B.

Experiments

10
1. Multimeter

Objective: To use an analog multimeter to measure electrical resistance, voltage and current and to
demonstrate the Ohm’s law for DC current across resistors in parallel and in series.

Apparatus
1. An analog multimeter.
2. An application board and resistors R1 = 1kΩ and R2 = 470Ω.
3. A DC power supply unit.

Theory
R3

R2
R1 R2 R3

R1

a) series
b) parallel

Figure 1: Resistors in combinations

Series and parallel connection Consider a system of n resistors combined in series and in parallel
configurations as shown in Figure 1, equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑒𝑞 of the system can be calculated by
Resistors in series (see Figure 1a):

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + … . +𝑅𝑛

Resistors in parallel (see Figure 1b):

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ….+
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛

Voltage divider In a system of 𝑛 resistors combined in series configuration, voltage across a resistor 𝑅𝑖 can
be found by

𝑅𝑖
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉,
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + … . +𝑅𝑛

when V is the voltage across the whole system, while the current within this resistor series is a constant.

11
Procedure
Warning: USE ONLY V AND mA RANGES PROVIDED IN THE INSTRUCTION

Figure 2

1. Multimeter as an Ohm-meter: Set your multimeter into the ‘Ohm (Ω)’. Then, adjust the meter needle to
zero by rotating the 0 Ω button.
2. Reconnect the circuits according to Figure 2, and use the meter to measure R1, R2 and R(eq) from the
series and parallel combinations of R1 and R2.
3. Multimeter as a Volt-meter: Set your multimeter into the ‘DC V’ mode.

3.1 Reconnect the circuits according to Figure 3, and use the meter to measure Vs12, Vs1 and Vs2
from the series combination of R1 and R2.

Figure 3

3.2 Reconnect the circuits according to Figure 4, and use the meter to measure Vp12, Vp1 and Vp2
from the parallel combination of R1 and R2.

Figure 4

12
4. Multimeter as an Am-meter: Set your multimeter into the ‘DC mA’ mode. Reconnect the circuits
according to Figure 5(1) and (2), and use the meter to measure I1 within R1, I2 within R2 and I12
within the series and parallel combination of R1 and R2

Figure 5 (1)

Figure 5 (2)

13
2. Oscilloscope

Objective: To introduce to students the basic use of a digital oscilloscope. To measure the voltage of
alternating current (AC) circuits and will be able to explain the principle of a diode clipping circuit.

Apparatus
1. A digital oscilloscope (model: RIGOL DS1102E)
2. A protoboard with resistors R1 = 500Ω and R2 = 1kΩ, and a semiconductor diode
3. An alternating current (AC) power supply unit

a) RIGOL DS1102E Digital Oscilloscope b) an example of oscilloscope reading

c) a diode Clipper Circuit

Figure1: Experimental setup: a) RIGOL DS1102E Digital Oscilloscope, b) an example of oscilloscope

reading, c) a diode Clipper Circuit

Theory

The Diode Clipper, also known as a Diode Limiter, is a wave shaping circuit that takes an input waveform
and clips or cuts off its top half, bottom half or both halves together. This clipping of the input signal
produces an output waveform that resembles a flattened version of the input. For example, the half-wave
rectifier is a clipper circuit, since all voltages below zero are eliminated. Diode Clipping Circuits can be used
a variety of applications to modify an input waveform using signal or to provide over-voltage protection
for the circuits.

14
 Figure 2: A positive diode clipping circuit

In the positive diode clipping circuit shown in Fig. 2, the diode is forward biased (anode more positive than
cathode) during the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input waveform. For the diode to become forward
biased, it must have the input voltage magnitude greater than +0.7 volts (0.3 volts for a germanium diode).
When this happens, the diodes begins to conduct and holds the voltage across itself constant at 0.7V until
the sinusoidal waveform falls below this value. Thus, the output voltage which is taken across the diode can
never exceed 0.7 volts during the positive half cycle.

During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased (cathode more positive than anode) blocking
current flow through itself and as a result has no effect on the negative half of the sinusoidal voltage which
passes to the load unaltered. Then the diode limits the positive half of the input waveform and is known as
a positive clipper circuit.

Procedure
Warning: DO NOT CONNECT AC POWER SUPPLY ACROSS THE DIODE WITHOUT RESISTORS, OTHERWISE
IT MIGHT RUIN THE DIODE

Figure 3: AC voltage measurements

15
1. Connect two resistors R1 = 500 Ω and R2 = 1000 Ω onto the protoboard in series. (Ex. You may connect
two ends of R1 into the grids ‘a5’ and ‘a15’, and two ends of R2 into the grids ‘c15’ and ‘c25’)
2. Connect the AC power supply and the circuit in the protoboard to create an AC circuit as seen in Fig. 3.
Connect the oscilloscope probes across R1, R2 and R1-R2 and sketch the signal shapes seen in the
oscilloscope for each case.
3. From the signal, measure Vpp, V0=Vpp/2, Vrms= V0/√2, period (T) and frequencies (f).
4. Replace R1 by a diode onto the protoboard (see Fig. 4).
5. Connect the AC power supply to the diode clipper circuit and connect the oscilloscope probes across
R1, R2 and R1-R2 and sketch the signal shapes seen in the oscilloscope for each case.
6. From the signal, write down positive and negative peak voltages. Discuss and answer the questions
provided.

Figure 4: voltage measurements on a diode clipper circuit.

16
3. RC Circuit

Objective: To find time constant and the unknown capacitance of a capacitor in an RC circuit.

Apparatus
1. A demonstrating RC circuit board equipped with a DC power supply
2. A multimeter
3. A capacitor
4. A Stopwatch

Theory

Figure 1: RC circuit

Figure 1 shows an RC circuit. When the switch in at a, the capacitor is charged and eventually stores an
amount of charge 𝑄0 = 𝐶𝑉0 . When the switch is at b, the battery does no longer play a role. The capacitor
releases the charge through the resistor. The charge decreases with time according to

𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝜏 , (1)

where 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 is called the time constant. The voltage across the capacitor also decreases by the same
fashion,

𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝜏 . (2)

The quantity 𝑉0 is the initial voltage across the capacitor before it discharges. This quantity is also the
voltage of the power source in this experiment.

Experimental Setup

Figure 2: An RC circuit board equipped with a DC power supply

Figure 2 shows an experimental setup and relevant circuit. Firmly place a capacitor. Connect positive and
negative probes of the voltmeter. When the switch is used to complete either a charging or a discharging
circuit.

17
Procedures

1. Analyze the theory. If ln 𝑉 is on y-axis and 𝑡 on x-axis, state the slope.

2. Record the value of 𝑅 in the circuit. Collect data on 𝑉 and 𝑡. Use Δ𝑉 = ±0.1 V.
3. Draw a graph of ln 𝑉 against 𝑡. Find the slope.
4. Calculate the time constant 𝜏 and the capacitance 𝐶.

18
 Appendix

Discharging circuit

Figure 1: (a) Discharging circuit (b) Exponential decay of voltage

In Fig. 1a, after the capacitor is charged to a maximum charge 𝑄𝑚 , the switch is closed, and the charge on
the capacitor is released through the resistor. The capacitor is now said to be discharging. Using Kirchhoff’s
second law ∑ 𝐸 = ∑ 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶 , one writes

𝑄
0 = 𝐼𝑅 + . (1)
𝐶

By writing 𝐼 = 𝑑𝑄 ⁄𝑑𝑡, the above equation can be rearranged into the form

𝑑𝑄 𝑄
= . (2)
𝑑𝑡 −𝑅𝐶

Equation (2) can be solved by integration:

𝑄 𝑡
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑡
∫ = ∫ −
𝑄𝑚 𝑄 0 𝑅𝐶
𝑄
𝑄 − 𝐸𝐶 𝑡 𝑡
ln ( ) ln(𝑄)| = − |
−𝐸𝐶 𝑄𝑚 𝑅𝐶 0
𝑄 𝑡
ln ( ) = −
𝑄𝑚 𝑅𝐶
𝑄
= 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶
𝑄𝑚
𝑄 = 𝑄𝑚 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 . (3)

Voltage across the capacitor is given by

𝑄 𝑄𝑚 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝑅 = = 𝑒 . (4)
𝐶 𝐶

Since 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶 = 0,

𝑄𝑚 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝑅 = − 𝑒 . (5)
𝐶

The exponential decay is shown in Fig. 1b.

19
4. Refraction

Objective: To use a simple method to observe light refraction through a transparent medium and calculate
the refractive index
.
Apparatus
1. Rectangular prism
2. Pins
3. Protractor
4. Graph papter

Theory

Figure 1: Refraction of light at an interface

Refraction is due to change in the speed of light as it enters from one medium to another. Figure 1 shows
light travelling in two media separated by a flat interface. Let 𝑛1 be the refractive index of the first medium
and 𝑛2 of the second. The incident ray hits the interface with an angle 𝜃1 to the normal. The refracted ray
hits with an angle 𝜃2 . Snell’s law states that

𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2 . (1)

If the first medium is air, we can approximate 𝑛1 = 1. Assume that the second medium has 𝑛2 = 𝑛. Let us
use the incident angle 𝜃1 = 𝛼 and refracted angle 𝜃2 = 𝛽. Then,

sin 𝛼
= 𝑛. (2)
sin 𝛽

Experimental setup

Figure 2: A rectangular prism, pins on a graph paper

Figure 2 shows arrangement of pins and a rectangular prism. Two pins in front of the prism make the
incident ray. A third pin is put behind the prism. The third pin is located at a position such that when you
look through the prism, all the pins align (Fig. 3).

20
 Figure 3: Alignment of pins

When the prism is removed, the locations of the pins are used to trace the incident and refracted rays. We
can measure angles 𝛼 and 𝛽. This can be seen in Fig. 4.

Figure 4: The prism is removed and angles 𝛼 and 𝛽 can be measured.

Procedures

1. Analyze the theory. If sin 𝛽 is on y-axis and sin 𝛼 on x-axis, state the slope.
2. Collect data on 𝛼 and 𝛽. Use uncertainty Δ𝛽 = 1°.
3. Draw a graph of sin 𝛽 against sin 𝛼. Find the slope.
4. Calculate refractive index 𝑛.

21
5. Wheatstone Bridge

Objective: To study Wheatstone bridge circuit and find the unknown resistance by slide-wire Wheatstone
bridge method.

Apparatus
1. Slide-wire Wheatstone bridge
2. Power supply
3. Galvanometer
4. Resistors

Theory

A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance as shown in
Fig. 1. There are four resistances named 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 and 𝑅4 , and G is galvanometer. Basically, the Wheatstone
bridge is made up of two voltage dividers powered by dual-power supply or a single source. Among the
junctions of the voltage dividers, a galvanometer (a very sensitive current meter) has been connected with
the purpose of monitoring the current flow from one voltage divider to the other.

Figure 1: Wheatstone bridge circuit

When DC current does not flow through the galvanometer, we say that the Wheatstone bridge is balanced
and the following is achieved:

𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅3 (1)
𝐼1 𝑅2 = 𝐼2 𝑅4 (2)

Divide equation (1) by (2), we obtain

𝑅1 𝑅3
= . (3)
𝑅2 𝑅4

Equation (3) is a condition for the balanced bridge circuit.

22
Experimental Setup

Figure 2: Slide-wire Wheatstone bridge circuit

The slide-wire Wheatstone bridge circuit is as shown in Fig. 2. The resistor 𝑅1 has a known resistance. The
section 𝐴𝐵 is a metal wire of uniform thickness. The movable point 𝐶 divides 𝐴𝐵 into 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐶𝐵 whose
resistance are 𝑅3 and 𝑅4 respectively. Because the resistance of the wire is proportional to its length, the
ratio 𝑅3 /𝑅4 is equal to the ratio 𝐴𝐶/𝐶𝐵. From Eq. (3),

𝑅1 𝐴𝐶
= , (4)
𝑅𝑋 𝐶𝐵

or

𝐶𝐵
𝑅𝑋 = 𝑅 (5)
𝐴𝐶 1

Procedure

1. Set up the experiment as shown in Fig 5.2. Use 𝑅1 = 220 Ω and 𝑅𝑋 = 270 Ω.
2. Turn on the power supply. Bring the probe to touch the metal wire. The galvanometer deflects.
3. Move the probe until galvanometer reading becomes zero. Measure the length of 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐶𝐵. Calculate
𝑅𝑋 from the experiment using Eq. (5).
4. Change 𝑅1 to 470 Ω and 1.0 kΩ, and 𝑅𝑋 to 500 Ω and 1.2 kΩ respectively. Repeat step 3.
5. Use 𝑅1 = 220 Ω. For 𝑅𝑋 , connect 270-Ω, 500-Ω and 1.2-kΩ resistors in parallel. Repeat step 3.

23
6. Finding Planck’s constant using LEDs

Objective: To understand the lighting mechanism of light emitting diodes (LEDs) and to find Planck’s
constant using LEDs.

Apparatus
1. LEDs box kit which contains 6 different colours of LEDs, 100  and 120  resistors, and a variable
resistor
2. Digital multimeter
3. 5V-DC supply
4. PVC pipe
5. Conducting wires

Theory

Electromagnetic wave has speed of 𝑐 = 3.0 × 108 m. s −1 in vacuum. For such wave with frequency 𝑓 and
wavelength 𝜆, standard formula states that 𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆. Planck introduced an idea of a light particle called
photon whose energy is given by

ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = , (1)
𝜆

where ℎ = 6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s is called Planck’s constant. The idea of Planck led to the beginning of the new
branch in physics, known as quantum physics.

(a) (b)

Figure 1: LED circuit. (a) Component of an LED circuit. (b) Threshold voltage

Figure 1a shows a diode circuit. A diode is a semiconductor device which conducts electricity if the voltage
across it is high enough. If the voltage across diode is too small, electrons do not have enough energy to
overcome a barrier and conduct. To conduct, the voltage across diode has to reach a certain threshold value
(𝑉TH ) so that electron gains energy

𝐸 = 𝑒𝑉TH , (2)

where 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 C. This current-voltage behaviour of a diode is shown in Fig. 1b.

24
Light-emitting diode (LED) is a special diode that can emit light when it conducts. The light does not come
from heat (like in incandescent bulb) or from fluorescence of gas (like in a fluorescent lamp). The light
comes from the electron, after gaining energy in Eq. (2) losing its energy in form of a photon as in Eq. (1).
Therefore, from Eq. (1) and (2),

ℎ𝑐
𝑒𝑉TH = . (3)
𝜆

The detail about structure of semiconductor material which leads to an emission of photon can be found in
Appendix.

Experimental Setup

(a) (b)

Figure 2: (a) Apparatus. (b) Circuit

Figure 2a shows apparatus. Connect the LED box kit, the 5V-DC supply and a digital voltmeter according to
Fig. 2b. The large knob in the middle of the box can be turned to different coloured LEDs that you want to
work with. The small knob on the box is used to adjust voltage. Starting from lowest voltage, gradually turn
the small knob until the LED starts to glow. The voltage at this stage is 𝑉TH which can be read from the
voltmeter.

Procedures

1. Analyze the theory. If 𝑉TH is on y-axis and 1⁄𝜆 on x-axis, state the slope.
2. Collect data on 𝑉TH and 𝜆. Use uncertainty Δ𝑉TH = 0.03 V.
3. Draw a graph of 𝑉TH against 1⁄𝜆. Find the slope.
4. Calculate Planck’s constant ℎ

25
 Appendix

Light emitting diode (LED)

Figure 1: The anode terminal (positive terminal) has a longer leg than the cathode terminal (negative
terminal). If looked from aside, the cathode is the one that has a bigger end than that of the anode.

Light emitting diodes (LEDs) is an electronic device which is used to control the direction of the current in
the circuit. This use of LEDs is similar to those typical diodes. Unlike the typical diode, the LED can even
produce light when the current flow through it. An LED is composed of two terminals – anode terminal and
cathode terminal. The current can only flow from anode to cathode direction. Figure 1 shows a diagram of
an LED and the symbol used in the circuit diagram.

In order to understand how the LED conducts electrical current, consider Figure 2. The figures show a
simple circuit containing an LED which is connected in series with a battery 𝑉 and a resistor 𝑅. In Figure
2a, the cathode terminal of the LED is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. In this case, the
LED is forward biased and the current I can flow through it, causing the LED to emit light. In Figure 2b, the
cathode terminal of the LED is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. In this case the LED is
reverse biased and no current can go through it. The easy way to remember this is “the current can flow
through the LED in the same direction as the triangle symbol of the LED points”.

In practice, when the LED is forward biased, it will not immediately conduct electricity. One has to increase
the potential difference (pd) across the LED upto a particular value so that the LED starts glowing. This pd
is known as “threshold voltage 𝑉TH ” as it is the minimum pd in which the LED starts working. Once the pd
across the LED is larger than 𝑉TH the resistance of the LED drops dramatically and this allows a large
amount of current to flow through the LED. The I-V characteristic of the LED is shown in Figure 3. And it is
clearly seen that for the particular LED used to plot this graph, its 𝑉TH is around 1.5 V. Beyond 1.5 V, the
current sharply shoots up.

Figure 2: (a) The LED is forward biased. (b) The LED is reverse biased.

26
 Figure 3: Current-Voltage characteristic

Figure 4: Half-wave rectifier.

Due to the uni-direction property of the LEDs, they are widely used in electrical circuits. For example, they
can be used to convert the AC signal to the DC signal as shown in Figure 4. The LED or typical diode are
typically used in a rectifier circuit which allows us to convert the AC signal to the DC signal. In this figure,
the full-wave signal is converted into the half-wave signal; hence, this circuit is known as a half-wave
rectifier.

The LEDs is made from semiconductor materials: p-type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor. These
two semiconductors are joined together forming a p-n junction. P- type and n-type semiconductors are
fabricated by doping the intrinsic semiconductors (IV-group element such as germanium (Ge), Gallium
(Ga) and Silicon (Si) or the compound of these elements) with III-group and V-group elements such as
phosphorus (P) or boron (B). Doping the intrinsic semiconductors causes the significant increase in the
number of “charge carrier” in the semiconductors. To explain how doping can affect the number of charge
carrier in the intrinsic semiconductors, one can use the bonding diagram. Figure 5a shows an example of a
pure intrinsic semiconductor made from silicon. In nature, Si has This forms a crystal structure of the Si.
Since all of the valence electrons are used to form bonding, none of the electrons are left over; and hence,
there are no free electrons left in this case. So it is said that there are no charge carriers and Si at 0 K cannot
conducts electricity.

In Figure 5b, a very few Sb atoms (V-group element) is doped into the Si crystal. As an Sb atom has 5 valence
electrons, when it forms covalent bonds with Si atoms, one of the valence electron is left over. It is said that
the Sb atom donates one electron to the system and this electron becomes the charge carrier in the
semiconductor. As electrons are negative, this type of semiconductor is known as n-type semiconductor.
On the other hand, when the pure Si semiconductor is doped with B atoms (III-group element), one of the
B atom can form three covalent bonds with 3 Si atoms. This causes a “hole” in one of the bonding. These
holes act like the positive charge carriers which move in the same direction as that of the external electric
field. It is said that B atom is an acceptor of electron (and hence “hole”) as it can receive one more electron
to fill the bond. This type of semiconductor is known as p-type semiconductor.

27
 Figure 5: (a) The crystal structure of Si atoms. (b) The crystal structure of the n-type semiconductors.
(c) The crystal structure of the p-type semiconductors.

Figure 6: (a) The energy band diagram of the n-type and p-type semiconductor when they are brought to
form the p-n junction. (b) A photon is emitted when one of the hole recombines with one of the electron
at the p-n junction.

When the p-type and n-type semiconductors are brought into contact, forming the p-n junction, the energy
of the p-type semiconductor will be higher than that of the n-type semiconductor as shown in Figure 6a.
The difference in energy between these two semiconductors approximately equals to the band gap 𝐸𝑔
between the conduction band and the valence band in each semiconductor. Therefore, when there is no pd
across the LED, the electrons in the n-type semiconductor do not have enough energy to jump across the
junction as there is the energy barrier. However, if the electrons are given enough energy (by applying the
pd across the LED in the forward direction), these electrons can move across the energy barrier and
recombine with the holes in the p-type semiconductor, producing photons. As can be seen, the minimum
amount of energy required by an electron to move across the barrier is 𝐸𝑔 and this required energy comes
from the electrical energy due to the pd across the diode at 𝑉TH . Hence, one can write the relationship
𝑒𝑉𝑇ℎ = ℎ𝑐 ⁄𝜆.

28
7. RLC Circuit

Objective: To demonstrate the effect of capacitive and inductive reactance and phases of the AC signals in a
serial RLC circuit. To find capacitance and inductance in an AC circuit and determine the resonance frequency.

Apparatus
1. Oscilloscope
2. Function Generator
3. Resistor, inductor and capacitor

Theory

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1

The current in a closed, DC circuit depends on the voltage of the power supply and the electrical resistance
present in the circuit, Ohm’s law, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅, describes this relationship (𝑉 is the voltage of the power supply,
𝐼 is the current though the circuit, and 𝑅 is the electrical resistance). The behavior of AC circuits is more
complex because of the 𝜔-dependence of the source. Figure 1a shows an RLC circuit. The voltages across
𝑅, 𝐿 and 𝐶 are 𝑉𝑅 , 𝑉𝐿 and 𝑉𝐶 respectively. Figure 1b shows a phasor diagram of these voltages with respect
to the current 𝑖 in the circuit. Figure 1c shows how these voltages add. The total voltage 𝑉 had a phase 𝜙
with respect to the current.

The vector addition is illustrated in Figure 6.1c and can be calculated by

𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2 (1)

The phase is given by

|𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 |
tan 𝜙 = (2)
𝑉𝑅
|𝐼𝑋𝐿 − 𝐼𝑋𝐶 |
= (3)
𝐼𝑅
|𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 |
= . (4)
𝑅

The quantities 𝑋 are impedance associated with electrical components. For an inductor, the magnitude of
the impedance is 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿. For a capacitor, the magnitude of the impedance is 𝑋𝐶 = 1⁄𝜔𝐶 .

29
Procedure
Section 1 Find the capacitance

Figure 2: A resistor and a capacitor in series

1.1 Connect the function generator at frequency 1.5 kHz and a series of a resistor (𝑅) and a capacitor (𝐶𝑥 )
create an AC circuit as seen in Fig. 2.
1.2 Connect the oscilloscope CH 1 to measure the output voltage of function generator until the 𝑉𝑝𝑝 = 10 V
(peak to peak) shown on the screen of the oscilloscope, then disconnect CH 1 from function generator.
1.3 Use CH 1 and CH 2 measuring voltage drop across resistor (𝑉𝑅 ) and capacitor (𝑉𝐶 ). Both CH 1 and CH
2 must have same ground.
1.4 Sketch the signal shapes seen in both channels. Record peak-to-peak voltages of both channels.
1.5 Find 𝐶𝑥

Section 2 Find the inductance

Figure 3: A resistor and an inductor in series

2.1 Replace the capacitor 𝐶 with inductor 𝐿 as shown in Fig. 3.

2.2 Repeat step 1.2 – 1.4. Find 𝐿𝑥 .
30
Section 3 Find the resonance frequency of RLC circuit

Figure 4: A resistor, capacitor and inductor in series

3.1 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 4.

3.2 Slowly adjust frequency of function generator from 1.0 to 10.0 kHz until the highest voltage dropping
across the resistor 𝑅 is found (notice that the voltage dropping across the resistor and the output
voltage from the function generator have same phase). Record the maximum voltage and resonance
frequency.
3.3 Compare the resonance frequency to the equation

1 1
𝑓 = ( ). (5)
2𝜋 √𝐿𝐶

31
8. Polarization

Objective: To use a pair of polarisers to obtain the relationship between polarized light intensity and the
angle between the two polarizer axes.

Apparatus
1. Light source
2. Two polarisers
3. Protractor
4. Lux meter

Theory

Figure 1: Two polarising filters used to alter light intensity

When an unpolarised incident beam passes through the first polarising filter called “polariser”, the light
becomes polarised in the same orientation as the axis of the filter. Let this light has intensity 𝐼0 . Then the
polarised light passes through the second filter, called “analyser”, whose axis is turned by an angle 𝜃 with
respect to the axis of the first filter. The intensity after the second filter is given by

𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos 2 𝜃. (1)

It should be noted that when 𝜃 = 90°, 𝐼 = 0 and no light is coming out. When 𝜃 = 0, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 which the
maximum light intensity.

Experimental setup

Figure2: Experimental setup

32
Figure 2 shows an experimental setup. A light detector receives light that passes through two polarising
filters. By varying angle 𝜃 between the axes of the filters, the intensity of light read by the lux meter changes.

Turn 𝜃 until the intensity reading is minimum. Record this reading as 𝐼base which is the intensity of
background light. Then, turn 𝜃 until the intensity reading is maximum. Record this reading as 𝐼max and set
this angle 𝜃 = 0.

Procedures

1. Analyze the theory. If 𝐼 ⁄𝐼0 is on y-axis and cos 2 𝜃 on x-axis, state the slope.
2. Record 𝐼base and 𝐼max . Use uncertainty Δ𝐼 = 0.5 lux. Caculate 𝐼0 = 𝐼base − 𝐼max .
3. Collect data on 𝐼 and 𝜃.
4. Draw a graph of 𝐼 ⁄𝐼0 against cos 2 𝜃. Find the slope.

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9. Horizontal component of Earth magnetic field

Objective: To determine the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field.

Apparatus
1. Tangent galvanometer
2. Digital multimeter (ammeter)
3. Power supply
4. Connecting wires

Theory

Figure 1: Magnetic field lines around a flat coil carrying current

Figure 1 shows magnetic field lines around a flat coil. For a coil of radius 𝑅, carrying current 𝐼, the magnetic
field at the centre of the coil is given by

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵 = , (1)
2𝑅

where 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 Wb. A−1 . m−1 is the permeability of free space and 𝑁 is the number of turns of the
coil.

Experimental setup

The horizontal component of earth's magnetic field, 𝐵𝐻 , is the projection of earth's magnetic field on surface
of the earth. To measure 𝐵𝐻 , one can use the device known as tangent galvanometer (TG) as shown in Fig.
2. Tangent galvanometer consists of a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular non-magnetic
frame. When a current is passed through the circular coil, a magnetic field is produced at the centre of the
coil as given by Eq. (1) in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the coil.

Figure 2: Tangent galvanometer connected to a power supply with an ammeter

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 (a) (b)

Figure 3: The needle deflects through an angle 𝜃 due to combination of 𝐵 and 𝐵𝐻

Figure 3 shows an operation of the TG. In Fig. 3a, without current in the coil, the compass aligns with 𝐵𝐻
and points perpendicular to the plane of the coil. In Fig. 3b, there is current in the coil, the magnetic field 𝐵
from the coil and 𝐵𝐻 from the Earth add, causing the deflection of the needle. From Fig. 3b, the deflection
angle follows

𝐵
tan 𝜃 = (2)
𝐵𝐻
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
tan 𝜃 = . (3)
2𝑅𝐵H

As current 𝐼 grows, the deflection angle 𝜃 increases.

Procedures

1. Analyze the theory. If tan 𝜃 is on y-axis and 𝐼 on x-axis, state the slope.
2. Collect data on 𝜃 and 𝐼. Use uncertainty Δ𝜃 = 1°.
3. Draw a graph of tan 𝜃 against 𝐼. Find the slope.
Use 𝑁 = 500 and 𝑅 = 7.8 × 10−2 m.
4. Calculate 𝐵𝐻 .

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10. Interference and diffraction

Objective: To study diffraction and interference of light wave passing through a single slit and a double
slit.

Apparatus
1. Monochromatic 633 nm He-Ne laser
2. Slides of single slit and double slit
3. Holder
4. Tape measure
5. Screen

Theory

(a) (b)

Figure 1: Diffraction by a single slit

Single slit – When waves pass through small openings and around obstacles including sharp edges, the
spread of the wave fronts in this manner is called diffraction. Figure 1a shows a monochromatic light
passing through a narrow slit and then intercepted by a screen. The diffraction pattern will appear on the
screen as shown in Fig 1b. The pattern consists of a broad and intense central maximum (bright fringe) and
much weak bright fringes (called secondary maxima). Dark fringes are on both sides of each maximum.
Locations of the nth-order dark fringes making an angle 𝜃𝑛 to the normal axis (through the central
maximum) satisfy with the equation

𝑎 sin 𝜃𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆, 𝑛 = ±1, ±2, ±3, (1)

where 𝑎 is slit width and 𝜆 is light wavelength. For small angle 𝜃𝑛 , sin 𝜃𝑛 ≈ tan 𝜃𝑛 = 𝑦𝑛 ⁄𝐿. From Eq. (1),

𝑦𝑛
𝑎 = 𝑛𝜆, (2)
𝐿

when 𝑦𝑛 is spacing between the central maximum and the nth order dark fringe, and 𝐿 is a distance between
a single slit and the screen.

Double slit – A double slit has slit width 𝑎 and separation between the two slits 𝑑 (𝑑 > 𝑎). When light is
shone, the interference of light from two slits produces an interference pattern which consists of
alternating bright and dark fringes due to the slit separation 𝑑 (see Fig. 2). Moreover, the intensity of bright
fringes from is modified by diffraction due to slit width 𝑎. Figure 2 shows a combined effects of interference
and diffraction in an intimate way. The interference fringes are filled in a diffraction pattern.

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 Figure 2: Combined effects of interference and diffraction

An mth-order bright fringe of interference pattern can be located with the following general equation,

𝑑 sin 𝜃𝑚 = 𝑚𝜆. (3)

By the same approximation sin 𝜃𝑛 ≈ tan 𝜃𝑛 = 𝑦𝑛 ⁄𝐿, Eq. (3) becomes

𝑦𝑚
𝑑 = 𝑚𝜆, (4)
𝐿

when 𝑦𝑚 is spacing between the central bright fringe and the mth order bright fringe, and 𝐿 is a distance
between a double slit and the screen.

Procedure

Single slit

1. Place the experimental apparatus according to the following diagram in Figure 1. Attach a piece of
paper on the screen to record the light pattern.
2. Switch on a He-Ne laser and insert a slide containing a single slit into a holder in front of the laser.
Adjust the slide until the reflected beam from the slide returns to the laser.
3. Let the laser beam illuminate on the slit. Use a pen to mark the middles of dark fringes on the
screen.
4. Use at least three pairs of 𝑦𝑛 and 𝑦−𝑛 to calculate the slit width 𝑎. Calculate the average values of 𝑎.

Double slit

1. Place the experimental apparatus according to the following diagram in Figure 1. Attach a piece of
paper on the screen to record the light pattern.
2. Switch on a He-Ne laser and insert a slide containing a double slit into a holder in front of the laser.
Adjust the slide until the reflected beam from the slide returns to the laser.
3. Let the laser beam illuminate on the slit. Use a pen to mark the middles of dark fringes from
diffraction effect and to mark the middles of bright fringes from interference effect.
4. Use at least three pairs of 𝑦𝑛 and 𝑦−𝑛 from the diffraction pattern to determine the slit width 𝑎.
Use at least three pairs of 𝑦𝑚 and 𝑦−𝑚 from the interference pattern to determine the separation
between two slits 𝑑. Calculate the average values of 𝑎 and 𝑑.

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