Pratical Guide How To Measure Turbulence
Pratical Guide How To Measure Turbulence
Pratical Guide How To Measure Turbulence
Publication no.: 9040U6154. Date 2005-08-30. First edition printed in 2001. © Dantec
Dynamics A/S, P.O. Box 121, Tonsbakken 16-18, DK-2740 Skovlunde, Denmark. All
rights reserved.
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INTRODUCTION
Turbulence is an important process in most fluid flows and contributes
significantly to the transport of momentum, heat and mass. Turbulence also plays a role
in the generation of fluid friction losses and fluid induced noise. In order to understand
the behaviour of fluid flows and in order to design and evaluate vehicles, engines,
pumps etc. the study of turbulence is therefore essential. Such studies are carried out by
means of suitable instrumentation like hot-wire anemometers (often called CTA or
constant temperature anemometers with reference to the operating principle) or laser-
Doppler anemometers (LDA) and more recently with particle-imaging velocimetry
(PIV). Measurements are often made as supplement to computer modelling (CFD,
computational fluid dynamics).
The CTA anemometer works on the basis of convective heat transfer from a
heated sensor to the surrounding fluid, the heat transfer being primarily related to the
fluid velocity. By using very fine wire sensors placed in the fluid and electronics with
servo-loop technique, it is possible to measure velocity fluctuations of fine scales and of
high frequencies. The advantages of the CTA over other flow measuring principles are
ease-of-use, the output is an analogue voltage, which means that no information is lost,
and very high temporal resolution, which makes the CTA ideal for measuring spectra.
And finally the CTA is more affordable than LDA or PIV systems.
The booklet is intended to give the reader what he needs to know in order to select
and set up a CTA system and to perform measurements of basic turbulent quantities. It
goes through all the steps needed in order to carry out reliable measurements starting
with a chapter on selection of equipment (anemometer, probes, A/D board etc.)
followed by experiment planning, system configuration and installation, anemometer
setup, velocity and directional calibration, data acquisition and data reduction. The more
knowledgeable reader may only read the text boxes, which are written as
comprehensive step-by-step procedures, and skip the text in-between.
Disturbing effects that may influence CTA measurments are mentioned briefly,
and finally an example on how to calculate the uncertainty of velocities measured with a
CTA anemometer is given. The booklet has a short introduction on the basic theory of
the CTA anemometer.
Two appendices give examples on how to setup and acquire data with the Dantec
MiniCTA and StreamLine anemometers utilizing the Dantec application software.
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1. SELECTING MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT ........................................................................... 6
1.1 MEASURING CHAIN .......................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 PROBE SELECTION............................................................................................................................ 6
1.2.1 Quick guide to probe selection............................................................................................... 7
1.2.2 Sensor types............................................................................................................................ 8
1.2.3 Sensor arrays ......................................................................................................................... 9
1.3 CTA ANEMOMETER/SIGNAL CONDITIONER ................................................................................... 10
1.3.1 Anemometer selection .......................................................................................................... 10
1.3.2 Signal conditioner ................................................................................................................ 11
1.4 A/D BOARD ................................................................................................................................... 11
1.5 COMPUTER .................................................................................................................................... 12
1.6 CTA APPLICATION SOFTWARE ....................................................................................................... 12
1.7 TRAVERSE SYSTEM ........................................................................................................................ 13
1.8 CALIBRATION SYSTEM ................................................................................................................... 13
2. PLANNING AN EXPERIMENT ................................................................................................... 14
4. SYSTEM CONFIGURATION....................................................................................................... 16
4.1 PROBE MOUNTING AND CABLING ................................................................................................... 16
4.1.1 Probe mounting and orientation .......................................................................................... 16
4.1.2 Cabling................................................................................................................................. 17
4.1.3 Liquid grounding.................................................................................................................. 17
4.2 CTA CONFIGURATION ................................................................................................................... 18
4.2.1 CTA bridge ........................................................................................................................... 18
4.2.2 Connecting CTA output to A/D board input channels.......................................................... 18
4.3 TRAVERSE SYSTEM........................................................................................................................ 19
5. ANEMOMETER SETUP ............................................................................................................... 19
5.1 CTA HARDWARE SETUP................................................................................................................. 19
5.1.1 Overheat adjustment ............................................................................................................ 19
5.1.2 How to use overheat adjustment .......................................................................................... 20
5.1.3 Square wave test................................................................................................................... 21
5.2 SIGNAL CONDITIONER SETUP ......................................................................................................... 22
5.2.1 Low-pass filtering................................................................................................................. 22
5.2.2 High-pass filtering ............................................................................................................... 22
5.2.3 Applying DC-offset and Gain ............................................................................................... 23
6. VELOCITY CALIBRATION, CURVE FITTING ...................................................................... 24
7. DIRECTIONAL CALIBRATION................................................................................................. 26
7.1.1 X-array probes ..................................................................................................................... 26
7.1.2 Tri-axial probes.................................................................................................................... 27
8. DATA CONVERSION.................................................................................................................... 28
8.1.1 Re-scaling: ........................................................................................................................... 28
8.1.2 Temperature correction: ...................................................................................................... 29
8.1.3 Conversion into calibration velocities (linearisation).......................................................... 29
8.1.4 X-probe decomposition into velocity components U and V.................................................. 30
8.1.5 Tri-axial probe decomposition into velocity components U, V and W ................................. 31
9. DATA ACQUISITION ................................................................................................................... 32
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10.1 AMPLITUDE DOMAIN DATA ANALYSIS ....................................................................................... 33
10.2 TIME-DOMAIN DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................................................. 35
10.3 SPECTRAL-DOMAIN DATA ANALYSIS ......................................................................................... 35
11. RUNNING AN EXPERIMENT................................................................................................. 36
11.1 GENERAL PROCEDURE:.............................................................................................................. 36
11.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE IN NON-ISOTHERMAL FLOWS: ....................................................... 37
12. DISTURBING EFFECTS .......................................................................................................... 38
12.1 FLOW RELATED EFFECTS: .......................................................................................................... 38
12.1.1 Temperature: ................................................................................................................... 38
12.1.2 Pressure:.......................................................................................................................... 38
12.1.3 Composition:.................................................................................................................... 39
12.2 SENSOR CONDITIONS. ................................................................................................................ 39
12.2.1 Contamination: ................................................................................................................ 39
12.2.2 Sensor Robustness: .......................................................................................................... 39
12.2.3 Sensor orientation: .......................................................................................................... 39
13. UNCERTAINTY OF CTA MEASUREMENTS ...................................................................... 40
13.1 UNCERTAINTY OF A VELOCITY SAMPLE..................................................................................... 40
13.1.1 Anemometer:.................................................................................................................... 40
13.1.2 Calibration/conversion:................................................................................................... 41
13.1.3 Data acquisition related uncertainties............................................................................. 41
13.1.4 Uncertainties related to experimental conditions ............................................................ 42
13.1.5 Velocity sample uncertainty............................................................................................. 43
13.2 UNCERTAINTY OF REDUCED DATA............................................................................................. 44
14. ADVANCED TOPICS................................................................................................................ 44
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1. SELECTING MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT
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1.2.1 Quick guide to probe selection
2-Dimensional
One Quadrant Gas X-array Wires
X-array Fibers, thin coat.
V-wedge Film, thin coat.
Liquids X-array Fibers, heavy coat.
V-wedge Film, heavy coat.
Half Plane Gas Split-fibers, thin coat.
Liquids Split-fibers, heavy coat.
Full Plane Gas Triple-split Fibers, thin coat.
X-array Wire, flying hot-wire
Liquids Triple-split Fibers, special
3-Dimensional
One Octant(70° Cone) Gas Tri-axial Wire
Tri-axial Fiber, thin coat.
Liquids Tri-axial Fiber, Special
90° Cone Gas Slanted Wire, rotated probe
Liquids Slanted Fiber, heavy coat.
Full Space Gas Omnidirectional Film
Wall Flows
(Shear Stress)
Type of flow Medium Recommended Probes
1-Dimensional
Unidirectional Gas Flush-mounting Film, thin coat.
Glue-on Film, thin coat.
Liquids Flush-mounting Film, heavy coat.
Glue-on Film, special
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1.2.2 Sensor types
Anemometer probes are available with four types of sensors: Miniature wires,
Gold-plated wires, Fibre-film or Film-sensors. Wires are normally 5 mm in diameter and
1.2 mm long suspended between two needle-shaped prongs. Gold-plated wires have the
same active length but are copper- and gold-plated at the ends to a total length of 3 mm
long in order to minimise prong interference. Fibre-sensors are quartz-fibers, normally
70 mm in diameter and with 1.2 mm active length, covered by a nickel thin-film, which
again is protected by a quartz coating. Fibre-sensors are mounted on prongs in the same
arrays as are wires. Film sensors consist of nickel thin-films deposited on the tip of
aerodynamically shaped bodies, wedges or cones.
Wire sensors:
Miniature wires:
First choice for applications in air flows with turbulence intensities up to 5-10%.
They have the highest frequency response. They can be repaired and are the most
affordable sensor type.
Gold-plated wires:
For applications in air flows with turbulence intensities up to 20-25%. Frequency
response is inferior to miniature wires. They can be repaired.
Fibre-film sensors:
Thin-quartz coating:
For applications in air. Frequency response is inferior to wires. They are more
rugged than wire sensors and can be used in less clean air. They can be repaired.
Heavy-quartz coating:
For applications in water. They can be repaired.
Film-sensors:
Thin-quartz coating:
For applications in air at moderate-to-low fluctuation frequencies. They are the
most rugged CTA probe type and can be used in less clean air than fibre-sensors.
They normally cannot be repaired.
Heavy-quartz coating:
For applications in water. They are more rugged than fibre-sensors. They cannot
normally be repaired.
Note: Wire probes and fibre-film probes with thin quartz coating can be used in non-
conducting liquids.
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1.2.3 Sensor arrays
Probes are available in one-, two- and three-dimensional versions as single-, dual
and triple-sensor probes referring to the number of sensors. Since the sensors (wires or
fibre-films) respond to both magnitude and direction of the velocity vector, information
about both can be obtained, only when two or more sensors are placed under different
angles to the flow vector.
Split-fibre and triple-split fibre probes are special designs, where two or three
thin-film sensors are placed in parallel on the surface of a quartz cylinder. They may
supplement X-probes in two-dimensional flows, when the flow vector exceeds an angle
of ±45°. They are not supported by commercially available CTA software.
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1.3 CTA Anemometer/Signal conditioner
CTA bridges:
1:20 General purpose bridge for air applications at bandwidths below approx. 250 kHz.
1:20 General purpose bridge with high power for water applications.
1:1 Symmetrical bridge for bandwidths up to 400 kHz, or for long probe cables up to
100 m (reduces max. bandwidths to typically 50 kHz).
Setup:
Automatic setup of and operation of CTA bridge via application software.
CTA bridges:
1:20 General purpose bridge for air applications at a bandwidth up to approx. 10 kHz.
Setup:
Manual setup and operation of CTA bridge.
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1.3.2 Signal conditioner
Most CTA anemometers have built-in Signal Conditioners for high-pass and low-pass
filtering and for amplification of the CTA signal.
Offset:
Should ideally cover the input range of the A/D board. In practice, however, it
suffices to cover the expected range of the CTA output signal, e.g. 0-5 Volts.
Gain:
Improves A/D board resolution. A gain of 16 gives a 12-bit A/D board the same
resolution as a 16-bit board.
High-pass filter:
Removes the DC-part of the signal. Is only needed, when low frequency fluctuations
have to be removed from the signal prior to spectral analysis.
Low pass filter:
Removes electronic noise from the signal and prevents folding back of spectra
(aliasing). The filter should be as steep as possible. Research anemometers normally
have a –60dB/decade roll-off, while dedicated simpler anemometers may have –20
dB/decade.
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1.5 Computer
The choice of computer to be used for CTA measurements is normally not critical.
Speed and memory storage are normally more than sufficient for most applications. It
is, however, important to ensure that the CTA controller, the A/D board driver and the
traverse driver are compatible, i.e. runs under the same operative system and can be
called from the same application software. Also that the required number of com ports
for communication with the CTA anemometer and the traverse system is available.
Note: It is highly recommended to use professional CTA application software when at all
possible in order to reduce the time and costs it otherwise takes to start up. In special cases,
where the CTA is part of a large measurement system with input from many other types of
instruments including the control of windtunnels and traverses, it may be worthwhile
considering writing ones own software. Even then, it may be sensible to use the velocity and
directional calibration routines offered by a professional application software.
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1.7 Traverse system
A traverse system is needed, if probe movement is part of the experimental procedure. It
may have up to three axis and a rotation unit, if used for slanting probes.
Traverse selection:
Axis:
Number and range of traverse axis shall fit to the experiment.
Resolution:
Linear resolution shall be sufficient. Commercially available traverses for CTA probes
normally have a resolution better than 0.01 mm and can be repositioned within
approx. ±0.1 mm.
Control:
Automatic traverse is most conveniently controlled from the CTA application software.
Impact on flow pattern:
The traverse should not disturb the flow at the probe position. This may be achieved by
using aerodynamically shaped probe mounts on the traverse.
The traverse should be rigid so that the parts exposed to the wind load do not vibrate or
bend. Such vibrations or bending will bias the velocity measurement.
Calibration facility:
Dedicated probe calibrator:
Velocity range. From a few cm/s to several 100 m/s.
Accuracy: Typically ±0.5% of reading above 5m /s.
Additional features: May be used for directional calibration of multi-sensor probes.
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2. PLANNING AN EXPERIMENT
The quality of fluid dynamic measurements and the efficiency of the experimental
procedure very much depends on the selection of the equipment, inclusive the
application software, and on the planning of the experiment. Qualified decisions depend
on the capability to identify the measurable quantities and to select the data analyses
needed to provide the required results.
Know what you want to measure, the physical Define quantities to be measured:
variable, the statistical functions, the - Higher order moments (mean, standard
ultimate presentation. deviation, turbulence, shear stress, etc.).
- Frequency distribution (spectra)
Know your sensor: sensitivity limitations, - Eddy sizes (length scales)
potential problems.
Define distribution of measuring points:
Know the results beforehand. If you do not - Single point measurement
guess, cross check, explore. - Profiles (probe traverse)
- Simultaneously in many points
Design the measurement.
Select Equipment and software on basis of:
Estimate optimum data rate, measurement - Flow medium: Gas or liquid.
time, number of samples needed. - Dimensions: 1-, 2- or 3-dimensional.
- Fluctuations: Turbulence intensity, length
Check the function of equipment by varying scales, frequency distribution.
parameters. Is the system immune to small - Temperature: Constant or varying.
changes in bandwidth, range, gain …. - Quantity to be measured: Velocity
components, shear stress, temperature
Monitor the results online – things may etc.
change: temperature, conditions during a
traverse. Define Experiment procedure on basis of:
- Type of flow field: Free or internal flows,
Do not leave and go for coffee! wake flow, boundary layer flow,
reversing flow.
- Point distribution: Single-point or
distributed.
- Data analysis: Amplitude-, time- or
spectral domain
Note: Some of the characteristics, e.g. length scales and frequency distribution, may be
unknown prior to an experiment and have to be measured before the final setup of the
experiment.
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3. EXPERIMENT STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE
When the flow and parameters of interest are defined and the necessary hardware
is installed and configured (Chapter 1 and 2), the experimental procedure consists of the
following steps (numbers in bracket refer to relevant chapters):
HARDWARE SETUP:
1. Adjust overheat ratio (5.1.1).
2. Measure ambient reference temperature, if temperature variations are expected.
3. If need be, check system response with square wave test (5.1.2).
4. Set low-pass filter in Signal Conditioner (5.2.1).
VELOCITY CALIBRATION:
5. Expose the probe to a set of known velocities and determine the transfer
function (6).
DIRECTIONAL CALIBRATION:
6. Only for 2- and 3-D probes, and only if high accuracy is required. Otherwise
use manufacturer’s defaults for yaw and pitch coeffcients (7).
CONVERSION AND DATA REDUCTION:
7. Transfer function provides calibration velocities (8.1.1-8.1.2-8.1.3).
8. Decomposition using yaw and pitch coefficients provides velocity components
(8.1.4 - 8.1.5).
9. Data analysis module provides reduced data. (10).
DEFINE EXPERIMENT:
10. Select hardware setup
Option 1: Adjust overheat ratio if temperature changes are expected (11.2).
Option 2: Leave overheat resistor constant (requires temperature correction of
data, if temperature changes (11.2).
11. Probe movement: Define traverse grid (for measurements in many points)
DEFINE DATA ACQUISITION:
12. Sampling frequency and number of samples (9).
TEST RUN:
13. Place the probe in the flow and acquire data. Check that reduced data (mean
velocity, standard deviation etc.) are as expected.
RUN EXPERIMENT:
14. Move the probe to position, readjust hardware, if need be, and acquire probe
voltages (11).
CONVERT AND REDUCE DATA:
15. Load the data and apply the selected conversion/reduction routine (10).
PRESENTATION OF DATA:
16. Present data in graphs or export them to a report generator.
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4. SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
System configuration is the process of mounting and interconnecting the selected
probes, cables, CTA anemometers, signal conditioners and A/D channels. The
configuration may also include a Traverse system for the probe.
It is important to note that the BNC connectors do not make electrical contact with any metal
parts of the rig or elsewhere. The BNC connectors represent the signal ground and may
therefore carry ground loops. It is also important that the BNC connectors on dual- or triple-
sensor supports do not touch each other, as it will influence the floating amplifiers in the CTA.
It is therefore recommended to cover all BNC connectors with a length of plastic tube.
Important: The probe should only be mounted in its support or removed from it,
when the CTA is switched to Stand- by or the power to the CTA is disconnected.
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4.1.2 Cabling
It is recommended to use the BNC-BNC cables delivered together with the CTA by the
manufacturer in order to match the cable-compensating network in the bridge.
If this is not done, the bridge may become unstable and deliver a useless oscillating voltage
output or, in the worst case, burn the sensor.
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4.2 CTA configuration
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4.3 Traverse System
The Traverse system is used to move the probe around in the flow. It is selected
on the basis of the number of axis to be traversed, the size of the area to be traversed,
the positioning accuracy and the expected forces from the flow acting on the traverse.
When a PC controlled traverse system is selected, it is important to make sure that
the moving of the traverse and the acquisition of data can be timed securely. The most
practical solution is when the traverse can be moved from the CTA application
software, i.e. the traverse is part of the hardware configuration, or when the CTA data
can be acquired in the same software, which controls the traverse. The communication
with the traverse is often done via a serial comport or via a GPIB interface.
5. ANEMOMETER SETUP
The anemometer setup consists of CTA hardware setup and Signal conditioner
offset and gain adjustment.
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Overheat adjustment procedure:
Measure the total resistance Rtot,0 at ambient temperature T0 and calculate the active
sensor resistance:
R0 = Rtot , 0 - (Rleads + Rsup port + Rcable )
Rleads = probe leads resistance, Rsupport = support resistance and Rcable = cable
resistance.
Select a suitable overheat ratio, a.
Recommended values are a= 0.8 in air (over temperature approx 220 °C)
and a=0.1 in water (over temperature approx. 30 °C).
Calculate the decade resistance as:
[
Rdec = BR × (1 + a ) × R0 + Rleads + Rsup port + Rcable ]
BR= bridge ratio=20 (in most CTA’s)
Adjust the decade resistance to Rdec.
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2. Temperature correction: The overheat is adjusted once and left untouched
during calibration and data acquisition. The temperature is measured during
calibration and during the experiment and used to correct the anemometer
voltages before conversion and reduction.
See Chapter 11.2.
Adjust amplifier filter and gain until the response curve gets a 15% undershoot. The
response should be smooth without “ringing” either at the top or at the zero line.
Determine Dt being the time it takes the servo-loop to regulate back to 3% of its
maximum value with an undershoot of 15%.
Calculate the bandwidth of the probe/anemometer system (or cut-off frequency) fc:
1 1
fc = (wire probes) [10] fc = (fibre-film probes) [11]
1.3 × Dt Dt
The bandwidth is defined as the frequency, at which the fluctuation amplitude is damped
by a factor 2 (–3 dB limit).
Note: For wire probes up to 100 m/s the amplitude damping starts at frequencies 0.3 -
0.5 times smaller than the –3 dB cut-off frequency determined by the square wave test.
The response can be optimised by adjusting the amplifier filter and gain. High gain
setting gives high bandwidth, but also greater risk for the servo-loop to become
unstable. It is therefore often recommended to reduce the gain in order to run safely.
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Most CTA manufacturer’s are recommending default settings for gain and filter, which
can be used in most applications. Dedicated CTA anemometers often have fixed setup
for the servo-loop, which works within the bandwidth stated for them without further
adjustment by the user.
Low-pass filtering:
Estimate the highest frequency: fmax.
Select the cut-off, frequency: f cut -off = 2 × f max
Select the filter setting closest
to the cut-off frequency.
If low-pass filtering is not performed, the energy at frequencies lower than fcut-off
will be contaminated by higher frequencies if the Nyquist sampling criteria is applied.
This appears as a false energy peak in the power spectrum.
High-pass filtering:
This eliminates waves with a wavelength larger than 2/5 of the record length. Shorter waves
will not be interpreted as erroneous non-stationary contributions to the signal.
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High-pass filtering will make the signal stationary. It should be noted that no
spectral information is available below the cut-off frequency of a high-pass filter.
High-pass filters with a sharp and low cut-off frequency are difficult to establish
and they very often have large phase lags. They should therefore be used with care. A
better solution might be to perform digital filtering of the full data set with, for example,
a sixth order filter.
DC-offset:
The CTA signal level may be reduced by subtraction of a DC-offset voltage. This
is necessary if the signal moves outside of the range of the A/D board, when a high
amplification of the signal is needed prior to digitizing.
DC-offset procedure:
Determine the minimum value Emin of the CTA signal to be measured.
Adjust the DC-offset in the Signal conditioner to: Eoffset = Emin
Note: Avoid applæying DC-offset if possible, as the signal then no longer directly represents
the power transferred from the sensor to the fluid. The usual temperature correction routines
are therefore no longer valid, unless the signal is reconstructed by adding the DC-offset prior
to correction.
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6. VELOCITY CALIBRATION, CURVE FITTING
Calibration establishes a relation between the CTA output and the flow velocity. It
is performed by exposing the probe to a set of known velocities, U, and then record the
voltages, E. A curve fit through the points (E,U) represents the transfer function to be
used when converting data records from voltages into velocities. Calibration may either
be carried out in a dedicated probe calibrator, which normally is a free jet, or in a wind-
tunnel with for example a pitot-static tube as the velocity reference. It is important to
keep track of the temperature during calibration. If it varies from calibration to
measurement, it may be necessary to correct the CTA data records for temperature
variations.
Mount the probe in the calibration rig with the same wire-prong orientation as will be
used during the experiment.
- Single-sensor probes: with the prongs parallel with the flow.
- X-probes and Tri-axial probes: with the probe axis parallel with the flow.
Record the ambient conditions: Temperature, Ta , and barometric pressure, Pb.
Setting to operate:
1) Calibration with temperature correction:
Switch the anemometer to Operate with the previously established overheat setup.
2) Calibration with overheat adjustment:
Balance the bridge immediately before calibration and establish a new overheat
setup using the same overheat ratio a.
Choose min. and max. calibration velocity, Umin,cal and Umax,cal ,
Choose number of calibration points (a minimum of 10 points is recommended).
Choose velocity distribution (logarithmic distribution is recommended).
Create the velocities and acquire the CTA voltage together with velocity and ambient
temperature in all points.
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CTA application software packages contain curve fitting procedures, which
correct the voltages and calculates the transfer functions on basis of advanced curve
fitting methods eliminating the need for any data manipulations by the user.
Arrange the probe data in a table, for example in Excel, containing velocity U, CTA voltage E,
fluid temperature Ta and pressure Pb.
Correct the voltages E for temperature variations during calibration, see Chapter 7.1.2.
Polynomial curve fitting:
Plot U as function of Ecorr
Create a polynomial trend line in 4th order:
2 3 4
U = C 0 + C1 Ecorr + C 2 E coor + C 3 E corr + C 4 E corr , Co to C4 are calibration constants.
The polynomial curve fit is normally recommended, as it makes very good fits with
linearisation errors often less than 1%.
Note: Polynomial curve fits may oscillate, if the velocity is outside the calibration velocity
range.
Power law curve fitting:
Plot E2 as function of Un in double logarithmic scale (n=0.45 is a good starting value for
wire probes).
Create a linear trend line. This will give the calibration constants A and B in the function:
E 2 = A + B × U n (King’s law [15])
Vary n and repeat the trend line until the curve fit errors are acceptable.
Power law curve fits are less accurate than polynomial fits, especially over wide velocity
ranges, as n is slightly velocity dependent.
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7. DIRECTIONAL CALIBRATION
Directional calibration of multi-sensor probes provides the individual directional
sensitivity coefficients (yaw factor k and pitch-factor h) for the sensors, which are used
to decompose calibration velocities into velocity components.
Note: In many situations, where optimal accuracy is not needed, the manufacturer’s default
values for k and h can be used, eliminating the need for individual directional calibration.
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7.1.2 Tri-axial probes
The directional sensitivity of tri-axial probes is characterised by both a yaw and a
pitch coefficient, k and h, for each sensor. Calibration of tri-axial probes requires a
holder, where the probe axis (X-direction) can be tilted with respect to the flow and
thereafter rotated 360° around its axis. Proper evaluation of the coefficient requires that
a probe coordinate system is defined with respect to the sensor-orientation. Directional
calibration is made on the basis of a velocity calibration.
Tri-axial probe calibration procedure:
Define a probe coordinate system (normally use the manufacturer’s suggestion):
Mount the probe in the rotating holder with the probe axis in the flow direction and wire
no. 3 in the XZ plane of the calibration unit system, corresponding to a=0.
Estimate the maximum angle bmax , which is expected in the experiment between the
velocity vector and the probe axis. In most cases bmax is selected to 30°.
Select the number of angular positions a for the calibration, normally 24 corresponding to
15° steps.
Expose the probe to the mid calibration velocity range Udir,cal = 1/2·(Umin,cal+Umax,cal) and
acquire the voltages E1 , E2 and E3 from the three sensors.
Tilt the probe to the bmax position with a=0 and acquire E1 , E2 and E3.
Rotate the probe and acquire E1 , E2 and E3 in all a-positions.
Calculate the squared yaw factor k12 , k22 and k32 and pitch factors for sensor 1 , 2 and 3 in
each position using the equations in the Theoretical part, chapter YY.
Calculate the average of the k2- and h2-factors and use them as sensitivity factors for the
three sensors.
Note: Directional calibration normally only needs to be carried out once in a probe’s
lifetime, as it depends only on the geometry, which will not change in use.
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8. DATA CONVERSION
It is advised to define the data conversion prior to running the experiment. Data
conversion transforms the CTA voltages into calibration velocities in m/s by means of
the calibration transfer function. Multi-sensor probes are furthermore decomposed into
velocity components in the probe coordinate system. If it differs from the laboratory
coordinate system, the velocity components are finally transformed into the laboratory
coordinate system.
Data conversion consists of the following processes:
1. Re-scaling of acquired CTA Only if Signal Conditioner gain and offset have
output voltages (raw data) been applied.
2. Temperature correction Only if sensor temperature has been kept constant
during experiment (no overheat adjust).
3. Linearisation Only if data reduction in amplitude domain is
required.
4. Decomposition into velocity Only for X-probes and Tri-axial probes.
components
8.1.1 Re-scaling:
When a CTA signal has been subject to a DC-offset and amplification between
overheat setup and calibration, it has to be re-scaled before it can be linearised.
Re-scaling of CTA-signals:
Calculate the re-scaled voltage E from the acquired voltage Ea:
Ea
E= - E offset
Gain
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8.1.2 Temperature correction:
If the overheat ratio has not been adjusted prior to the data acquisition, the CTA
output voltage must be corrected for possible temperature variations before conversion.
The fluid temperature needs then to be acquired along with the CTA signal.
Acquire the fluid temperature, Ta , together with the CTA voltage, Ea.
0.5
æ T - T0 ö
E corr = çç w ÷÷ × Ea [60]
T
è w - Ta ø
where:
Ea = acquired voltage
Tw = sensor hot temperature = a/a0+T0
T0 = ambient reference temperature related to the last overheat setup before calibration
Ta = ambient temperature during acquisition
This expression can be used for moderate temperature changes in air %±5 °C. The
useful range may be expanded by reducing the exponent n from 0.5 to 0.4 or 0.3.
Note: Do not use the polynomial linearisation function outside the calibration range, as it may
oscillate.
29
8.1.4 X-probe decomposition into velocity components U and V
In 2-D flows measured with X-probes, the calibrated velocities together with the
yaw and coefficients k2 are used as intermediate results to calculate the velocity
components U and V in the probe coordinate system.
The yaw coefficients for the two sensors may be the manufacturer’s default
values, or if higher accuracy is required they are determined by directional calibration of
the individual sensor. In simple cases, the coefficients may be neglected.
2 2
U1 + k2 U 2 =
2 1
2
( 2
)
× 1 + k 2 × U cal 2
2
which gives:
U1 =
2
2
( 2
)2 2
× 1 + k 2 × U cal 2 - k 2 × U cal1
2
U2 =
2
2
( 2
)
2 2
× 1 + k1 × U cal1 - k1 × U cal 2
2
Calculate the velocities U and V in the probe coordinate system (X,Y) from:
2 2
U= ×U1 + ×U 2
2 2
2 2
V = ×U1 - ×U 2
2 2
Manufacturer’s (Dantec Dynamics) default values for Yaw-coefficients, k2:
k12=k22
Miniature wire probes: 0.04
Gold-plated wire probes: 0.0225
Fiber-film probes for air: 0.04
30
8.1.5 Tri-axial probe decomposition into velocity components U, V and W
In a 3-D flows measured with a Tri-axial probe the calibration velocities are used
together with the yaw and pitch coefficients k2 and h2 to calculate the three velocity
components U, V and W in the probe coordinate system (X,Y,Z).
The yaw and pitch coefficients for the three sensors may be the manufacturer’s
default values, or if higher accuracy is required they are determined by directional
calibration of the individual sensors.
Calculate the calibration velocities Ucal1 , Ucal2 Ucal3 using the linearisation functions for sensor
1, 2 and 3.
+ U = (1 + k + h )× cos 54.74 × U
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
h2 × U 1 + k 2 × U 2 3 2 2 cal 2
U = (1 + k + h ) × cos 54.74 × U
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
U 1 + h3 × U 2 + k 3 3 3 3 cal 3
With the k2=0.0225 and , h2=1.04 default values for a tri-axial wire probe, the velocities U1, U2
and U3 in the wire coordinate system becomes:
2 2 2
U 1 = - 0.3477 × U cal 1 + 0.3544 × U cal 2 + 0.3266 × U cal 3
2 2 2
U 2 = 0.3266 × U cal 1 - 0.3477U cal 2 + 0.3544 × U cal 3
2 2 2
U 3 = 0.3544 × U cal 1 + 0.32663 × U cal 2 - 0.3477 × U cal 3
k2 h2
Gold-plated wire sensors: 0.0225 1.04
Fiber-film sensors for air: 0.04 1.20
31
9. DATA ACQUISITION
The CTA signal is a continuos analogue voltage. In order to process it digitally it
has to be sampled as a time series consisting of discrete values digitized by an analogue-
to-digital converter (A/D board).
The parameters defining the data acquisition are the sampling rate SR and the
number of samples, N. Together they determine the sampling time as T=N/SR. The
values for SR and N depend primarily on the specific experiment, the required data
analysis (time-averaged or spectral analysis), the available computer memory and the
acceptable level of uncertainty. Time-averaged analysis, such as mean velocity and rms
of velocity, requires non-correlated samples, which can be achieved when the time
between samples is at least two times larger than the integral time scale of the velocity
fluctuations. Spectral analysis requires the sampling rate to be at least two times the
highest occurring fluctuation frequency in the flow. The number of samples depends on
the required uncertainty and confidence level of the results.
32
10. DATA ANALYSIS
As the CTA signal from a turbulent flow will be of random nature, a statistical
description of the signal is necessary. The time series can be analysed or reduced either
in the amplitude domain, the time domain or in the frequency domain. The following
procedures all require stationary random data.
CTA application software contains modules that perform the most common data
analysis, as defined below. The standard procedure is to select the wanted analysis and
apply it to the actual time series. The reduced data will then be saved in the project and
be ready for graphical presentation or for exporting to a report generator.
N
1
Mean velocity: U mean =
N
åU
1
i
Standard deviation
0.5
æ 1 N
of velocity: U rms =ç å (U i - U mean )2 ö÷
è N -1 1 ø
U rms
Turbulence intensity: Tu =
U mean
N
(U i - U mean )3
Skewness: S =å
1 N ×s 3
N
(U i - U mean )4
Kurtosis (or flatness): K =å
1 N ×s 4
The Skewness is a measure of the lack of statistical symmetry in the flow, while the Kurtosis
is a measure of the amplitude distribution (flatness factor).
33
Two simultaneous velocity time series provide cross-moments (basis for Reynolds
shear stresses) and higher order cross moments (lateral transport quantities), when they
are acquired at the same point. If they are acquired at different points they provide
spatial correlations, which carries information about typical length scales in the flow.
N 1
1 N
v 2 u = å (Vi - Vmean ) ×(U i - U mean )
2
N 1
1 N
v 2 w = å (Vi - Vmean ) ×(Wi - Wmean )
2
N 1
1 N
w 2 v = å (Wi - Wmean ) ×(Vi - Vmean )
2
N 1
34
10.2 Time-domain data analysis
The most often applied time-domain statistic is the auto-correlation function,
Rx(t), from which the integral time-scale can be calculated. This is an important
quantity, as it defines the time interval between statistically uncorrelated samples.
In most CTA application software with data reduction features, the auto-
correlation coefficient function is normally calculated and graphically displayed. It
starts with the value 1 at time zero, drops down to zero and normally continues
oscillating around zero. A reasonable estimate of TI is the time it takes the coefficient to
drop from the unity start value to zero.
35
11. RUNNING AN EXPERIMENT
The experiment can be executed when system setup, probe calibration, data
acquisition setup, and data reduction (algorithms for data analysis) have been
established. Prior to running the experiment it is advised to verify the complete setup by
performing measurements in a known part of the flow. Probe calibrations before and
after the experiment are advisable in order to check probe stability.
Calibrate the probe(s). It is always recommended to calibrate the probe immediately before
and after an experiment.
Position the probe in the flow together with a temperature probe, if temperature correction of
data is required.
Move the probe to the proper position in the traverse grid (if employed).
Acquire the CTA output voltages together with other signals needed for correction or control
and move to next position.
Re-calibrate the probe after the experiment and compare with previous calibration. This can
be done in practice by reducing the same raw data set by means of the two calibrations and
compare the results.
36
11.2 Experimental procedure in non-isothermal flows:
As the CTA anemometer is sensitive to variations in ambient temperature, as well
as velocity, it is often necessary to make special precautions in non-isothermal flows in
order to eliminate errors in the measured velocity due to temperature variations. The
error in thevelocity measured with a wire probe in air is approximately 2% per 1 °C
change in air temperature. The measured velocity decreases with increasing temperature
and vice versa.
This error may be avoided by setting up the CTA bridge and correcting the data in
one of the following ways:
1. Operate the probe with a constant sensor temperature (obtained by leaving the
decade resistor in the CTA fixed during calibration and data acquisition) and correct
the CTA voltage before linearisation and data reduction. The ambient temperature
must be acquired simultaneously with a temperature sensor, which is fast enough to
follow the temperature variations.
2. Operate the probe with a constant overheat ratio (obtained by adjusting the
overheat ratio before each calibration and data acquisition). This requires that the
ambient temperature remains constant (or nearly constant) during the time it takes to
perform a data acquisition.
Constant sensor temperature (fixed decade resistance) with temperature correction of data:
Adjust the overheat ratio a at a known ambient temperature Tref.
Leave the CTA bridge and make no more overheat adjustments during the experiment
or during recalibrations (disable “automatic overheat adjust” in StreamLine).
Calibrate the probe and measure temperature in each calibration point. Correct the raw
voltages to Tref and make a curve fit.
Position the probe in the test rig and acquire the CTA voltages, Ea ,and ambient
temperature, Ta ,as close to the probe as possible.
Correct the raw CTA voltages (see Chapter 8.1.2) before further conversion
(linearisation) and reduction.
37
12. DISTURBING EFFECTS
Measurements with hot-wire anemometers are influenced by a number of
disturbing effects. In fact any change in a parameter that enters into the mechanism of
heat transfer from the wire to its surroundings may act as a disturbing effect and reduce
the accuracy of the measurement result. The effects may be related to the flow medium
and sensor condition. For special effects from e.g. natural convection, wall nearness etc.
please refer to the CTA literature.
12.1.1 Temperature:
Temperature variations are normally the most important error source, as the heat
transfer is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the sensor and the
fluid. For a wire probe operated under normal conditions, the error in measured velocity
is approx. 2% per 1 °C change in temperature. For film probes in water the error may be
up to 10% per 1 °C. In both cases the measured velocity decreases with increasing
ambient temperture.
Different precautions can be taken in order to avoid systematic conversion errors
when probe voltages are converted into velocities. One solution is to readjust the
overheat resistor to the changed temperature, so that overheat ratio is kept constant from
calibration to measurement. Another solution is to leave the overheat resistor constant,
measure the temperature and correct the probe voltage. See Chapter 10.2 Experimental
procedure in non-isothermal flows. A special case is the temperature-compensated wire
probe with build-in temperature-sensitive overheat resistor which measures velocity
independent of temperature variations.
12.1.2 Pressure:
Pressure variations:
Pressure variations enter directly into the heat transfer equation, as the probe in
fact measures the mass flux r·U. Normally probes are calibrated against velocity only.
As pressure variations from calibration to experiment and during an experiment are
normally small, the pressure influence in the CTA measurements is normally neglected.
Pressure range:
The lower limit for pressures, at which a probe can be used, are determined by the
slip-flow conditions defined by the Knudsen number Kn (ratio between molecular mean
free path and sensor diameter should be smaller than 0.01). For a 5 mm wire probe at
atmospheric conditions Kn=0.2. Provided density variations are small the flow is
considered to be a continuum, and pressure effects are normally neglected.
38
12.1.3 Composition:
In most cases the fluid composition remains constant during calibration and
experiment, and it is of no importance. In air one normally experiences variations in
water vapour content (humidity). The influence is very small, less than 1%, and is
almost always neglected.
12.2.1 Contamination:
Particle contamination reduces the heat transfer resulting in a downward drift in
the calibration. The influence of particle contamination increases with decreasing sensor
surface. Wire probes with 5 µm sensors can be used without problems in normal
laboratory air, if they are recalibrated at regular intervals. Fiber-film probes are less
susceptible and can be used, e.g. in outdoor applications without problems. If the
calibration drifts significantly, it may be necessary to clean the sensor.
Contamination is a much bigger problem in liquid flows than in gas flows. This
means that film probes with non-cylindrical sensors should always be preferred for
fiber-film probes whenever possible, unless a careful filtering of the water is carried out.
39
13. UNCERTAINTY OF CTA MEASUREMENTS
Current standards refer to the ISO uncertainty model which combines uncertainty
contributions U(yi) from each individual input variable xi into a total uncertainty at a
given confidence level. The output variable is defined as yi=f(xi).
The relative standard uncertainty u(yi) is a function of the standard deviation of
the input variance:
1 æ Dx ö
u( yi ) = × S × çç i ÷÷
yi è ki ø
where S= ∂yi/∂xi is the sensitivity factor and ki is the coverage factor related to the
distribution of the input variance (gaussian, rectangular etc.).
As most engineering applications are assumed to have a Gaussian error
distribution, the 95% confidence level normally required is achieved by multiplying the
standard uncertainty with the coverage factor k=2. The total relative expanded
uncertainty then becomes:
U (tot ) = 2 × å u( y ) i
2
13.1.1 Anemometer:
40
13.1.2 Calibration/conversion:
Calibration equipment:
The calibration, whether it is performed with a dedicated calibrator or with a pitot-
static tube as reference, constitutes a major source of uncertainty. The error is stochastic
with a normal distribution and the relative standard uncertainty can be expressed as:
1
U (U cal ) = × STDV (U calibrator (% ))
100
The calibrator uncertainty is often given as a relative standard uncertainty, acal , in
percent plus a constant contribution bcal in m/s :
STDV (U calibrator ) = ± a(% ) + bcal (m / s )
The constant contribution bcal may be normally neglected at velocities above 5
m/s.
acal % bcal m/s
Good dedicated calibrator ±1 ±0.02
Pitot-static tube with calibrated micro-manometer (Ucal>2 ±2%
m/s)
Linearisation (Conversion):
The linearisation uncertainty is related to the curve fitting errors. It is stochastic
with a normal distribution and its relative standard uncertainty can be calculated from:
1
U (U lin ) = × STDV (DU lin (% ))
100
where STDV(DUlin) is the standard deviation of the curve fitting errors in the
calibration points in %.
41
13.1.4 Uncertainties related to experimental conditions
Probe positioning
The positioning uncertainty relates to the alignment of the probe in the
experimental setup after calibration. The uncertainty is stochastic with a square
distribution and its relative standard uncertainty can be expressed as:
1
U (U pos ) = × (1 - cosq )
3
Normally a probe can be positioned with an uncertainty Dq=1°.
Temperature variations
Temperature variations from calibration to experiment or during an experiment
introduce systematic errors. If not corrected, a change in temperature changes the sensor
over-temperature and contributes as a stochastic uncertainty with rectangular
distribution. The relative standard uncertainty is:
0.5
11 1 æA
U (U temp ) =
ö
× × × ç × U -0.5 + 1÷
3 U Tw - T0 è B ø
where Tw is the sensor temperature, T0 the ambient reference temperature, and DT
is the difference between the ambient reference temperature and the temperature during
the measurement.
This estimate is based on the power law calibration function:
(
E 2 = (Tw - T0 ) × A + B × (U cal )
0.5
) = (T w (
- T0 ) × A + B1 × (r × U )
0.5
)
Since the velocity Ucal actually represents the mass flux, rU, variations in density,
r , with temperature will add to the uncertainty, if not accounted for. In gases, this gives
following relative standard uncertainty:
1 1 DT
U (U r ,T ) = × Dr ,T = ×
3 3 273
42
1 1 ¶U
U (Uhum ) = × × DPwv
3 U ¶Pwv
The influence on the heat transfer is very small, ¶U/¶Pwv »0.01·U per 1 kPa
change in water vapour pressure Pwv.
1 1
× Dy i × Dy i
U U
Dxi Dxi k
1 1
× × Dyi
k U
Probe q 1° 1-cosq Ö3 »0
positioning 0.000
15
Temperature DT 1 °C 0.013 Ö3 0.008
variations1)
1 DT æ A -0,5 ö
× × ç ×U + 1÷
(
U Tw - T
0 è )
B ø
43
Humidity DPwv 1 kPa 1 ¶U Ö3 »0
× × DPwv
U ¶Pwv 0.000
6
2
æ1 1 ö
Relative expanded uncertainty : U(Usample) = 2 × å ç × × Dyi ÷ = 0.030 = 3 %
3)
èk U ø
Table 1. Error sources and uncertainties for a single velocity sample acquired with a
CTA under typical experimental conditions including calibrator uncertainty.
44
High velocities, compressible flows.
At high velocities the flow becomes compressible and effects from
compressibility should be taken into account. In practice this means that pressure and
velocity should be measured simulatneously. The correction is quite complicated and is
very often neglected [33],[48], [55].
Wall effects.
When the wire is placed close to a solid wall, heat will be conducted through the
flowing medium to the wall. If not corrected for this will cause the velocity to be
measured too high. The wall influence starts at y+ £ yUt/n = 3.5 (y= distance to the
wall, Ut =friction velocity and n=kinematic viscosity). The critical wall distance is
typically 0.1 to 0.2 mm depending on free stream velocity [53], [62], [22].
Two-phase flows.
As the heat transfer is much bigger in liquids than in gases, a hot wire (or hot-
film) will clearly distinguish between liquid and gas phase. This can be utilised to
measure the passage of for example air bubbles in water [20].
45
Binary mixtures.
The heat transfer to gases depends to some extent on the heat conductivity of the
gas. The heat transfer from a wire can therefore be used to measure the concentration in
binary mixtures. This is done in practice by placing the wire in a sonic nozzle
(aspirating probe), where the probe is exposed to a constant velocity independent of the
free stream velcocity and therefore primarily responds to changes in heat conductivity
[44].
46
15.1.2 Dynamic characteristics, frequency limit.
The hot-wire response can be derived from the nonstationary heat balance equation.
When exposed to changes in flow velocity the wire will not react instantaneously due to
its thermal inertia. This will dampen the variations in wire resistance Rw (and in wire
voltage) and result in flow fluctuations being measured smaller than they actually are.
The wire response alone is far too slow for most turbulence studies, and compensation
in the electronics of the anemometer is therefore necessary. By using the Constant
Temperature Anemometer principle, whereby a feed-back amplifier keeps the sensor
resistance constant independent of variations in U, the frequency limit may be increased
up to 1000 times or more [10], [12].
47
Governing equation:
Consider a thin heated wire mounted to supports
and exposed to a velocity U.
dQi
W =Q+
dt
W = power generated by Joule heating
W = I2 Rw , recall Rw = Rw(Tw)
Q = heat transferred to surroundings
Qi = CwTw =thermal energy stored in wire
Cw = heat capacity of wire
Tw = wire temperature
I2Rw2 = E2 = (Tw –T0)(A + BUn) “King’s law” [15]. The voltage is a measure of velocity U.
( )(
I 2 R w = R w - R0 A + BU n + C w w) dT
dt
or expressing Tw in terms of Rw and
temperature coefficient of resistance a0:
C w dRw
(
I 2 Rw = (Rw - R0 ) A + BU n + ) a 0 R0 dt
This differential equation has the time constant t:
Cw
t =
(
a 0 R0 A1 + B1U n - I 2 )
Frequency limit (3 dB amplitude damping):
1
f cp =
2pt
48
15.2 Mechanical design of hot-wire probes
A hot-wire probe for the measurement of high frequency flow fluctuations consists of a
very thin wire mounted on some kind of support. The hot-wire material is chosen so as
to fulfil a number of requirements such as: high temperature coefficient of resistance,
high specific resistance, high mechanical strength and ability to operate at high
temperatures. Tungsten is far superior to other metals in this respect and is therefore
used, whenever possible. It can be used at wire temperatures up to 300 ˚C and at
velocities up to the supersonic range. Most hot-wires have a diameter of 5 mm and a
length of approximately 1mm. The wire is spot-welded to needle-shaped prongs,
normally made of stainless steel. The prongs are embedded in a probe body, which
electrically connects to the anemometer via a probe cable.
49
Probe design:
Spatial resolution:
U mean
lx = [5].
2 f cp
Directional sensitivity:
2
(
U (a ) = U (0 ) cos 2 a + k 2 sin 2 a
2
) θ=0
U (q ) = U (0 ) (cos q)
2 2 2
q + h 2 sin 2 a=0
50
15.5 The Constant Temperature Anemometer.
The constant temperature anemometer is designed with the purpose of eliminating
the influence of the thermal inertia of the wire in fluctuating flows, so that the frequency
limit of the instrument is mainly determined by the electronic circuitry. This is
achieved by supplying electrical energy to the wire at exactly the same rate as heat is
lost to the surrounding fluid medium and at the same time. Since the wire temperature is
thus kept constant irrespective of the flow velocity, the importance of the heat
capacitance of the wire is greatly diminished.
The operation of the CTA anemometer can be explained as follows:
The hot-wire is placed in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge opposite a variable
resistor, which defines the operating resistance, and hence the operating temperature of
the hot-wire. In the case the bridge is in balance, no voltage difference exists across its
diagonal. Now, if the flow velocity increases, the wire resistance will tend to decrease
and an error voltage will be present at the input of the current regulating amplifier. This
will cause the probe current to increase. The wire will heat and increase in resistance
until the balance is restored. Because of the high gain of the current regulating
amplifier, a condtion of bridge balance exists, which is practically independent of the
flow velocity past the wire. The wire time constant is thus reduced by a factor of several
hundred times from fractions of a milliseconds to some few microseconds. The probe
current is represented by the voltage drop across the bridge. As all resitances in the
bridge are constant, the squared output voltage E2 directly represents the heat loss from
the wire and can replace Q in the heat transfer equation for the wire.
51
CTA anemometer principle diagram:
Main components are:
Wheatstone bridge:
Probe: Rw
Overheat resistor: R3
Top resistors: R1 and R2
Feedback loop:
Amplifier: G
Gain shape control: S*
Filter: F*
Power amplifier: P*
Cable compensation: C*
* not shown in principle diagram.
U =C 0 +C1 E + C 2 E 2 + C 3 E 3 + C 4 E 4
52
16. REFERENCES
The hot-wire anemometer literature counts more than 1200 titles covering almost
all aspects of anemometry, ranging from the design of advanced electronic circuitry
over sophisticated signal interpretation and data reductions to practical hints on how to
mount and operate a hot-wire in a specific application. H.H. Bruun’s book on Hot-Wire
Anemometry from 1995 is the most comprehensive reference text book for the selection
and use of hot-wire/hot-film anemometry techniques published so far. It contains an
almost complete list of references up to the date of printing. Other valuable sources are
DISA Information 1965-1985, which was replaced by Dantec Information 1985-1995.
The below short list of references contains some of the more important text books
and papers but does not intend to be neither complete, nor fully representative. It should
be regarded only as a tool, by which one can get either immidiate help or be guided to
more adequate references. Copies of the listed papers are available from Dantec
Dynamics on request.
53
16. Weiss, J. et al.:”Method for the determination of frequency response and signal to noise
ratio for constant-temperature hot-wire anemometers”. Review of Scientific Instruments,
Volume 72, Number 3, March 2001.
54
40. Turan, Ö.F. et al.:”Effect of structural vibrations on hot-wire probe response.” Widell,
K.E.:”Stresses and Deformations in Hot-Wire Probes.” DISA Informatioon No. 2, 1965
41. Yeung, C.P. et al.:”Numerical calibration and verification tests of othogonal triple-hot-wire
probe.” Meas. Sci. Technol. 4 (1993) 1446-1456.
42. Zank, I.:”Sources of Errors and Running Calibration of Three-Dimensional Hot-Film
Anemometers Especially near the Sea Surface.” DISA Information No. 26. 1981.
55
63. Löfdahl, L. et al.:”The influence of temperature on the measurements of Reynolds stresses
in shear free turbulence near a wall.” Experiments in Fluids 25, 160-164 (1998).
64. Martinez- Val, R. et al.:”Sensor contamination Effects in Hot-Wire Anemometry in Air.”
DISA Information No. 27. 1982.
65. Mojola, O.O.:”The Effects of Orientation of a Hot-Wire Probe Body in Turbulent Shear
Flow.” DISA Information No. 23. 1978.
66. Firasat Ali, S.:”Hot-wire anemometry in moderately heated flow.” Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol.
46, No. 2, 1975.
67. Bremhorst, K.:”Effect of fluid temperature on hot-wire anemometers and an improved
method of temperature compensation and linearisation without use of small signal
sensitivities.” J. Phys. E.: Sci. Instrum. Vol. 18, 1985.
68. Schubauer, G.B.:”Effect of humidity in hot-wire anemometry.” National Bureau of
Standards, Research Paper RP850, 1935.
56