, because they may considerably reduce
 the tolerance. For example, ill people lying in a hospital or people under extreme noise
stress are much more sensitive to climate than people enjoying a garden restaurant.

Conclusions
Due to the many factors described above which determine the comfort zone, it is not
possible to describe it accurately in a single figure or chart. Summarizing, the bioclimatic
diagram may be applied considering the following parameters:
 Air and surface temperature may not differ more than 10 - 15°C.
 The temperature of the ceiling should not be much higher than the room temperature.
 At the upper limit of comfort, the temperature should be lower with increasing
humidity.
 With increased air temperature, air circulation should be enhanced.
 The temperature that is felt to be comfortable changes with the seasons.
 The temperature that is felt to be comfortable also depends on the degree of
acclimatization.
 The temperature that is felt to be comfortable is affected by the clothing worn and the
physical activity level.
 With additional clothing and increased activity, the tolerable temperature range extends.
 Drastic temperature changes, as may be the case in air-conditioned buildings, should be
avoided.
 Factors other than climatic ones (e.g. psycho-sozial factors) may decrease the tolerable
temperature range.

c. Requirements for buildings according to their functions

Comfort conditions as described are not usually found outdoors and clothing alone is
often not sufficient to compensate. An important function of buildings is to provide the necessary
protection against the outdoor climate. However, not all types of buildings and not all rooms in a
building have to fulfill the same requirements.

While designing a building and working out the thermal concept, the following functional
parameters should be analyzed and considered:

 What type of activities and functions will be carried out in the building ?
 When do these activities take place during the course of the day ?
 Where and in which room do these activities take place ?
 What are the anticipated seasonal changes for these functions ?

Working space

Such areas are usually used in daytime only. As a consequence the design should be
optimized such as to provide favourable conditions in daytime. The performance at night is of
little importance. In areas where hard physical labour is carried out, the temperature should be
generally lower than in areas, where sitting activities are predominate.
Residential space

Structures for residential purposes are generally occupied throughout day and night. They
should therefore be designed for an optimization over the whole period. Special attention should
be paid to sleeping areas and their nighttime conditions, as the body is more sensitive to
discomfort when at rest.

Seasonal differences

Similarly, requirements for buildings and rooms may differ throughout the seasons. A
house which is used mainly in summer would certainly differ from a house used mainly in
winter.

The daily routine of the inhabitants may also vary with the seasons. For example, in the
hot season, people may start work early, thus benefiting from favourable temperatures. During
the hottest hours a break may be taken. At this time the indoor temperature should still be at a
comfortable level to allow relaxation. The late afternoon and evening hours may be spent
outdoors when the temperature is past its peak. In the cold season the customs may be different:
activities are started later in the morning, a great part of the day is spent outdoors and the
evening is spent inside.

d. Limitations

No ideal solution

From the technical and economical point of view it is usually impossible to provide
buildings that fulfill the climatic requirements of all the inhabitants and under all prevailing
climatic conditions throughout the year. As a general rule, buildings may be designed to satisfy
about 80-% of the inhabitants during approximately 90% of the time during the course of the
year. On exceptionally hot or cold days a greater degree of discomfort may be acceptable. The
hottest and coldest 10% of days do generally not have to be considered.

Physics

Obviously, indoor climate depends largely on outdoor climate, especially in the case of
passive buildings that are neither heated nor cooled. To a certain extent, however, the indoor
climate can be influenced with the help of appropriate designs and materials. This influence
depends on the physical processes that occur.

General principles

In order to gain a general understanding of the most important processes, the main
physical principles are explained. The main physical processes that govern the indoor climate
are:
 Thermal radiation
  Heat transmission
 Convection
 Heat storage and time lag
 Internal heat sources

To verify the exact thermal performance of building components is a rather complex task.
Detailed information and calculation methods necessary for the study of specific problems can
be obtained from various technical books.

Thermal radiation
Radiation is the heat transfer from a warmer surface to a cooler surface which are facing
each other. This happens in the form of waves and a transmitting media (e.g. air) is thus not
required.

Emittance
The warmer surface emits thermal energy in the form of radiant heat always towards a
cooler surface. The quantity of emitted energy depends on the temperature difference between
the surfaces, and also on the material property (emissivity) of the warmer surface.

Emittance

Absorption and reflectance

Depending on these surface properties the radiation received by the cooler surface can be
partly absorbed and partly reflected. These properties are called absorbance-(a) and reflectance-
(r). (a)-+-(r) always equals 1.
Light-colored, smooth and shiny surfaces tend to have a higher reflectance. For the
perfect theoretical white surface the reflectance is 1 and the absorbance is 0; for the perfect
"black body" absorber the reflectance is 0 and the absorbance is 1.

Absorbance (a) and reflectance (r)

 Geometrical location
The quantity of radiant heat that a body receives depends also on the geometrical location
with regard to the heat source.
Surfaces which directly face each other exchange the greatest thermal radiation, whereas
surfaces that are turned away from each other exchange less.

Balancing effect

As a consequence of this radiation, the warmer surface cools down and the cooler surface
heats up.

Heat transmission

Heat always flows from a higher temperature to a lower temperature. The quantity of heat
transmitted through a material depends on

 its conductivity;
 the temperature difference between outside and inside;
 the thickness of the material; and
 the surface conductance.

The conductivity k (W/mK)

In conduction, the spread of molecular movement constitutes the flow of heat.
The rate of heat flow varies with different materials and depends on its thermal conductivity (k).
It is defined as the rate of heat flow through a unit area of unit thickness of the material, by a unit
temperature difference between the two sides. The dimension is W/m°C. This value is used to
compare the thermal insulation effectiveness of materials that are homogeneous in composition.
Its value ranges from 0.03 W/m°C for thermal insulation materials up to 400 W/m°C for metals.
The lower the conductivity, the better an insulator is the material.
 Conductivity k

Air is a most efficient insulator

Air has an extremely low k-value. The higher the percentage of air
enclosed in the material, the better is its insulation value, as long as convection
does not occur. To avoid convection, the air enclosures must be fine. The finer the
air inclusions, the less convection takes place.
Low weight materials tend to contain more air, thus their conductivity is
less. This relationship is generally true for materials of the same kind but of
varying densities, and of the same materials with varying moisture content.

Humid materials are poor insulators

Water has a conductivity of 580 W/m°C versus 0.026 W/m°C for still air.
Therefore, if the air enclosed is replaced by water, the material's conductivity is
rapidly increased. For example, an asbestos insulating board in dry conditions has
a conductivity four times lower than that of the same board soaked with water.

Resistance R (m²K/W)
The resistance depends on the conductivity and the thickness of a material.
It is defined as thickness / k = R.
How much heat is prevented from passing through a non-homogenuous
section? The total resistance of a composite construction is the sum of the
resistance of its components, thus R1 + R2 + R3....= R total.
 Resistance R

Heat transfer at the surface or surface conductance f (W/m²K)

A thin layer of air film separates the material surface from the surrounding
ambient air, and this air film has a specific conductance (f) in relation to the
transfer between material and the surrounding air. Surface conductance includes
the convection and radiant components of the heat exchange at the surfaces. The
resistance of these films is expressed as 1/f.

For internal surfaces this resistance (fi) is around 0.15-m²°C/W, and for
external surfaces (fo) it varies between 0.1 and 0.01 m²°C/W depending on wind
exposure.

Transmittance U (W/m²K)
Adding the surface resistance 1/f to R total, the total heat transmission can
be calculated:

The reciprocal value is the thermal transmittance U. (The U-value

corresponds with the k-value in the German system)

Quantity of transmitted heat

The U-value represents the total heat transmitted through a composite
construction by a temperature difference of 1°C. Multiplying it with the effective
temperature difference gives the total heat energy transmitted:

Total heat transmission = U(ti - to)(W/m²)

This value, however, is only valid for the theoretical case of stable
temperature conditions over a longer period. In reality, the outdoor temperature
fluctuates during the course of the day. This is of special relevance in the case of
warm climates, where the houses are neither heated nor cooled and the heat flow
is thus not unidirectional. Here the time lag, the decrement factor and the thermal
capacity play important roles.
Heat storage

Specific heat (Wh/kgK)

This is defined as the amount of energy required for a unit temperature increase in a unit
mass of material. The higher the specific heat of a material, the more heat it will absorb for a
given increase in temperature. Of all common materials, water has the highest specific heat.

Heat capacity Q (Wh/m² K)

This is defined as the amount of heat energy required for a unit temperature increase in a
unit of area.
Thickness x specific mass x specific heat = heat capacity (Q)

Time lag O (h) and decrement factor

The time lag is defined as the time difference between the peak outer surface temperature
and the peak inner surface temperature; it is actually the time required for the heat to pass
through a material. It is of importance, for instance, in the case where one wants to take
advantage in the evening of day time surplus heat energy.

Decrement factor
The decrement factor is the ratio between the temperature fluctuation on the outer and the
inner surface. It is the measure of the damping effect. Generally, the higher the thermal capacity
or the higher the thermal resistance of a material, the stronger is the damping effect. The time
lag can be controlled by the selection of materials and their thickness. It depends on the thermal
capacity Q and the resistance R.
For heavy materials the time lag can be roughly calculated using the formula

time lag O = 1.38 + (Q x R)1/2

 For composite constructions, an additional estimated lag should be added to the
individual sum of the time lags. It is customary for two layers and light construction walls to add
an additional 0.5 hour; for three or more layers, or for very heavy constructions, one additional
hour lag is assumed.

Active heat storage capacity

The heat storage capacity and the time lag of a building structure can be utilized for
balancing the indoor temperature. In such a case, however, the so-called active mass only, and
not the entire building mass, is taken into account

Solar heat gain factor

When selecting construction materials in areas with intense solar radiation an important
criterion is the solar heat gain factor (SHF). This is defined as the rate of heat flow through the
construction due to solar radiation expressed as a percentage of the incident solar radiation.

SHF (%) = 100 x transmitted solar energy / incident solar energy

As this value can be related to the increase in the inner surface temperature, a
performance standard can be established on the basis of experience. Its value should not exceed
4% in warm-humid climates or 3% in hot-dry climates.
A graphic method exists for calculating the SHF. For instant practical use a table with
the values for common constructions can be used.

Vapour diffusion
Water in the form of vapour diffuses through the outer building shell when the outside
and inside vapour pressures differ. Vapour usually diffuses from the warmer towards the cooler
side of the shell. This phenomenon requires attention in the case where there is likely to be an
area of condensation inside the shell (e.g. "vapour barrier" on the cooler side). This happens
when the saturation point is reached, particularly in heated or constantly cooled buildings. In air-
conditioned buildings, especially, this aspect requires consideration. However, in naturally
climatized buildings such conditions usually do not occur. Hence vapour diffusion is not dealt
with in this publication.