1ST semester

A.Y. 2022-2023 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND

QUALITY CONTROL

RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING  Since the angle between the radiation beam and a
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crack or other linear is so critical, the orientation of
defect must be well known if radiography is going
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION to be used to perform the inspection

 The radiation used in radiography testing is a

higher energy (shorter wavelength) version of the
electromagnetic waves that we see every day.
Visible light is in the same family as x-rays and
gamma rays

Radiation sources

 Two of the most commonly used sources of

radiation in industrial radiography are x-ray
generators and gamma ray sources. Industrial
radiography is often subdivided into x-ray
radiography or gamma radiography, depending on
the source of radiation used.

General principles of radiography

 The part is placed between the radiation source

and a piece of film. The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense area will stop
more of the radiation
 The film darkness (density) will vary with the
amount of radiation reaching the film through the
test object

Gamma radiography

 Gamma rays are produced by a radioisotope

 A radioisotope has an unstable – nuclei that does
 The energy of the radiation affects its penetrating not have enough binding energy to hold the
power. Higher energy radiation can penetrate nucleus together
thicker and more dense materials  The spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus
 The radiation energy and or exposure time must resulting in the release of energy and matter is
be controlled properly image the region of interest known as radioactive decay

Flow orientation
 Most of the radioactive material used in industrial
 Radiography has sensitivity limitations when radiography is artificially produced
detecting cracks  This is done by subjecting stable material to a
 X-rays see a crack as a thickness variation and source of neutrons in a special nuclear reactor
the larger the variation, the easier the crack is to  This process is called activation
detect
 When the path of the x-rays is not parallel to a
crack, the thickness variation is less and the crack
may not be visible

PROF. JUAN CARLO BENTINGANAN, RRT, MSRT

Ma. SOPHIA LORAINE B. MARIÑAS, RRT
 1ST semester
A.Y. 2022-2023 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
QUALITY CONTROL

 A hose – like device called a guide tube is

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connected to a threaded hole called an exit port in
the camera
 The radioactive material will leave and return to
the camera through this opening when performing
an exposure

 Unlike x-rays, which are produced by a machine,

gamma rays cannot be turned off. Radioisotopes
used for gamma radiography are encapsulated to
prevent leakage of the material
 The radioactive capsule is attached to a cable to
form what is often called a pigtail
 The pigtail has a special connector at the other
end that attaches to a drive cable
 A drive cable is connected to the other end of the
camera. This cable, is controlled by the
radiographer, is used to force radioactive material
out into the guide tube where the gamma rays will
pass through the specimen and expose the
recording device

 A device called a camera is used to store,

transport and expose the pigtail containing the
radioactive material. The camera contains
shielding material which reduces the
radiographer’s exposure to radiation during use

PROF. JUAN CARLO BENTINGANAN, RRT, MSRT

Ma. SOPHIA LORAINE B. MARIÑAS, RRT
 1ST semester
A.Y. 2022-2023 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
QUALITY CONTROL

 Current is passed through the filament which

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heats it. The heat causes electrons to be stripped
off
 The high voltage causes these free electrons to be
pulled towards a target material (usually made of
tungsten) located in the anode
 The electrons impact against the target. This
impact causes an energy exchange which causes
x-rays to be created

Imaging modalities

 Several different imaging methods are available to

display the final image in industrial radiography:

 Film Radiography
 Real Time Radiography
 Computed Tomography (CT)
 Digital Radiography (DR)
 Computed Radiography (CR)

Film radiography

 One of the most widely used and oldest imaging

mediums in industrial radiography is radiographic
film
x-ray radiography
 Film contains microscopic material called silver
bromide
 Unlike gamma rays, x-rays are produced by an x-
 Once exposed to radiation and developed in a
ray generator system. These systems typically
darkroom, silver bromide turns to black metallic
include an x-ray tube head, a high voltage
silver which forms the image
generator, and a control console

 X-rays are produced by establishing a very high

voltage between two electrodes, called the anode
and cathode
 To prevent arcing, the anode and cathode are
located inside a vacuum tube, which is protected
by a metal housing

 Film must be protected from visible light. Light just

like x-rays and gamma rays, can expose film. Film
is loaded in a light proof cassette in a darkroom
 This cassette is then placed on the specimen
opposite the source of radiation. Film is often
placed between screens to intensity radiation

 The cathode contains a small filament much the

same as in a light bulb

PROF. JUAN CARLO BENTINGANAN, RRT, MSRT

Ma. SOPHIA LORAINE B. MARIÑAS, RRT
 1ST semester
A.Y. 2022-2023 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
QUALITY CONTROL

o Computed Tomography
 In order for the image to be viewed, the film must
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be developed in a darkroom. The process is very computed radiography
similar to photographic film development
 Film processing can either be performed manually  Computed Radiography (CR) is a digital imaging
in open tank or in an automatic processor process that uses a special imaging plate which
employs storage phosphors

 X-rays penetrating the specimen stimulate the

 Once developed, the film is typically referred to as phosphors. The stimulated phosphors remain in
radiograph an excited state

 After exposure:
o The imaging plate is read electronically
and erased for re-use in a special
scanner system
 As a laser scans the imaging plate, light is emitted
where x-rays stimulated the phosphor during
exposure. The light is then converted to a digital
value

digital radiography
 Digital images are typically sent to a computer
workstation where specialized software allows
 One of the newest forms of radiographic imaging
manipulation and enhancement
is digital radiography
 Requiring no film, digital radiographic images are
captured using either special phosphor screens or
flat panels containing micro-electronic sensors
 No darkrooms are needed to process film, and
captured images can be digitally enhances for
increased detail
 Images are also easily archived (stored) when in
digital form
 There are number of forms of digital radiographic
imaging including:
Examples of Computed Radiographs
o Computed Radiography (CR)
o Real-Time Radiography (RTR)
o Direct Radiographic Imaging (DR)

PROF. JUAN CARLO BENTINGANAN, RRT, MSRT

Ma. SOPHIA LORAINE B. MARIÑAS, RRT
 1ST semester
A.Y. 2022-2023 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
QUALITY CONTROL

Page | 5

Real-time radiography

 Real – Time Radiography (RTR) is a term used to

describe a form of radiography that allows
electronic images to be captures and viewed in
real time
 Because image acquisition is almost
instantaneous, x-ray images can be viewed as the
part is moved and rotated
 a special camera which captures the light output of
 Manipulating the part can be advantageous for
the screen is located near the image intensifying
several reasons
screen
 the camera is very sensitive to a variety of
REASONS
different light intensities
 It may be possible to image the entire component
with one exposure
 Viewing the internal structure part from different
angular prospective can provide additional data for
analysis
 Time of inspection can often be reduced

Equipment needed for an RTR includes

 X-ray tube
 Image intensifier or other real – time detector
 Camera
 Computer with frame grabber board and software  a monitor is then connected to the camera to
 Monitor provide a viewable image
 Sample positioning system (optional)  if a sample positioning system is employed, the
part can be moved around and rotated to image
different internal features of the part

Image intensifier

 The image intensifier is a device that converts the Comparing film and real time radiography
radiation that passes through the specimen into
light Real time
 It uses materials that fluoresce when struck by
 real time images are lighter in areas where more
radiation
x-ray photons reach and excite the fluorescent
 the more radiation that reaches the input screen,
screen
the more light that is given off
 the image is very faint on the input screen so it is
intensified onto a small screen so it is intensified
onto a small screen inside the intensifier where the
image is viewed with a camera

PROF. JUAN CARLO BENTINGANAN, RRT, MSRT

Ma. SOPHIA LORAINE B. MARIÑAS, RRT
 1ST semester
A.Y. 2022-2023 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
QUALITY CONTROL

 Computed Tomography (CT) uses a real – time

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inspection system employing a sample positioning
system employing a sample positioning system
and special software

Film
 film images are darker in areas where more x-ray
photons reach and ionize the silver molecules in
the film

 Many separate images are saved (grabbed) and

complied into 2-dimensional sections as the
sample is rotated
 2-D images are then combined into 3-dimensional
images

Direct radiography

 Direct Radiography (DR) is a form of real-time

radiography that uses a special flat panel detector
 The panel works by converting penetrating
radiation passing through the test specimen into Image quality
minute electrical charges
 Image quality is critical for accurate assessment of
 The panel contains many micro-electronic
a test specimen’s integrity
capacitors. The capacitors from an electrical
charge pattern image of the specimen  Various tools called Image Quality Indicators
(IQIs) are used for this purpose
 Each capacitor’s charge is converted into a pixel
which forms the digital image  There are many different designs of IQIs. Some
contain artificial holes of varying size drilled in
metal plaques while others are manufactured from
wires of differing diameters mounted next to one
another

 IQIs are typically placed on or next to a test

specimen
 Quality typically being determined based on the
smallest hole or wire diameter that is reproduced
on the image

Computed tomography

PROF. JUAN CARLO BENTINGANAN, RRT, MSRT

Ma. SOPHIA LORAINE B. MARIÑAS, RRT
 1ST semester
A.Y. 2022-2023 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
QUALITY CONTROL

Page | 7

 Technicians who work with radiation must wear

monitoring devices that keep track of their total
absorption, and alert them when they are in a high
radiation area

Radiation safety

 Use of radiation sources in industrial radiography

is heavily regulated by state and federal
organization due to potential public and personal Three means of protection to help reduce exposure to radiation
risks
 There are many sources of radiation. In general, a
person receives roughly 100 mrem/year from
natural sources and roughly 100 mrem/year from
manmade sources

Radiographic images

 X-rays and gamma rays are forms of ionizing

radiation, which means that they have the ability to
form ions in the material that is penetrated. All
living organisms are sensitive to the effects of
ionizing radiation (radiation burns, x-ray good
pasteurization, etc.)
 X-rays and gamma rays have enough energy to
liberate electrons from atoms and damage the
molecular structure of cells
 This can cause radiation burns or cancer

PROF. JUAN CARLO BENTINGANAN, RRT, MSRT

Ma. SOPHIA LORAINE B. MARIÑAS, RRT
 1ST semester
A.Y. 2022-2023 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
QUALITY CONTROL

Page | 8
cathode

A negatively charged electrode

darkroom

A darkened room for the purpose of film development. Film

is very sensitive to exposure by visible light and may be
ruined

exposure

The process of radiation penetrating and object

Gamma rays

Electromagnetic radiation emitted from the nucleus of some

Advantages of radiography radioactive materials

 Technique is not limited by material type or density

phosphor
 Can inspect assembled components
 Minimum surface preparation required A chemical substance that emits light when excited by
 Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, radiation
voids, cracks and material density changes
 Detects both surface and subsurface defects
Pixel (picture element)
 Provides a permanent record of the inspection
A pixel is a single point in a graphic image. Graphics
disadvantages of radiography monitors display pictures by dividing pictures by dividing the
display screen into thousands (or millions) of pixels,
 Many safety precautions for the use of high arranged in rows and columns. The pixels are so close
intensity radiation together that they appear connected
 Many hours of technician training prior to use
 Access to both sides of sample required
 Orientation of equipment and flaw can be critical
Photo-multiplier tube
 Determining flaw depth is impossible without
additional angled exposures An amplifier used to convert light into electrical signals
 Expensive initial equipment cost
Radioactive
Glossary of terms
To give off radiation spontaneously
activation

The process of creating radioactive material from stable radiograph

material usually by bombarding a stable material with a large
number of free neutrons. This process typically takes place an image of the internal structure of and object produced
in a special nuclear reactor using a source of radiation and recording device

anode silver bromide

A positively charged electrode silver and bromine compound used in film emulsion to form
the image seen on a radiograph
Automatic film processor

A machine designed to develop film with very little human

intervention. Automatic processors are very fast compared to
manual development

capacitor

An electrical device that stores an electrical charge which

can be released on demand

PROF. JUAN CARLO BENTINGANAN, RRT, MSRT

Ma. SOPHIA LORAINE B. MARIÑAS, RRT
 1ST semester
A.Y. 2022-2023 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
QUALITY CONTROL

Page | 9

PROF. JUAN CARLO BENTINGANAN, RRT, MSRT

Ma. SOPHIA LORAINE B. MARIÑAS, RRT