E-Content for Lie Algebras

(Remaining Part)

Vivek Sahai

Lucknow University
Lucknow.

April 2, 2020

Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 1 / 31

UNIT-IV, Lecture-1
Definition
Let F be a field of characteristic 0, V a finite dimensional vector space
over F and T a linear operatorPn on V . Then the trace of T , denoted by
tr (T ), is given by tr (T ) = i=1 αii , where (αij ) = [T ]B , B being a basis
of V .
If ρi are the characterstic roots of T , then
Xn
tr (T ) = ρi .
i=1
For a nonnegative integer k, we have
n
X
tr (T k ) = ρki .
i=1

If T is nilpotent, then ρi = 0 for all i. This gives tr (T ) = tr (T k ) = 0, for

k = 1, 2, . . .. Conversely, if tr (T k ) = 0, k = 1, 2, . . ., then T is nilpotent.
ProofPaper
of this
I (Unitstatement
IV) is beyond the
M.Sc. scope
Semester IV of these notes. April 2, 2020 2 / 31
Lecture-1 . . .

Lemma
Let V be a vector space over P a field F of characteristic 0, and let
T ∈ L(V ) such that T = ri=1 [Ai , Bi ], Ai , Bi ∈ L(V ) and [T , Ai ] = 0,
i = 1, 2, . . . , r . Then T is nilpotent.

Proof.
Let [T k−1 , Ai ] = 0, then

[T k , Ai ] = T k Ai − Ai T k
= T [T k−1 , Ai ] + TAi T k−1 − [Ai , T ]T k−1 − TAi T k−1
= 0.

Therefore [T k , Ai ] = 0 for all i = 1, 2, . . . , r and k = 1, 2, . . .. This

gives
Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 3 / 31
Proof . . .

r
X r
X
k k−1 k−1
T = T T =T [Ai , Bi ] = (Ai T k−1 Bi − T k−1 Bi Ai )
i=1 i=1
r
X
= [Ai , T k−1 Bi ].
i=1

As trace of a commutator is zero, we have tr (T k ) = 0, for all

k = 1, 2, . . . , r . Hence T is nilpotent.
This completes the proof
Theorem
Let char F = 0 and let L be a Lie algebra of linear transformations in L(V )
such that L∗ is semi-simple. Then L = L1 ⊕ Z where Z = Z (L), the centre
of L, and L1 is an ideal of L (which is a semi-simple Lie algebra).
Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 4 / 31
Proof of the Theorem . . .

Let C be the radical of L. If C 6= Z , then C1 = [L, C ] is a non-zero

solvable ideal.
(n) (n−1)
Therefore there exists n ∈ N such that C1 = {0} and C1 6= {0}. Let
(n−1)
C2 = C1 and C3 = P[C2 , L].
If T ∈ C3 , then T = i=1 [Ai , Bi ], for some Ai ∈ C2 and Bi ∈ L. This
gives [T , Ai ] ∈ [C3 , C2 ] ⊆ [C2 , C2 ] = {0}. Therefore by above lemma, T is
nilpotent. Hence, every element of ideal C3 is nilpotent, and so by
theorem of Unit 3, Lecture 6,

C3 ⊆ C3∗ ⊆ R = the radical of L∗ = {0},

as L∗ is semi simple. Hence, C2 ⊆ Z .

Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 5 / 31

Proof . . .

SincePC2 ⊆ C1 ⊆ L0 = [L, L], every element T of C2 is of the type

T = ri=1 [Ai , Bi ], Ai , Bi ∈ L and [T , Ai ] = 0 because C2 ⊆ Z . Therefore
T is nilpotent by above lemma. So C2 ⊆ C2∗ ⊆ R = radical of L∗ = {0}, a
contradiction. Therefore, C = Z .

Let L0 ∩ C 6= {0}. If T ∈ L0 ∩ C then T = ri=1 [Ai , Bi ], Ai , Bi ∈ L and

P
[T , Ai ] = 0 as T ∈ C = Z . Therefore T is nilpotent by the lemma, and so
L0 ∩ C ⊆ R = {0}, a contradiction.

Therefore there exists L1 , a subspace of L, L1 ⊇ L0 , such that L = L1 ⊕ Z .

So L1 is an ideal and L1 ∼= ZL = CL . Hence L1 is semi-simple.

This completes the proof.

Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 6 / 31

Lecture-2

Corollary

Let L be as in the above theorem. Then L is solvable if and only if L is

L∗
abelian. More generally, if L is solvable and R is the radical of L∗ , then R
is commutative.

Proof.
Clearly, if L is abelian then L is solvable.
Conversely, let L be solvable and L∗ semi-simple. Then L = L1 ⊕ C , where
C = Z = centre of L and L1 is a semi-simple ideal of L. Therefore L1 is
semi-simple and solvable. But then L1 = {0}.
Hence, L = C is abelian.
L+R ∗ L∗
Consider the Lie algebra L+R R . Clearly R = R , which is semisimple.
As R is a homomorphic image of L, so L solvable implies L+R
L+R
R is
L∗
solvable, which gives L+R R is abelian, and hence R is commutative.

Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 7 / 31

Lecture-2 . . .
Go through the following definitions:
Let V be a vector space over F , dimF (V ) < ∞, and let Σ be a set of
linear operators on V . Let L(Σ) denotes the collection of subspaces
invariant under Σ, that is,
L(Σ) = {W | W is a subspace of V and T (W ) ⊆ W for all T ∈ Σ}.
We say that L(Σ) is the collection of Σ-subspaces of V .
Definition
Σ is called an irreducible set of linear transformations and V is called
Σ-irreducible if L(Σ) = {V , 0} and V 6= {0}.

Definition
Σ is called indecomposable and V is called Σ-indecomposable if V can not
be written as V = V1 ⊕ V2 , Vi 6= 0 in L(Σ). Clearly, Σ-irreduciblity implies
Σ-indecomposability.
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Lecture-2 . . .

Definition
Σ is called completely reducible and V is called Σ-completely reducible if
V = ⊕α Vα , Vα ∈ L(Σ), Vα irreducible.

Note that W ∈ L(Σ) implies that W is invariant under Σ∗ and Σ† .

Therefore, L(Σ) = L(Σ∗ ) = L(Σ† ).
Theorem
Let V be a vector space over F , dimF (V ) < ∞, and let Σ be a set of
linear operators on V . Then Σ is completely reducible if and only if for
every W ∈ L(Σ) there exists W 0 ∈ L(Σ) such that V = W ⊕ W 0 (that is,
L(Σ) is complemented).

Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 9 / 31

Proof of the Theorem . . .

Let Σ be completely reducible. Therefore V = ⊕α Vα , where each Vα is

irreducible in L(Σ). Let W ∈ L(Σ). If dim W = dim V , then
V = W ⊕ {0} and we are done.

Assume that dim W < dim V and let the theorem hold for all subspaces
W1 ∈ L(Σ) such that dim W1 > dim W . Since W ( V and V = ⊕α Vα ,
there exists a Vα such that Vα 6⊆ W . Consider Vα ∩ W ∈ L(Σ), As
Vα ∩ W is a subspace of irreducible Σ-subspace Vα , we have either
Vα ∩ W = Vα or Vα ∩ W = {0}. Now Vα ∩ W = Vα is not possible, so
Vα ∩ W = {0}.

Let W1 = W ⊕ Vα , by induction hypothesis, V = W1 ⊕ W10 , W10 ∈ L(Σ).

This gives V = W ⊕ Vα ⊕ W10 = W ⊕ W 0 , W 0 = Vα ⊕ W10 ∈ L(Σ).

Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 10 / 31

Proof . . .
Conversely, let L(Σ) be complemented and V1 (6= 0) be a minimal element
of L(Σ). As V is finite dimensional, so V1 exists and it has to be
irreducible. Therefore V = V1 ⊕ W , for some W ∈ L(Σ).

If B is a Σ-subspace of W , then V = B ⊕ B 0 and

W = V ∩ W = B ∩ W + B 0 ∩ W = B + B 0 ∩ W = B + B 00 , where
B 00 = B 0 ∩ W ∈ L(Σ) is a subspace of W .

Also B 00 ∩ B = B 0 ∩ W ∩ B = {0} implies that W = B ⊕ B 00 . Thus for W

also L(Σ) is complemented. Repeating this process for W we have
W = V2 ⊕ W1 , V2 , W1 ∈ L(Σ), V2 is irreducible.

Continuing in this way, in a finite number of steps, we get

V = V1 ⊕ V2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Vr , where each Vi ∈ L(Σ) and are irreducible.

This completes the proof.

Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 11 / 31
Lecture-3

Theorem
Let A be an associative algebra of linear transformations in L(V ),
dim V < ∞. If A is completely reducible then A is semi-simple.

Proof.
Let R be the radical of A and let V = ⊕α Vα , Vα ’s irreducible in L(A). Let
R(Vα ) be the subspace spanned by {T (y )|y ∈ Vα , T ∈ R}. Then
R(Vα ) ∈ L(A) and R(Vα ) ⊆ Vα .

Since there exists k ∈ N such that R k = {0}, R(Vα ) ( Vα . Therefore

R(Vα ) = {0} for all α, (as Vα is irreducible).

This gives R(V ) = 0, that is, R = 0, and so A is semi-simple.

Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 12 / 31

Lecture-3 . . .

Corollary

If Σ is completely reducible then Σ∗ and Σ† are semi-simple.

Proof.
Σ is completely reducible ⇒ L(Σ) is complemented ⇔ L(Σ∗ ) and L(Σ† )
are complemented ⇔ Σ∗ and Σ† are complemented ⇒ Σ∗ , Σ† are
completely reducible ⇒ Σ∗ , Σ† are semisimple.

Definition
An operator T ∈ L(V ) is said to be semi-simple if
mT (x) = p1 (x)p2 (x) · · · pr (x), where each pi (x) is an irreducible
polynomial in F [x], pi (x) 6= pj (x).

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Lecture-3 . . .
Theorem
An operator T ∈ L(V ) is semi-simple if and only if {T }† has no non-zero
nilpotent elements.

Proof.
Let T be not semi-simple. Then mT (x) = p1r1 (x) · · · pkrk (x), where ri > 1
for some i. Let W = p1 (T ) · · · pk (T ). Clearly W ∈ {T }† . If m is the lcm
of {ri }’s, then
W m = p1 (T )m · · · pk (T )m = 0.
Further W 6= 0 because W |mT (x) and deg mT (x) > deg W . So W is
non-zero nilpotent elements of {T }† .
Conversely, if T ∈ L(V ) is semi-simple, then mT (x) = p1 (x) · · · pk (x). Let
W = f (T ) be a nilpotent element of {T }† . Then W r = 0 implies
mT (x)|f r (x), and so mT (x)|f (x). Hence 0 = f (T ) = W .
Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 14 / 31
Lecture-4
Theorem
Let L be a completely reducible Lie algebra of linear operators on a finite
dimensional vector space V over a field of characteristic 0. Then
L = C ⊕ L1 , where C = Z and L1 is a semi-simple ideal. Moreover,
elements of C are semi-simple.

Proof.
We know that if L is completely reducible then L∗ and L† are semi-simple.
So by Theorem of Lecture 1, L = C ⊕ L1 . Further, let T ∈ C be such that
T is not semi-simple. Then there exists a nonzero nilpotent element
W ∈ {T }† . Let k ∈ N be such that W k = 0. Now
{T }† = {a0 + a1 T + a2 T 2 + · · · + an T n |n ∈ N, ai ∈ F }. As T ∈ C , we
have W ∈ {T }† is also in the centre of L. Therefore L† W = WL† is an
ideal in L† and (WL† )k ⊆ W k L† = 0. But 0 6= W ∈ WL† implies WL† is a
non-zero nilpotent ideal in L† , a contradiction as L† is semi-simple.
Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 15 / 31
Lecture-4 . . .

Definition
Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over F and let Σ ⊆ L(V ). A
chain V = V1 ⊃ V2 ⊃ · · · ⊃ Vs ⊃ Vs+1 = {0} of Σ-subspaces of V is a
composition series for V relative to Σ if for every i, there exists no
V 0 ∈ L(Σ) such that Vi ⊃ V 0 ⊃ Vi+1 , that is, VVi+1
i
is irreducible.

Note that as dimF (V ) < ∞, composition series of V do exist. For, let V2

be the maximal Σ-subspace of V1 = V , V2 6= V1 . Similarly, let V3 be the
maximal Σ-subspace of V2 , V3 6= V2 , etc. Continuing like this. we get a
composition series V = V1 ⊃ V2 ⊃ · · · ⊃ Vs ⊃ Vs+1 = {0}.

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Lecture-4 . . .
Lemma
Let L be an abelian Lie algebra of linear operators on a finite dimensional
vector space V over an algebraically closed field F . If V is L-irreducible,
then dimF (V ) = 1.

Proof.
If T ∈ L, then T has a non-zero characterstic vector x. So T (x) = αx, for
some α ∈ F . Let Vα = {v ∈ V |T (v ) = αv }, the characterstic subspace of
V corresponding to characterstic value α. If U ∈ L then T (U(y )) =
UT (y ) = TU(y ) = U(T (y )) = U(αy ) = αU(y ), for all y ∈ Vα , and so
U(y ) ∈ Vα . This gives Vα is an L-subspace of V . As V is L-irreducible,
we have V = Vα . Hence T = αI .
Thus every T ∈ L is such that T = αI , for some α ∈ F . So every
subspace of V is an L-subspace. Now V is L-irreducible, so V has no
subspaces other than V and {0}. Therefore dimF V = 1.
Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 17 / 31
Lecture-5
Theorem
(Lie’s Theorem) Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over an
algebraic closed field F of characteristic 0 and let L ⊆ L(V ) be such that L
is a solvable Lie algebra. Then there exists a basis B of V such that
[T ]B ∈ Tn (F ) for all T ∈ L.

Proof:
Let V = V1 ⊃ V2 ⊃ · · · ⊃ Vs ⊃ Vs+1 = {0} be a composition series of V
relative to L. If T ∈ L, then Ti = T |Vi ∈ L(Vi ).

Vi Vi
Define T̄i : Vi+1 → Vi+1 by T̄i (x + Vi+1 ) = Ti (x) + Vi+1 . Let
L̄i = {T̄i : T ∈ L, T̄i ∈ L( VVi+1
i
)}.

Define θ : L → L̄i by θ(T ) = T̄i . Clearly, θ is an epimorphism and so L̄i is

solvable.
Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 18 / 31
Proof . . .
Vi Wi
Every L̄i -subspace ofVi+1 is of the type Vi+1 where Wi is an L-subspace of
Vi containing Vi+1 . As VVi+1
i
is irreducible, we have L̄i is irreducible. So L̄i
is completely reducible in VVi+1
i
. This gives L̄i = Ci ⊕ Li1 , where Li1 is a
semisimple ideal of L̄i . But then Li1 is also solvable. So Li1 = {0} and
L̄i = Ci = Zi , the centre of L̄i . Hence L̄i is abelian and dim VVi+1
i
= 1. This
gives dim Vs = 1, dim Vs−1 = 2, · · · , dim V2 = s − 1 and dim V1 = s.

Let B = {e1 , e2 , e3 , · · · , es } be a basis for V such that {e1 } is a basis for

Vs , {e1 , e2 } is a basis for Vs−1 , {e1 , e2 , e3 } is a basis for Vs−2 etc. Then
for T ∈ L,
T (e1 ) = α11 e1 ,
T (e2 ) = α12 e1 + α22 e2 ,
..
.
T (es ) = α1s e1 + α2s e2 + · · · + αss es .
Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 19 / 31
Proof . . .

Hence,  
α11 α12 . . . α1s

 α22 . . . α2s 

 . . 
[T ]B =  .

 . . 

 . . 
αss

This completes the proof of the Lie’s theorem

Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 20 / 31

Lecture-6

Theorem
Let L be a finite dimensional solvable Lie algebra over an algebraic closed
field of characterstic zero. Then there exists a chain of ideals
L = Is ⊃ Is−1 ⊃ · · · ⊃ I1 ⊃ {0} such that dim Ij = j.

Proof.
As L is solvable, ad(L) is a solvable Lie algebra of linear transformations
on the finite dimensional vector space L. Let
L = L1 ⊃ L2 ⊃ · · · ⊃ Ls+1 = {0} be a composition series of L relative to
Σ = ad(L). Then ad(L)(Li ) ⊆ Li gives Li is an ideal of L. By Lie’s
theorem dim LLi+1
i
= 1. Hence, dim Ls = 1, dim Ls−1 = 2, ..., dim L1 = s.
Now put Ij = Ls−(j−1) to get dim Ij = dim Ls−(j−1) = j, as required.

Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 21 / 31

Universal Enveloping Algebras

Definition
Let L be a Lie algebra. A pair (A, i) where A is an associative algebra and
i a homomorphism of L into AL is called a universal enveloping algebra of
L if for an algebra A and homomorphism θ of L into AL , there exists a
unique homomorphism θ0 of A into A such that θ = iθ0 , that is, the
diagram

A = AL
0
i ↑ & θ (unique)
L −→ A = AL
θ

commutes.

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Uniqueness of universal enveloping algebras

Let (A, i), (B, j) be two universal enveloping algebras for L. Then there
exists a unique isomorphism j 0 of A onto B such that j = ij 0 . We have the
following commutative diagrams:

A = AL
i ↑ & j 0 (unique) ,
L −→ B = BL
j

B = BL
j ↑ & i 0 (unique) .
L −→ A = AL
i

So j = ij 0 and i = ji 0 . Clearly i 0 j 0 : B → B and j 0 i 0 : A → A.

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Uniqueness . . .
Again the following commutative diagrams

B
j ↑ & iB (unique) ,
L −→ B
j

and

A
i ↑ & iA (unique)
L −→ A
i

imply j = jiB and i = iiA . Thus i 0 j 0 = iB and j 0 i 0 = iA . So, j 0 is an

isomorphism. This shows uniqueness of universal enveloping algebras up to
isomorphism.
Paper I (Unit IV) M.Sc. Semester IV April 2, 2020 24 / 31
Lecture-7
We now give the construction of universal enveloping algebras:
Let L be a Lie algebra over F . Denote by T (L), the tensor algebra based
on the vector space L. We have T (L) = ⊕∞ i=1 Li , where L0 = F ,
| ⊗L⊗
L1 = L, . . . , Li = L {z· · · ⊗ L}.
i−times

Note that T (L) is a vector space over F with usual addition and scalar
multiplication. Define multiplication ⊗ in T (L) by

(x1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ xi ) ⊗ (yi ⊗ · · · ⊗ yj ) = x1 ⊗ x2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ xi ⊗ y1 ⊗ · · · ⊗ yj .

With this T (L) becomes an associative algebra.

Let R be an ideal of T (L) generated by {[a, b] − a ⊗ b + b ⊗ a|a, b ∈ L}

and take A = TR(L) with λ : T (L) → A the canonical epimorphism. If
i = λ|L . Then
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Lecture-7 . . .

i([a, b]) − i(a) ⊗ i(b) + i(b) ⊗ i(a)

= [a, b] + R − (a + R ⊗ b + R) + (b + R ⊗ a + R)
= ([a, b] − a ⊗ b + b ⊗ a) + R = R = 0 ∈ A.
Therefore, i is a Lie algebra homomorphism of L into AL .
We now show that (A, i) is an universal enveloping algebra for L.

Step 1: Let A be an algebra. Any linear map θ : L → A can be extended

to a homomorphism θ00 of T (L) into A.
If {uj |j ∈ J} is a basis for L, then {uj1 ⊗ uj2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ ujn |ji ∈ J} form a basis
for Ln . Here
uj1 ⊗ uj2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ ujn = uk1 ⊗ uk2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ ukn ⇔ jr = kr , r = 1, 2, . . . , n.
where uj1 ⊗ uj2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ ujn are monomials of degree n.
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Lecture-7 . . .

Hence,
{1, uj1 ⊗ uj2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ ujn |n ∈ N,ji ∈ J}
form a basis for T (L).

Define θ00 : T (L) → A by

θ00 (1) = 1, θ00 (uj1 ⊗ uj2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ ujn ) = θ(uj1 )θ(uj2 ) · · · θ(ujn ),

then θ00 is an algebra homomorphism and θ00 (a) = θ(a) for all a ∈ L.

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Lecture-8

Step 2: Let θ : L → AL be a homomorphism and θ00 be the extension of θ

to a homomorphism of T (L) into A. If a, b ∈ L, then

θ00 ([a, b] − a ⊗ b + b ⊗ a)
= θ00 ([a, b]) − θ00 (a)θ00 (b) + θ00 (b)θ00 (a)
= θ([a, b]) − θ(a)θ(b) + θ(b)θ(a)
= [θ(a), θ(b)] − [θ(a), θ(b)] = 0.

So R ⊆ ker θ00 .
Define θ0 : A → A by θ0 (a + R) = θ00 (a), for all a ∈ T (L). Verify that θ0 is
a well defined homomorphism. Further, for all a ∈ L:

iθ0 (a) = θ0 (i(a)) = θ0 (a + R) = θ00 (a) = θ(a).

So iθ0 = θ.
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Lecture-8 . . .

Step 3: (Uniqueness of θ0 ) As T (L) is generated by L, we have A is

generated by i(L). Any two homomorphism which coincide on generators
are identical. Therefore θ0 is unique such that iθ0 = θ.

(In other words, if there exists θ∗ : A → A such that iθ∗ = θ, then

θ∗ (i(a)) = θ(a) = θ0 (i(a)), for all a ∈ L. This gives θ∗ = θ0 .)

This completes the construction and uniqueness of universal eneloping

algebras.

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Poincare-Birkhoff-Witt Theorem

Let L be a Lie algebra over a field F and let {uj |j ∈ J} be a basis for L,
then {uj1 ⊗ uj2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ ujn |ji ∈ J} form a basis for Ln , n ≥ 1. Here Ln ’s are
as defined in Lecture 7.
Let J be an ordered set. For i, k, i < k, put
(
1 if ji > jk
ηik =
0 if ji ≤ jk .

Define the index of a monomial by

X
ind (uj1 ⊗ uj2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ ujn ) = ηik .
i<k

Clearly ind = 0 if and only if j1 ≤ j2 ≤ j3 ≤ · · · ≤ jn . Such monomials are

called standard monomials.

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PBW Theorem . . .
P
Let jk > jk+1 . If ind (uj1 ⊗ uj2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ ujn ) = i<k ηik = l, then
ind (uj1 ⊗ uj2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ ujk−1 ⊗ ujk+1 ⊗ ujk ⊗ ujk+2 ⊗ · · · ⊗ ujn ) = l − 1. (Verify.)

Theorem
(Poincare-Birkhoff-Witt Theorem) Let L be a Lie algebra over a field F
with basis {uj |j ∈ J}. Let J be an orderderd set, then cosets of 1 and the
standard monomials form a basis for the universal enveloping algebra
A = TR(L) of L.

The proof is not in the course.

This completes the Syllabus.

ALL THE BEST.

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