CAP256: Computer Networks

Unit-I: Basic Concepts Cont…

School of Computer Applications

Lovely Professional University
Network Standards
 Networking standards define the rules for data communications
that are needed for interoperability of networking technologies
and processes.
 Standards help in creating and maintaining open markets and
allow different vendors to compete on the basis of the quality of
their products while being compatible with existing market
products.
Types of Standards
Standards are of two types
 De facto − These are the standards that are followed without any
formal plan or approval by any organization. They have come into
existence due to traditions or facts.
 For example, the HTTP had started as a de facto standard.

 De jure − These standards are the ones which have been adopted
through legislation by any officially recognized standards
organization.
 Most of the communication standards that are used today are de jure standards.
Standards Organizations
1. Standards Creation Committees: While many organizations are
dedicated to the establishment of standards, some of the noted standards
organizations are
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI): The official standards
organization in the United States. ANSI is pronounced An-See.
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): An
international organization that publishes several key networking standards; in
particular, the official standard for the Ethernet networking system (known
officially as IEEE 802.3). IEEE is pronounced Eye-triple-E.
 International Organization for Standardization (ISO): A federation of
more than 100 standards organizations from throughout the world. If I had
studied French in high school, I’d probably understand why the acronym for
International Organization for Standardization is ISO, and not IOS.
 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF): The organization responsible for
the protocols that drive the Internet.
 World Wide Web Consortium (W3C): An international organization that
handles the development of standards for the World Wide Web.
2. Forums
 Standards committees are procedural bodies and by nature
slow-moving.
 To accommodate the need for working models and agreements
and to facilitate the standardization process, many special-
interest groups have developed forums made up of
representatives from interested corporations.
 The forums work with universities and users to test, evaluate,
and standardize new technologies.
 By concentrating their efforts on a particular technology, the
forums are able to speed acceptance and use of those
technologies in the telecommunications community.
 The forums present their conclusions to the standards bodies.
3. Regulatory Agencies
 All communications technology is subject to regulation by
government agencies such as the Telecom Regulatory Authority
of India (TRAI).
 The purpose of these agencies is to protect the public interest
by regulating radio, television, and wire/cable communications.
 TRAI's mission is to create and nurture conditions for growth
of telecommunications in the country in a manner and at a pace
which will enable India to play a leading role in emerging global
information society.
 One of the main objectives of TRAI is to provide a fair and
transparent policy environment which promotes a level playing
field and facilitates fair competition.
Internet Standards
 An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested specification that is
useful to and adhered to by those who work with the Internet. It is a
formalized regulation that must be followed.
 There is a strict procedure by which a specification attains Internet
standard status.
 A specification begins as an Internet draft. An Internet draft is a
working document (a work in progress) with no official status and a
6-month lifetime.
 Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities, a draft may be
published as a Request for Comment (RFC). Each RFC is edited,
assigned a number, and made available to all interested parties.
 RFCs go through maturity levels and are categorized according to
their requirement level.
Network Classification
One way to categorize the different types of computer network
designs is by their geographical scope or scale. For historical
reasons, the networking industry refers to nearly every type of
design as some kind of area network. Common examples of area
network types are:
 PAN – Personal Area Network
 LAN - Local Area Network
 WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network
 WAN - Wide Area Network
 MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
Personal Area Network
 A personal area network is a network concerned with the exchange of
information in the vicinity of a person.
 Typically, these systems are wireless and involve the transmission of data
between devices such as smartphones, personal computers, tablet
computers, etc.
 The purpose of such a network is usually to allow either transmission of
data or information between such devices or to server as the network that
allows further up link to the Internet.
Local Area Network
 A LAN connects network devices over
a relatively short distance. LAN is
privately owned network that operates
in very small geographical area (10 m
to a few km) widely used:
 To connect personal computers and
workstations in offices and factories
 To share hardware (like printers,
scanners) and software (application
software)
 To exchange information
 A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single
LAN, though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs
(perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of
nearby buildings.
 In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is often but not always implemented as a
single IP subnet.
 In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned,
controlled, and managed by a single person or organization. They also tend
to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token
Ring.
 LANs are distinguished from one other by three characteristics:
 Size of LAN is restricted by number of users licensed to access the operating
system or application software
 Transmission technology: LAN consists of single type of cable and all the
computers/ communicating devices connected to it.
 Most local-area networks use a 48-bit physical address
 Topology used
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
 A WLAN, or wireless LAN, is a network that allows devices to
connect and communicate wirelessly. Unlike a
traditional wired LAN, in which devices communicate
over Ethernet cables, devices on a WLAN communicate via Wi-Fi.
 While a WLAN may look different than a traditional LAN, it
functions the same way. New devices are typically added and
configured using DHCP.
 They can communicate with other devices on the network the
same way they would on a wired network.
 The primary difference is how the data is transmitted. In a LAN,
data is transmitted over physical cables in a series of
Ethernet packets containing. In a WLAN, data is transmitted
over the air using one of the IEEE 802.11 protocols.
 Many wireless routers also include Ethernet ports, providing
connections for a limited number of wireless devices.
Metropolitan Area Network
 A network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller
than a WAN, such as a city.
 A MAN is typically owned an operated by a single entity such as a
government body or large corporation.
Wide Area Network
 A WAN is a network that spans more than one geographical location often
connecting separated LANs. A WAN is a geographically-dispersed
collection of LANs.
 As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance.
 The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth.
 A network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN.
 In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN address.
 WANs are slower than LANs and often require additional and costly
hardware such as routers, dedicated leased lines, and complicated
implementation procedures.
 A WAN differs from a LAN in several important
ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not
owned by any one organization but rather exist
under collective or distributed ownership and
management.
 WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame
Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer
distances.
Topology
 The term “Topology” refers to the way in which the end points or
stations/computer systems, attached to the networks, are
interconnected.
 A topology is essentially a stable geometric arrangement of
computers in a network. If you want to select a topology for doing
networking.You have attention to the following points.
 Application S/W and protocols
 Types of data communicating devices
 Geographic scope of the network
 Cost
 Reliability
Types of Connection
 A network is two or more devices connected through
links. A link is a communications pathway that transfers
data from one device to another.
 For communication to occur, two devices must be
connected in some way to the same link at the same
time.
 There are two possible types of connections:
 Point-to-Point connection
 Multipoint connection
Point-to-Point Connection
 A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between
two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices.
 Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or
cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible.
 When you change television channels by infrared remote control,
you are establishing a point-to-point connection between the
remote control and the television's control system.
A Multipoint Connection
 Multipoint A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is
one in which more than two specific devices share a single
link.
 In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is
shared, either spatially or temporally.
 Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link
simultaneously, its called Spatially shared line configuration
 Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link,
then its called Temporally shared or Time Shared Line Configuration
Types of Topologies
Depending on the requirement there are different Topologies to
construct a network.
 Point-to-Point topology
 Bus topology
 Star topology
 Ring topology
 Mesh topology
 Tree (Hierarchical) topology
 Daisy Chain
 Cellular topology
 Hybrid Topology
Point to Point Topology
 Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as
computer, switches or routers, servers connected back to back using
a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of one host is
connected to sending end of the other and vice-versa.
 If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have
multiple intermediate devices. But the end hosts are unaware of
underlying network and see each other as if they are connected
directly.
Bus topology
 In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or
cable.
 Bus topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the
same time.
 Therefore, Bus topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as
Bus Master to solve the issue.
 It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device
does not affect the other devices.
 But failure of the shared communication line can make all other devices stop
functioning.
 Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator.
 The data is sent in only one direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the
terminator removes the data from the line.
Star topology
 All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device using a
point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point
connection between hosts and central device . The central device can
be any of the following:
 Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater
 Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
 Layer-3 device such as router or gateway
• As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point
of failure. If hub fails, connectivity of all
hosts to all other hosts fails.
• Every communication between hosts, takes
place through only the hub.
• Star topology is not expensive as to
connect one more host, only one cable is
required and configuration is simple.
Ring topology
 In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other
machines, creating a circular network structure.
 When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is
not adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts.
 To connect one more host in the existing structure, the administrator may
need only one more extra cable.
 Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring. Thus, every
connection in the ring is a point of failure.
Mesh topology
 In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts.
 This topology has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host
or may also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts
only.
 Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not
have direct point-to-point links.
• Mesh technology comes into two types:
• Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to
every other host in the network. Thus for every new host n(n-
1)/2 connections are required. It provides the most reliable
network structure among all network topologies.
• Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point
connection to every other host. Hosts connect to each other
in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we
need to provide reliability to some hosts out of all.
Tree (Hierarchical) topology
 Tree topology also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most
common form of network topology in use presently.
 This topology imitates as extended Star topology and inherits
properties of bus topology.
 This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of
network. Mainly in LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of
network devices.
 The lowermost is access-layer where
computers are attached.
 The middle layer is known as distribution
layer, which works as mediator between upper
layer and lower layer.
 The highest layer is known as core layer, and is
central point of the network, i.e. root of the
tree from which all nodes fork.
Tree (Hierarchical) topology contd…
 All neighbouring hosts have point-to-point connection between
them.
 Similar to the Bus topology, if the root goes down, then the entire
network suffers even though it is not the single point of failure.
Every connection serves as point of failure, failing of which divides
the network into unreachable segment.
Daisy Chain
 This topology connects all the hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to
Ring topology, all hosts are connected to two hosts only, except the
end hosts. Means, if the end hosts in daisy chain are connected then
it represents Ring topology.
 Each link in daisy chain topology represents single point of failure.
Every link failure splits the network into two segments.
 Every intermediate host works as relay for its immediate hosts.
Cellular topology
 The cellular topology is applicable only in case of wireless media
that does not require cable connection.
 In wireless media, each point transmits in a certain geographical area
called a cell. Each cell represents a portion of the total network
area.
 Devices that are in the cell communicate through a central hub.
Hubs in different cells are interconnected. They route data across the
network and provide a complete network infrastructure.
 The data is transmitted in the cellular digital packet data (CDPD)
format.
Hybrid Topology
 A network structure whose design contains more than one topology
is said to be hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and
demerits of all the incorporating topologies.
Protocol and its Components
Protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
Without protocol two devices may be connected but cannot
communicate.
The key elements of protocol are:
1. Syntax: The term syntax refers to the structure or format of
the data, meaning the order in which they are presented.
2. Semantics: The word semantics refers how a particular pattern
to be interpreted and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation.
3. Timing: Timing refers to when the data should be sent and
how fast it should be sent?
The key functions that a protocol performs are:
 Protocol Data Unit: It refers to the breaking of data in
manageable units called Protocol Data Unit e.g. Segment, Packet,
Frame etc.
 Format of packet: Format of the packet like which group of bits
in the packet constitute data, address, or control bits.
 Sequencing: It refers to the breaking long message into smaller
units. Sequencing is responsibility protocol.
 Routing of packets: Finding the most efficient path between
source and destination is responsibility of protocol.
 Flow control: It is responsibility of the protocol to prevent fast
sender to overwhelm slow receiver. It ensures resource sharing and
protection against traffic congestion by regulating the flow of data
through the shared medium.
 Error control: Protocol is responsible to provide method for
error detection and correction.
 Log related information: Some communication software has
features to provide log of usage of network resources.
 Defining priority: Different types of packets needs to have
different priority while moving on the shared network e.g.
network management packets needs to be given higher priority if
some congestion occurs.
 Creating and terminating a connection: Protocol defines
the rules to create and terminate a connection between sender
and receiver to communicate among each other.
 Security of data: Several communication software has features
to prevent data from unauthorized access.
Network Criteria
A network must meet following criteria:
 Performance
 Reliability
 Energy Efficiency
 Security
 Scalability
 Fairness
 Adaptability
 Channel Utilization
 Throughput
1. Performance
 Performance can be measured in following ways:
 Transit Time: Time taken by the message to travel from one device
to another device.
 Response Time: It is the elapsed time between the enquiry and
response.
 Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
 Throughput: It refers to how much data can be transferred from
source to destination within a given timeframe. Throughput measures
how many packets arrive at their destinations successfully and
measured in bits per second, but it can also be measured in data per
second.
 Delay: It specifies the latency for a bit of data to travel across the
network from one communication endpoint to another. It is typically
measured in multiples or fractions of a second.
 Performance of a network depends upon:
 Capability of Software
 Efficiency of Hardware
 Number of users
 Type of transmission media used
2. Reliability
 It is the frequency of network failure. More is the failure less
reliable is the network.
 It is the measure of time taken by the network to recover
from the failure.
 It also defines the robustness in a catastrophe. (disaster or
misfortune)

3. Energy Efficiency
 Energy Efficiency refers to the energy consumed per unit of
successful communication.
4. Security
Network security issues include:
 Protecting data from unauthorized user or access.
 Protecting data from damage and implementing policies and
procedures for recovery from and data losses.

5. Fairness
 Fairness refers to the ability of different systems to equally
share a common transmission channel
6. Adaptability
 Adaptability refers to the ability to accommodate the changes
network topology.

7. Channel Utilization
 Channel utilization refers to the bandwidth utilization for
effective communication.
8. Throughput
 Throughput refers to the amount of data successfully
transferred from a sender to a receiver in a given time.

9. Scalability
 Scalability refers to the ability to accommodate the change in
network size.