What is special about academic English?

I
Everyday words and academic uses
Many words in academic English are the same as everyday vocabulary, but they are often
also used with a slightly different meaning, which may be specialised.
everyday or academic use meaning academic use meaning
Standards of discipline in ability to control Nanotechnology is a relatively area of study
schools have declined. oneself or other new discipline.
people
Underline your family draw a line The research underlines the gives emphasis to
name on the form. under it importance of international trade
agreements.
The lake was frozen solid. not liquid or gas We have no solid evidence that certain or safe; of a
radiation has caused the problem. good standard

Vocabulary and academic style

• In writing, academics use many expressions which are neutral, but they also use rather
formal expressions which are not common in everyday language. Knowing whether an
expression is formal or just neutral is important.
neutral more formal neutral more formal
in short. briefly, basically in sum, to sum up try attempt
only sole(lly) mainly/mostly primarily
almost / more or less virtually typical of characteristic of

However, very informal vocabulary may be used in spoken academic styles in classes and
lectures. Learn to understand such language when you hear it but be careful not to use it in
essays and written assignments. Here are some examples of teachers using informal language.
'OK. Have a shot at doing task number 3.' [more formal: Try/Attempt to do ... ]
'There's no way schools can be held responsible for failures of government policy.' [more
formal: Schools cannot in any way be held ... ]
• Academic language tries to be clear and precise, so it is important to keep a vocabulary
notebook (see page 8) and learn the differences between similar words, as well as typical
word combinations (underlined here).
The building is a prime example of 1920s architecture. [excellent in quality or value]
The group's primary concern is to protect human rights. [main/ most important]

Noun phrases
Academic language puts a lot of information into noun phrases rather than spreading it out
over a whole sentence. For example, instead of saying Radiation was accidentally released
over a 24-hour period, damaging a wide area for a long time, an academic might say The
accidental release of radiation over a 24-hour period caused widespread long-term damage.
It is therefore important to learn the different forms of a word, for example:
noun verb adjective(s) adverb(s)
accident accidental accidentally
quantity/quantification quantify quantitative/quantifiable quantitatively/quantifiably

Finally, be aware of 'chunks' or phrases which occur frequently, and learn them as whole
units. Examples: in terms of, in addition, for the most part, in the case of, etc. (See Unit 16.)

IO AcademicVocabulary in Use
 Exercises

I. I Each word in the box can be used in two ways, one an everyday way, the other a typically
academic way. Complete each pair of sentences using the same word for both sentences and
making any necessary grammatical changes.

generate turn solid confirm identify underline character pose nature focus

1 A She loves to .............pose.........for photographs in front of her fabulous house.

B The events ...........pose................a threat to stability in the region.
2 A It was difficult to focus the camera on the flower as it was so small.
B We should .........focus.......our attention on the most important issues.
3 A I called the airline and .....confirm.......... my reservation.
B The data confirm.......my hypothesis that animal-lovers enjoy better health.
4 A The power plant ...generate...electricity for the whole region.
B This issue always ......generate.............a great deal of debate among academics.
5 A The murderer was .......indentify......from fingerprints discovered at the scene.
B In this theory of history, progress is closely ........indentify.....with technology.
6 A She became interested in ….nature. conservation.
B The first lecture in the series was on the ........nature..........of human communication.
7 A Jim's a very interesting .......character.... I hope you meet him.
B The book attempts to explain the fundamental .character..........of social life.
8 A I saw her .....turn........to her husband and whisper something in his ear.
B Let us now···-·turn.............to the subject of town planning.
9 A He always ..........underline........every new word when he's reading.
B The study ...........underline.............the fact that very little research exists.
10 A The liquid became ......solid...........as the temperature was lowered.
B The study lacks ........solid............evidence and therefore its conclusions are doubtful.
1.2 Use more formal alternatives to the words in bold. Make any necessary grammatical
changes.
1 The book is primarily concerned with the problem of policing the internet.
2 Virtually every school in the county had reported problems with the new system.
3 The work of the Institute is not solely devoted to cancer research.
4 In sum, we believe we have demonstrated a significant link between the two events.
5 We attempted to find a new way of understanding the data.
6 The study is a solid example of the way sociologists collect their data.
7 The reaction is characteristic of the way large corporations keep control of their markets.
8 There's no discipline London can be compared to Sydney as a place to live and work.
I .3 Read the text and then answer the questions.

The production of plastics depends heavily on petroleum, but a novel way of

making plastics out of sugar could reduce our reliance on oil. The discovery that a
chemical in sugar can be converted relatively easily into a substance similar in
structure to the material obtained from petroleum has led to the claim that
plastics could soon be produced cheaply using the new method.

1 Underline two verbs with adverbs after them which it would be useful to learn as pairs.
+ depends heavily + converted relatively easily
2 Underline two adverbs next to each other which it would be useful to learn together.
+ relatively easily
3 What are the noun forms of the verbs produce, rely, discover and claim?
+ production, reliable, discovery, claim
Academic Vocabulary in Use Il
 2 Key nouns
This unit focuses on some frequent and important nouns in academic English. See also Units
10, 11 and 15.

General nouns referring to ideas

example (with prepositions underlined) comment
She wrote an article on the subject of class. thing which is being discussed, considered or studied
The theme of the poem is emigration. main subject of a talk, book, etc.
The students were given a list of essay topics. used to refer to what one is studying or writing about
There was a lively debate on the issue of subject/problem which people are thinking/talking about
globalisation in the seminar yesterday.
Political theory is a popular undergraduate subject statement of the rules on which a subject of study is
Einstein's theory of gravitation has been based or, more generally, an opinion or explanation
questioned recently.
The model of climate change presented in the a representation of something as a simple description
Stern Review seems to be becoming a reality. which might be used in calculations
The book is called 'The Nature of Intelligence'. main characteristic of something
Human behaviour is based on the principle of basic idea or rule that explains how something
least effort. happens or works

More specific nouns connected with ideas and phenomena

example (with prepositions underlined) comment
Repetition is an important aspect of speech one individual part of a situation, problem, subject,
development in children. etc.
Automatic backup is a feature of the new software. a typical quality of something
The political motives for the government's actions are range of a subject covered by a book, discussion,
beyond the scope of this essay. class, etc.
The study revealed a pattern of results which showed a regularly repeated arrangement
could be interpreted in either of two ways.
During 2005, the number of violent attacks amount or level
increased to an alarming degree.

Nouns referring to ways of thinking, processes and activities

Read these titles of academic books and articles. Note the key nouns and their prepositions.
Micro-organisms in water: their significance1 and identification2
Renewable energy: a critical assessment3 of recent research
The Case4 for Change: Rethinking Teacher Education. Towards a New Approach5
6 7
Perspectives on Ecological Management: A study of public awareness of river
pollution Citizens' Views on Healthcare Systems in the European Union
Epidemiological research into8 asthma and allergic disease: establishing a standardised methodology9
1
importance 2 ability to establish the identity of something 3 judgement of the amount, value,
quality or importance of 4 arguments, facts and reasons in support of or against something
5 6
way of considering something different particular or individual ways of considering
7
something having special interest in or experience of something, and so being well informed
8
research is often also used with the preposition on 9 a system of ways of studying something

Research is uncountable. Don't say They carried out some interesting researches.To make it
plural you can just say 'studies', or 'research studies' or 'pieces of research'.

12 Academic Vocabulary in Use

 Exercises

2.I Look at A. Choose the most appropriate noun to comp]ete each sentence.
1 Environmental topics I issues I principles should be at the top of today's political agenda.
2 In the exam students had to choose three from a choice of ten essay subjects I theories I
topics.
3 There are still people who are reluctant to accept Darwin's model I topic I theory of
evolution.
4 The professor decided to take moral courage as the issue I theme I model for his
inaugural lecture.
5 The London underground map is best understood as a model I principle I topic showing
how the different stations relate to one another rather than a precise representation of
their distances from each other.
6 The Peter Issue I Principle I Theme states that members of a hierarchical group will
usually end up being promoted to the point at which they become incompetent.
2.2 There are six phrases containing errors under]ined in this paragraph. Can you correct them?

The study showed that local police can play an important role in
crime prevention. It makes a strong case for boosting the numbers of
community police officers although it warns against increasing police
presence on the streets at an alarming degree. Its methodology was
based on a range of interviews asking members of the public for their
views on how best to prevent crime. Unfortunately, how to implement
this recommendation was beyond the scope of the study but at least it
serves a useful purpose in raising awareness of the issue.

2.3 Look at these titles of academic books (A-H). Then match them to their subject areas (1-8).
A The Nature of Democracy 1 Economics G
B The Significance of Dreams 2 Education D
C The Features of Glaciated 3 Literature E
Landscapes 4 History H
D The Assessment of Language Skills 5 Geography C
E An Approach to Free Verse 6 Psychology B
F The Identification of Bees 7 Politics A
G Perspectives on Modern Taxation 8 Zoology F
H New Perspectives on Cleopatra
2.4 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending.
1 The study revealed a regular pattern of changes in temperature.
2 The research focuses on one particular aspect of modern society.
3 The writer makes a powerful approach to their theme.
4 The writers take an original into the environmental effects of nanoparticles.
5 Until recently there was little awareness of the problem.
6 I think you should broaden the scope of your research.
7 To date, there has been little research case for restructuring parliament.
8 There are many important issues facing the world today.

Academic Vocabulary in Use I3

 3 Key verbs
In this unit we look at some important verbs in academic English.

Verbs for structuring academic assignments

Look at these tasks which students have been given. Note the key verbs.
Discuss some of the problems involved1 in investigating attitudes to diet and health.Write a critical
review of an investigation you have read about, or describe an investigation you yourself could conduct2.
Consider the advantages and disadvantages of different methods.
Starting from rest, an aircraft accelerates to its take-off speed of 60 m s-1in a distance of 900 metres.
lllustrate3 this with a velocity-time graph. Assuming4 constant acceleration, find5 how long the take-off
run lasts. Hence calculate6 the acceleration.
7 8
'The fact that nations agree to follow international law demonstrates that we can identify ideals that
are trans-national and trans-cultural.' How far is this statement true? Critically analyse any recent event
which supports or challenges9 the statement.
Examine10 how industrial growth has affected any two developing countries. Provide11 statistical
evidence where necessary and include a discussion of likely future trends.

1
which are part of/included in 2 organise and do 3 draw something in order to explain
something 4 accepting something to be true 5 discover by calculating (see 6) 6 judge the
number or amount of something and adding, multiplying, subtracting or dividing numbers
7
show, make clear 8 recognise someone or something and say or prove who or what they are
9
questions whether it is true 10 look at or consider carefully and in detail 11 give

More key verbs

These extracts from academic books contain other key verbs.
In developing methods to explain the significance of health status measures, one can classify' ways of
establishing2 quality of life into two main types.
The length of time spent on the tasks may account for3 the decrease in motivation which was
seen4 in many of the participants.
5 6
The data presented in Chapter 3 showed that the age of the subjects was not the main factor.

Political theory attempts7 to build bridges between different schools of political thought.
1
divide things into groups according to their type 2 discover or get proof of 3 explain 4
see is
often used in the passive in academic style 5 given 6 proved 7 (formal) tries

Verbs which combine with noun forms of key verbs

Often in academic style, a verb+ the noun form of the key verb is used.
verb verb+ noun example

explain give/provide/offer an The model provides an explanation for the differences

explanation (of/for) between the two sets of data.
explore carry out an exploration (of) Kumar carried out an exploration of music genius.
emphasise place/put emphasis (on) The hospital puts a lot of emphasis on training nurses.
describe give/provide a description (of) The book gives a description of modern Europe.

The verbs affect and effect are different. To affect means to influence, co effect means to
make something happen / to bring about. The burning of fossil fuels has negatively affected
the global climate.The procedure has been successful and has effected a return to normal
functioning of the engine. See Unit 30 for more on affect and effect.

14 Academic Vocabulary in Use

 Exercises

3.1 Match each verb from A in the box on the left with its synonym from the box on the right.

Provide – Give Attempt - Try Calculate – Compute

Identify – Distinguish Include – Involve Demonstrate – Show

Affect – Influence Challenge – Study Investigate - Question

challenge investigate
h question
study

3.2 Choose the best verb from B or C to complete these sentences. Put the verb into the correct
form.
1 As can ..be Seen......................from Table TI, participation figures have been steadily falling since 1970.
2 Different authors have .....account..........for the President's actions in different ways.
3 Mendel attempted to devise a system for ....show.......... the many different types of pea plant
that he grew.
4 It is often most effective ..........to present................ your data in a chart or table.
5 The data we have collected provide an explanation.....................that there has been a
downward trend with regard to job satisfaction over the last 50 years.
6 The aim of the research is .....develop...............a new software application which will help
aviation engineers design more sophisticated aircraft.
7 The archaeologists should be able to use carbon dating techniques to establish exactly
how old the bones are.
Charles Darwin attempted .....classify.......... the existence of different species in terms of
evolution.
3.3 Explain the difference between the sentences in each pair.
1 Greig's article supports Park's theory. Greig's article challenges Park's theory.
Support >< Challenge
2 Describe the new tax regulations. Discuss the new tax regulations.
Talk about it/ introduce - Give opinions
3 Lodhi provides new data. Lodhi considers new data.
Give ------ Check/ Look at
4 Titova conducted four sets of experiments. Titova examined four sets of experiments.
Guide --------- Research
5 Lee established why such changes occur. Lee investigated why such changes occur.
Discover - ------------------ Find out
6 Okaz assumed that the data were reliable. Okaz proved that the data were reliable.
Think - --------------- Show

Illustrate the magnitude of the deceleration. Find the magnitude of the deceleration.
Create/Draw ----- Look for
7 The events effected economic development. The events affected economic development
Do ------------ Influence
3.4 Rewrite each sentence using the word in brackets and make any necessary changes to other
words.
1 Erikson's theory explains the fluctuations in the figures for this period. (PROVIDES)

Academic Vocabulary in Use 15

 Erikson's theory provides an explanation for the fluctuations in the figures for this period
2 Bevan explored the relationship between family background and political ambition.
(EXPLORATION)
Bevan carries out an exploration of relationship between family background and political ambition.

3 The book describes the life and times of Abraham Lincoln. (DESCRIPTION)
The book provides a description of the life and times of Abraham Lincoln
4 Cheng's theory emphasises the importance of extensive reading in language acquisition.
(PITTS) ??????
Cheng's theory emphasises the importance of extensive reading in language acquisition.

I
3.5
In academic style, noun phrases can often be used instead of some of the key verbs.
Complete each phrase with the appropriate noun. Use a dictionary if necessary.
1 investigate = conduct, carry out an 4 affect = have an.........................on
exploration 5 attempt= make an Attempt to/at
.......................into/of 6 classify = make, provide a distribution of
2 illustrate = provide an explanation of
3 analyse = provide, carry out an exploration
of

I
subject that you are familiar with.
Using the tasks in A as a model, prepare some assignment topics for students studying any

16 Academic Vocabulary in Use