15th Asia Pacific Conference for Non-Destructive Testing (APCNDT2017), Singapore.

Small Controlled Area Radiography – Fundamentals and Technology Advancements

J. R. Lapinskas, PhD† and R. L. Kelly

More info about this article: http://www.ndt.net/?id=22226

†QSA Global, Inc., 40 North Ave., Burlington, MA 01803, USA.

†E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Radiographic testing (RT) is one of the most efficient and economic NDT methods for volumetric inspection;
ensuring safe, reliable construction and ongoing use of critical infrastructure around the world. The penetrating
radiation from isotope based gamma ray and accelerator based x-ray generators provide a unique mechanism for
creating an image based on the differential absorption of photons in a sample. Unfortunately, the mechanisms of
photon radiation interactions with matter that allow for weld quality inspection, measurement of corrosion/erosion
in pipe wall, etc. create negative externalities in many environments where RT is often performed.

 Gamma radiation interferes with critical safety and process control systems. Examples include UV flame
detectors, radiation monitoring systems, nuclear level and density gauges, etc. These systems cannot
differentiate the gamma rays from a radiography source and the UV photons from a fire or gamma rays
from 137Cs sources used in many nuclear gauges.
 ALARA – The ever-increasing emphasis on reducing occupational exposure and exposure to members
of the general public often requires RT to be performed in shooting windows or during off-shifts reducing
overall inspection efficiency.
SCAR or Small Controlled Area Radiography is the concept of controlling the radiation utilized for RT allowing
for radiographic inspection without restrictive shooting windows (24/7 radiography concept), in close proximity
to other trades, and without impacting critical sensor systems. This paper describes the fundamental principles
for achieving Small Controlled Area Radiography with an emphasis on the use of 75Se and innovations in SCAR
equipment enabling advanced SCAR techniques. Practical SCAR applications covered include:

 Near nuclear gauges and UV detectors – typically <0.5 mR/hr

 Close proximity to members of the general public – <2 mR/hr exclusion zone at 6 feet
 Minimizing/eliminating flash dose
 Rope access

Keywords: radiography, SCAR, VFD, exclusion zone, 75Se

1 Problem Definition

1.1 Critical safety systems – UV flame detectors

Optical flame detection systems are a key component of critical fire safety systems in industrial environments
where highly combustible materials are present, instantaneous response to flames is needed, or automated
fire protection is required. Typical installations include refineries, fuel transport terminals, offshore
platforms, pipeline pumping stations, petrochemical plants, etc. Personnel safety combined with protection
of large capitally intensive and often critical infrastructure necessitates uninterrupted operation of critical
safety systems including fire/explosion detection and suppression.

Ultraviolet (UV) detection systems employ a quartz ion chamber to detect short, UV wavelength photons
characteristic of most fires. UV systems respond to most fires, can be used indoors or outdoors, are generally

[ID214] 1
15th Asia Pacific Conference for Non-Destructive Testing (APCNDT2017), Singapore.

solar blind, and have high speed response times (<10 milliseconds). They are the most common general
purpose optical flame detectors. Sensitivity to UV wavelengths photons means UV flame detectors are
susceptible to false alarms from other sources: lightning, welding, arcs, sparks, and gamma rays/x-rays from
radiographic testing (RT). RT can be particularly problematic due to the high photon energy relative to other
sources of false alarms. Primary beam radiation incident on a UV detector in any orientation will likely trip
the system as can Compton radiation scattered from the test piece or surrounding structures. Even flash dose
as a source is projected from the shielded position through a source guide tube into a collimator, lasting at
most a few seconds, is capable of tripping these high-speed detectors. Operators have several options to
avoid false positives ranging from shutting down and manually monitoring UV flame detectors to forbidding
RT altogether. One client reported shutting down and manually monitoring every detector within 0.5 miles
(0.8 km) of RT work. The impact on plant operations and plant safety is readily apparent.

1.2 Nucleonic process control equipment (level, density, thickness, mass flow etc.)

Nucleonic process control equipment is found in many of the same installations as the optical flame detectors
discussed above. Typical process monitoring applications include level gauging/switching, density
measurement, thickness gauging, phase profiling, mass flow, etc. Nucleonic gauges generally do not contact
process material and are thus ideal for high pressure, high temperature, corrosive, abrasive, caustic applications.

Nucleonic gauges operate in either transmission

or backscatter mode. Transmission mode consists
of a high-energy gamma ray source(s), typically
137
Cs or 60
Co, either external to a vessel in a Figure 1: Density Gauge
shield/collimator or internal to a vessel in a dip- (Courtesy of Vega)
tube with a detector(s) on the opposite side or
other appropriate external position. Attenuation
of the collimated beam varies with process Figure 2: Level gauges
material density, composition, or phase. In and phase profilers
transmission mode, the detectors measure the (Courtesy of Vega) Figure 3: Mass flow
uncollided gamma ray flux (i.e., gamma rays that gauging for conveyor
have not been absorbed or elastically scattered). (Courtesy of Vega)
Low energy gamma emitting isotopes such as
241
Am along with beta emitting isotopes are used in transmission or backscatter mode for gauging of thin films,
paper, foils, etc. As the name implies, backscatter mode measures radiation, often neutrons, that has elastically
interacted with process material and scattered back to the detector. Transmission mode nucleonic gauges
utilizing high energy gamma emitting isotopes are the most common systems impacted by RT and will be the
focus of the following discussion. Several are shown in Error! Reference source not found. Error! Reference
source not found..

[ID214] 2
15th Asia Pacific Conference for Non-Destructive Testing (APCNDT2017), Singapore.

As stated above, the uncollided gamma rays from collimated 137Cs and 60Co sources are measured to determine
level, density, phases, etc. of process material in a vessel. Table 1 shows the similarity in gamma ray energies
from common isotopes used in radiographic testing to those utilized in many nucleonic gauging systems. It is
clear that gauging systems will have difficulties differentiating gamma rays from different sources and therefore
be susceptible to false readings when RT is performed nearby. Compounding the issue is the significantly higher
activity and resulting output of radiography sources versus gauging sources (see activity range and gamma
constants in Table 1). Gauge manufacturers attempt to electronically filter direct beam and Compton scatter
signals from high energy radiography sources (e.g., high frequency pulses from flash dose). Shielding detectors
is an option complicated by the sometimes-large physical size and quantity of detectors (cost and space) as well
as cooling requirements for stable operation of scintillation detectors common in gauging. Ultimately, solutions
for operators to avoid costly and dangerous false readings include taking process control equipment offline –
effectively driving blind or shutting down a line completely. The impacts on plant safety and operations are
clear.

Table 1: Gamma ray energies from typical nucleonic gauging industrial radiographic testing isopopes. [1]
Average Gamma Constant per Ci [2]
Application Isotope Energy Range Activity Range
Energy R/hr @ 1 ft mSv/hr @ 1 m
137
Cs 662 keV 662 keV 1 mCi – 10 Ci 3.4 0.32
Gauging
60
Co 1253 keV 1.17 – 1.33 MeV 100 mCi – 10 Ci 14 1.30
75
Se 215 keV 96.7 – 400.6 keV 10 – 120 Ci 2.2 0.203
192
Radiography Ir 370 keV 206 – 612 keV 10 – 150 Ci 5.2 0.48
60
Co 1253 keV 1.17 – 1.33 MeV 20 – 330 Ci 14 1.30

1.3 Radiation monitoring systems (NPP)

Nuclear power plants are particularly weary of introducing additional radiation and radioactive materials
into operating environments; especially inside containment areas where HP officers are required to clear out
other trades and monitor all RT operations for compliance with approved procedures. Deviations from
procedure can trigger NRC reporting requirements. Seemingly innocuous events such as slight difficulty
retracting a source, even if returned to a safe and locked position, are considered reportable events under
10CFR34.101 [3]. Another example of a reportable event under 10CFR20.2203 [4] would be flash dose or
unanticipated scatter temporarily exceeding limits at posted boundaries.

1.4 Safety / Exclusion zone / Confined work areas / ALARA

In addition to the potential impact on safety and process control systems as describes above radiographic
testing presents several other obstacles to plant safety and operations. Exclusion zones must be posted and
controlled in accordance with regulations. In the USA exclusion zones are posted at 2 mR/hr (20 µSv/hr)
for members of the general public. In much of the rest of the world exclusion zones are posted at 0.75 mR/hr
(7.5 µSv/hr) for occupationally exposed workers and 0.25 mR/hr (2.5 µSv/hr) for members of the general

[ID214] 3
15th Asia Pacific Conference for Non-Destructive Testing (APCNDT2017), Singapore.

public. Posting and controlling exclusion zones becomes particularly problematic in congested work spaces
such as a refinery turnaround where many trades are generally working in close proximity. In this scenario,
other trades must either be cleared from the exclusion zone or RT crews must work in ‘shooting windows’
during breaks, shift changes, or third shifts. Radiography in confined or restricted access spaces increases
ALARA and safety concerns. Radiographers must be able to move a safe distance from where the source is
being exposed while also maintaining control of the system. Example application areas include offshore
platforms, refinery turnarounds, rope access, fabrication shops, laydown yards, etc.

Minimizing the negative impact of gamma rays from radiographic testing is the focus of this discussion.

2 Understand to Control

SCAR or Small Controlled Area Radiography is the concept of controlling the radiation utilized for RT to
minimize the impact on plant operations, increase plant safety, and improve safety for occupationally
exposed workers and member of the public. Controlling the radiation used to perform radiographic
inspection first requires an understanding of the mechanisms by which radiation interacts with the testing
environment. We have found it useful to break down radiation we are looking to control into the primary
beam and scatter radiation. Figure 4 visually depicts the primary beam and scatter radiation from a typical
DW/SW radiography setup.

2.1 Primary Beam

The primary beam is a well-

defined, collimated beam of
gamma rays emanating directly
from the isotope source. The
collimated beam expands with
increasing distance from the Figure 4: Representation of primary beam and Compton scatter

source. Shielding considerations from a typical DW/SW test configuration.

are the intensity and cross-sectional dimensions of the primary beam at a specified distance where shielding
material will be positioned (typically directly behind the imaging media). Calculations to determine
shielding parameters for the primary beam are relatively straight forward. The number of shielding half
value layers (HVLs) to reduce the primary beam intensity to a specified dose at a defined distance is a basic
inverse square law shielding calculation outlined step-by-step in Figure 5. Note for a contact configuration
where the beam width is smaller than the pipe diameter attenuation in the pipe can be considered. Figure 6
shows the determination of beam dimensions at the shielding position.

[ID214] 4
15th Asia Pacific Conference for Non-Destructive Testing (APCNDT2017), Singapore.

Figure 5: Shielding HVLs to reduce the primary beam intensity to a specified dose at a defined
distance.

Figure 6: Approximation of the beam dimensions at the shielding position.

2.2 Compton Scatter

Compton scatter is significantly more complicated to model. For purposes of this discussion we consider a
monoenergetic beam of gamma rays (energy = 継待 岻. Three outcomes are possible for the incident gamma
rays as they pass through matter: 1) pass through without interacting - the uncollided photon flux 2)
absorption through pair production or the photoelectric effect 3) energy dissipating elastic scattering
interactions with atomic electrons – Compton scatter. Figure 7 show the combined effect of the three
mechanisms on the beam spectrum. Absorption reduces the total number of gamma rays available to scatter
or pass through without interaction. The uncollided flux was addressed above leaving scattered gamma rays
as the second source of radiation to address. Energy loss in Compton scattering events is a function of
interaction angle resulting in a continuous spectrum of photons with energy 継 嫗 隼 継待 into 4π. In addition,
Compton scatter is energy dependent iteraction with the probability of an event occurring increasing with
decreasing incident gamma ray energy. The practical takeaway is that Compton scatter complicates
shielding setups as radiation is emitted in all directions; however, the scattered gamma rays are significantly
lower in energy and intensity than the primary beam generally requiring fewer HVLs of shielding.

[ID214] 5
15th Asia Pacific Conference for Non-Destructive Testing (APCNDT2017), Singapore.

3 Achieving Small Controlled Area Radiography

It cannot be emphasized enough that SCAR is more

than a radiography device. It is a radiography concept
consisting of the radiography device and source,
accessories such as positioning fixtures and shielding,
and proper techniques to address both the primary
beam and scatter radiation described above. The
following section outlines these key components to
achieving Small Controlled Area Radiography.

3.1 Isotope
Figure 7: Energy spectrum of monoenergetic
SCAR concepts are not exclusive to a particular gamma rays incident on (dotted red) and exiting
isotope; however, the choice of isotope plays a key (solid blue) a shield. [5]
role in practical implementation of SCAR techniques.
75
Average energy and energy ranges for typical radiography isotopes are summarized in Table 1. Se is by
far the preferred isotope for SCAR applications due to the lower energy of its emissions relative to other
available isotopes. When necessitated by material thickness SCAR techniques can also be applied to 192Ir
radiography. To keep shielding practical 192Ir activities are kept low. As a comparison, consider the required
shielding to obtain a 2 mR/hr reading 6 ft from the source in the direction of the primary beam shooting a 6”
75 192
SCH 40 steel pipe in contact mode with both Se and Ir. Typical maximum activities for SCAR
applications are 81 Ci and 15 Ci respectively. From Figure 5 and Figure 6 we calculate the weight of the
back shielding to be 15 lb (7 kg) of lead sheet for 81 Ci 75Se versus 74 lb (33 kg) for 15 Ci 192
Ir. Unless
there is an extreme application, it is not practical to apply SCAR techniques for use with 60Co.

3.2 Device

The radiography device is the next key component in achieving SCAR. In its simplest form, traditional
projection style radiography involves projecting the source from the fully shielded position in the camera
through an unshielded source guide tube to the test position where it remains for the duration of the shot and
is then retracted back to the shielded position. The source is effectively completely unshielded from the
moment the source leaves the camera to the time it returns (See Figure 8). For pplications such as pipeline
weld quality where other trades, sensors, members of the public, etc. are typically not present there is no
issue with this technique. SCAR techniques would simply slow inspections down. However, in a refinery
or power plant the large exclusions zones introduce myriad complications. For example, the 2 mR/hr
boundary for 100 Ci of 192Ir is approximately 370 ft from the source. An ideal SCAR device minimizes the
distance the source travels while never allowing the source to become fully unshielded, eliminating flash
dose and simplifying shielding requirements. Below, we demonstrate exclusion zones of several feet with
75
Se in a device specifically designed for SCAR.

[ID214] 6
15th Asia Pacific Conference for Non-Destructive Testing (APCNDT2017), Singapore.

Figure 8: Diagram of traditional projection Figure 9: Cross section of Model 1075 SCARPro
radiography showing source fully exposed. showing the fully shielded source path (iso view).

3.3 Fixtures and Shielding

The source does not leave the device in Figure 9. It moves from the fully shielded position directly to the
collimated exposure position. Therefore, considerations should be made for allowing the radiographer to
quickly and securely position and reposition the device in nearly any orientation. Figure 10 shows fixturing
for a contact radiograph (e.g., DW/SW). Figure 11 shows fixturing for standoff fixturing for superimposed
or elliptical radiographs. Mounting points for the fixturing are integrated into the design of the camera.

Figure 10: Contact shot fixture. Figure 11: Fixture for elliptical and superimposed shots.

Shielding for radiography comes in many forms. The choice of material and form factor should be matched
to the application and shielding requirements. Flat sheets for back shielding the primary beam and draping
to control scatter range from simple lead sheets to lead wool blankets to silicone impregnated with a high Z
material (e.g., lead, tungsten, or bismuth). Sheets can be bare or packaged in a protective sleeve. Some even
have integrated rigging features or magnets to assist with positioning. There are pros/cons to each. Lead is
a HAZMAT concern whereas bismuth and tungsten are not. Lead sheets are the most efficient and cost
effective however lack flexibility. Lead wool blankets are also relatively inexpensive while offering
increased flexibility over lead sheets but continuous flexing can degrade the fibres creating hot spots. Lead,
tungsten, or bismuth impregnated silicone is extremely flexible but tends to be the priciest. Figure 12 shows
examples of the several types of available shielding sheets.

[ID214] 7
15th Asia Pacific Conference for Non-Destructive Testing (APCNDT2017), Singapore.

Figure 12: (a) Bismuth impregnated FlexShield silicone sheets of various sizes with grommets and
handles for mounting and rigging. (b) FlexShield positioned to back shield the primary beam. (c) Pb
sheet in canvas sleeve with integrated magnets moulded to shape of pipe.

Impregnated silicone can

also be moulded into custom
shapes. Figure 13 shows a
moulded backscatter shield
and flexible guide tube
shield; both made from
bismuth impregnated
silicone. The backscatter
Figure 13: Flexible scatter shield (left) and guide tube shield (right)
shield slides over the
made from moulded bismuth impregnated silicone.
integral collimator of the
SCAR device and conforms to the outer wall of the pipe in a contact configuration. The flexibility of the
silicone shield ensures compatibility with various pipe diameters to very effectively attenuate Compton
scatter created when the primary beam passes through the near wall of the pipe. Restricted access prohibiting
positioning the SCAR device may necessitate the use of traditional projection style radiography. In such a
scenario, a guide tube shield reduces flash dose as the source is moved from the shielded position to the
exposure position. Proper setup taking into consideration the concepts discussed in this paper will allow for
SCAR-like performance for traditional projection radiography.

3.4 Bringing it all Together

The above discussions walk through the concepts required to understand and consider in order to successfully
achieve Small Controlled Area Radiography. While not overly complex, combining these concepts could
easily become overly cumbersome in the fast paced and difficult radiography work environment. To
simplify the process of determining a shot setup QSA Global has developed a SCAR Calculator (Figure 14)
allowing the user to input readily available device and source date, dose requirements, and sample
specifications. The calculator outputs the shot parameters: primary beam shielding requirements, primary
beam dimensions, minimum source-to-film distance (SFD) from common geometrical unsharpness

[ID214] 8
15th Asia Pacific Conference for Non-Destructive Testing (APCNDT2017), Singapore.

requirements, overlap to determine total number of shots, and shot time. Predictable and repeatable
outcomes can be calculated for both contact and offset configurations.

Figure 14 considers a Model 1075 SCARPro loaded with 80 Ci 75Se shooting DW/SW contact of a 6” SCH
40 pipe. The 2 mR/hr boundary must be set at 6 ft. 2 Rad to the imaging media is required. The SCAR
Calculator calculates a total of 11.3 HVLs are required to back shield the primary beam. The pipe itself
provides 1.78 HVLs. An additional 9.5 HVLs are required. 3/8” (~1 cm) of lead sheet or four FlexShield
sheets provide the required additional shielding. The beam is 6.7 in x 6.7 in (17 cm x 17 cm) at the film
plane. Standard 10 in x 10 in (25 cm x 25 cm) in shielding sheets would be recommended for ease of
positioning. A minimum of four shots are required to image the entire weld with 0.7” (1.8 cm) overlap.
Shot time is 1 minute 21 seconds. A scatter shield (Figure 13) addresses the majority of the scatter off the
near wall off the near wall of the pipe.

Figure 14: SCAR Calculator.

A 6 ft (~2 m) exclusion zone has clear benefits in many applications:

 Radiography can be performed in close proximity to other trades such as welders, pipe fitter, etc. during
turnarounds or outages rather than clearing the area or shooting in windows.
 Nearby processes utilizing nuclear gauges or necessitating UV flame detectors can be left online and
safely monitored.
 Rope access technicians (RATs) can minimize their exposure while remaining in close proximity to the
test location.

[ID214] 9
15th Asia Pacific Conference for Non-Destructive Testing (APCNDT2017), Singapore.

 Monitoring and controlling a 6 ft boundary versus boundaries of several hundreds of feet for traditional
projection radiography is much easier considering most plants have multiple floors. Common practices
are to clear three floors up and three floors down anytime RT is being performed.
 Hot Work Permits issued and required by most plant safety managers are likely to be easier to obtain
based on the vastly reduced zone of influence and repeatable setup geometries.

3.5 Additional SCAR Considerations

Figure 15: Beam masking technique for offset SCAR configuration.

The SCAR concepts discussed above

apply to both contact and offset device
configurations. Offset configurations are
complicated by the increasing
dimensions of the primary beam with
increasing SFD. Back-shielding a large
beam behind the imaging media can
become overly cumbersome with
inherently heavy shielding material. It is
Figure 16: SCAR setup with shielding positioned over the
much more efficient to reduce the
end of a pipe segment to attenuate scatter internal to the pipe
collimation or mask the beam very near
and wrapped around the length of the pipe near the test
the source. After all, the beam only needs
position to attenuate scatter out of a thin walled pipe. Scatter
to be wide enough and tall enough to
dose is 4 µSv/hr (0.4 mR/hr) at 2 m (6.6 ft) with 57 Ci 75Se
image the diameter of the pipe/weld and
source exposed.
heat effect zone in a weld quality
radiograph. Figure 15 depicts the beam masking technique that allows for on-site adjustments to beam
dimension.

Some applications or highly regulated operating environments may necessitate additional shielding
considerations. Figure 16 shows a SCAR setup with shielding placed at the end and along the lengths of an
open-ended thin walled pipe to attenuate internal scatter and scatter along the length of the pipe.

[ID214] 10
15th Asia Pacific Conference for Non-Destructive Testing (APCNDT2017), Singapore.

4 Conclusion

SCAR concepts are well established in some regions of the world where regulations restricting operator and
public exposure has driven its adoption (e.g., Europe). In other regions SCAR concepts and techniques have
been applied for many years to address the issues described in this paper; with varying degrees of success.
Where not driven by regulation, adoption of Small Controlled Area Radiography solutions often requires a
paradigm shift both by radiography service providers and the industries they serve. Continual improvement
to provide innovative, high quality solutions to customer pain points drives this paradigm shift. Service
providers endeavour to address common pain points of their clients associated with radiographic testing.
End consumers of RT services, often owners of highly capital intensive facilities, strive to minimize or
eliminate anything adversely impacting operational efficiency. SCAR offers RT service providers a
customer-back solution for their customers to minimize the impact of radiography on operations, enhance
safety, and reduce overall operational liability often associated with industrial radiography.

References

[1] Korea Atomic Research Institute, “Table of Nuclides,” 2000. [Online]. [Accessed 25 September
2017].
[2] QSA Global, MAN-027 - 880 Series Source Projector, vol. November 2014 Release, Burlington,
MA: QSA Global, Inc., 2012.

[3] U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, “NRC Regulations Title 10, Code of Federal
Regulations,” 29 August 2017. [Online]. [Accessed 20 September 2017].
[4] U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, “NRC Regulations Title 10, Code of Federal
Regulations,” 29 September 2017. [Online]. [Accessed 20 September 2017].
[5] J. R. Lamarsh, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, 3rd edition ed., Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001.

[ID214] 11