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UPDATED TO 2016 PATTERN SYLLABUS

SAT SAT
CHEMISTRY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
SAT SAT CHEMISTRY

Atom: smallest particle of an element that retains the

chemical properties of the element
1. Types of Questions Element: substance that cannot be broken down into
simpler substances through chemical reaction
1.1. Part A
3.2. Subatomic Particles
A set of choices is provided and the next few questions
refer to these choices. Subatomic Particle Relative Charge Relative mass/ a.m.u
Each choice may be used one, more than once, or not at Protons (P) +1 1
all in each set
Neutrons (n) 0 1
Electrons (e-) -1 1/1837
1.2. Part B
Every question contains two statements, I and II. 3.3. Protons, Neutrons and Electrons
For each question, decide whether I is true or false and
whether II is true or false Nucleus of atom contains protons and neutrons
Finally, fill in oval CE only if statement II is a correct Nucleus surrounded by electron shells
explanation of II Isotopes: atoms of the same element that have different
It is possible that I and II are both true however II is not number of neutrons in the nucleus
the explanation of I Reading the symbol:
These types of questions will be in answered in a special
section of the answer sheet labelled “chemistry” and the
questions will begin from 10

1.3. Part C
These are general five-choice questions with each set of Isoelectronic ions: ions having same no. of e-s
options independent from the previous Ground state: lowest energy state for particle
Questions may contain words in capital such as NOT, Excited state: any energy level above the ground state
LEAST or EXCEPT and therefore are not always looking for
the correct option 3.4. Electron Configuration
Questions could also be to fill in a gap of a statement
Electrons are arranged in energy levels called shells

2. Problem Solving Process Each shell is described by a principle quantum no. (P.Q)
As the P.Q. increases, energy of shell increases
Orbital: region in space where there is a maximum
1. Clarify the problem: separate problem into facts, probability of finding an electron
conditions, questions that need to be answered and
Each orbital can hold 2e-s in opposite directions
establish the goal
2. Explore: examine sufficiency of data, organize data When e-s are placed in a set of orbital of equal energy,
and apply knowledge, skills and understanding they occupy them singly and then pairing takes place
3. Select a strategy: choose a method to solve the e-s placed in opposite direction, creating a spin to reduce
problem. Not each one can be applied to every repulsion
problem and most of the times you will use a Completely filled or half-filled are more stable
combination than one exclusively: Strategies: trial-
and-error, reduction, working backwards, knowledge 3.5. Subshells
based
4. Solve: apply skills to carry out chosen strategy
5. Review: examine reasonableness of solution through
estimation and evaluating effectiveness of process
Aufbau’s principle: method of showing how atomic

3. Structure of Matter orbitals are filled in a definite order to give lowest energy

3.1. Atomic Structure

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arrangement possible
3.8. Groups and Properties of Non-
Metals
General Properties:
Do not conduct electricity
All elemental gases are included here
Hydrogen placed with metals, is also a non-metal
Halogens:
Exist as diatomic molecules
Most commonly used to form salts
Reactivity decreases down the group

3.9. Atomic Radius Trends

Energy difference between 4s & 3d very small ∴ an e- Down a Group Across a Period
from 4s can be promoted to half-fill or full-fill 3d orbital, INCREASES DECREASES
to make atom more stable New shells added Shell no. remains same
When filling, fill 4s before 3d and when removing, also
Attraction of
remove first from 4s
nucleus to
valence e-s Proton no. increases
3.6. Periodic Table decreases

Effective nuclear charge

increases

Ionic radius: describes size of ions

Metals: lose electrons ∴ lose a shell and ionic radius
less than atomic radius
Non-metals: gain electrons ∴ gain a shell and ionic
radius greater than atomic radius

3.10. General 1st I.E Trends

3.7. Groups and Properties of Metals Down a Group Across a Period
DECREASES INCREASES
General Properties:
Atomic radius increases Atomic radius decreases
Malleable, ductile, lustrous
Oxidize (rust & tarnish) to form positive ions (cations) Effective nuclear charge
Shielding effect constant
Conduct heat an electricity decrease
Alkali Metals:
Most reactive metal family 3.11. Electronegativity
Form alkaline solutions when reacted with water
Reactivity increases down group Electronegativity: strength with which the atoms attract
Alkali Earth Metals: valence electrons in a chemical bond. Scale of 0 to 4, 4
Also, reactive but less in comparison to 1st group being greatest electronegativity
Reactivity increases down the group Across a period: increases ● Down a group: decreases
Transition Metals:
Usually form colored solutions 3.12. Radiations
Have several possible oxidation states
Act as catalysts
α-particle β -particle γ -ray
Silvery-blue at r.t.p (except copper and gold)
Solid at r.t.p (except mercury) Helium Fast-moving Electro-
Identity
Magnetic nucleus electron magnetic
Symbol 4 He 0 e γ
2​

−1 ​

Charge +2 −1 0

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α-particle β -particle γ -ray Type Shape Angle Hybrid Example

Relative
4 ‎1/1840‎ 0
Mass
Speed Slow Fast V of Light
Energy Discrete Varying 4B Tetrahedral 109.5O sp3
Few mm of Few cm of
Stopped by Paper
aluminum lead
Range in air 5cm 12m No Specific
CH4
Ionizing
High Low Very Low
power

3.13. Nuclear Reactions 3B

1L
Pyramidal 107O sp3

Change in Change in
Types of Decay Particle Charge
Mr Ar
Alpha Decay α 2+ -4 -2 NH3

Beta Decay β 1- 0 +1
Gamma
γ 0 0 0
Radiation
2B
Positron Angular 104.5O sp3
β+ 1+ 0 -1 2L
Emission
Electron Capture e− 1- 0 -1
H2O
Law of conservation of matter: in all forms of decay
neither protons nor neutrons are created or destroyed 2 Pairs of e-s
There are 2 main types of nuclear reactions:
Fusion: 2 smaller nuclei form a larger nucleus
Fission: a large nucleus splits into 2 smaller nuclei
Trigonal
5B
Bipyramid 90O sp3d
4. Molecular Shapes
4.1. VSEPR and Hybrid Theory PF5

6 Pairs of e-s
Type Shape Angle Hybrid Example
2 Pairs of e-s

6B Octahedral 90O sp3d2

2B Linear 180O sp

CO2
SF6
3 Pairs of e-s
B = Bonded Pair
L = Lone Pair

3B Trigonal Planar 120O sp2 5. Chemical Bonding

Chemical Bonds: result of the attraction between atoms,
BF3 ions or other particles
Octet Rule: all atoms try to achieve the closest noble gas
4 Pairs of e-s
electron state

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density giving rise to instantaneous dipole, which is able

5.2. Ionic Bonding
to induce a dipole in the adjacent molecules
Ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between Permanent Dipole-Dipole Forces:
oppositely charged ions.
Elements of the ions have a difference in electronegativity Two or more neutral molecules attract due to their partial
of greater than 1.67 charges
Structure: giant ionic lattice, crystalline solids Unlike charges creates a strong attractive force
Have high melting and boiling points Greater difference in polarity = stronger forces

Hydrogen Bonding:
5.3. Covalent Bonding
Strongest type of intermolecular force in covalent bonds
Covalent bond is the bond formed by the sharing of pairs For hydrogen bonding to occur, we need:
of electrons between two atoms. Molecule having a H atom bonded to F, O or N
Covalent compounds are made of molecules which are
Molecule having F, O or N atom with lone pair of e-s
held together by weak intermolecular forces
They have low melting and boiling points
Sharing occurs unequally due to different 6. States of Matter
electronegativities of the 2 atoms in the bond
Nonpolar: difference between 0 & 0.4
Polar: difference between 0.4 & 1.67 6.1. Gases
Kinetic-Molecular Theory
5.4. Metallic Bonding
Matter in all forms is composed of small particles
Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between metal
Particles of matter are in constant motion; solids vibrate
cations and delocalized mobile electrons
about a fixed position, liquids slide past each other and
Structure: lattice of +ve ions surrounded by ­mobile e-s gases are in continuous and random motion
Mobile electrons can conduct electricity and heat Collisions of particles with themselves and the walls are
elastic; no loss of energy
5.5. Properties and Structures
6.2. Ideal Gas Laws
Gas molecules move rapidly and randomly
Distance between gas molecules is greater than diameter
of molecules ∴ volume is negligible
No forces of attraction/repulsion between molecules
All collisions between particles are elastic EK conserved
​

Temperature of gas related to average EK of molecules

​

Conditions at which gases behave ideally:

High temperature
Low pressure

Limitations of Ideal Gas Laws:

Real gases do not obey kinetic theory in two ways:

There is not zero attraction between molecules
We cannot ignore volume of molecules themselves
5.6. Intermolecular Forces
Deviations visible at low temp. & high pressure
Intermolecular forces: weak forces present between two
covalent molecules Molecules are close to each other
Volume of molecules not negligible relative to container
London Dispersion Forces (Induced Dipole-Dipole): VDW forces present, pulling molecules to each other
Pressure is lower than expected from ideal gas
Very weak forces present between non-polar molecules
Effective volume is less than expected from ideal gas
Due to constant motion of e-s, at an instant, a non-polar
molecule develops poles due to distortion of electron
6.3. Measuring Pressure of Gases

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Unit Abbreviation = to 1 atm Polycrystalline: solid with a large number of small crystals
Atmosphere atm 1 atm in which structure is regular but crystals arranged in
randomly
Millimeters of Hg mm Hg 760mm Hg
Torr torr 760 torr
Pascals Pa 101,000 Pa

Standard temp. and press. (STP): 273K and 1 atm

6.4. Gas Laws

Graham’s Law of Effusion (Diffusion): rate of effusion of a
gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its
molecular mass

Rate A Molecular Mass of B

=
​

Rate B Molecular Mass of A

​ ​

7.2. Liquids
​

Charles’s Law: at constant pressure, the volume of a gas

varies directly with the absolute temperature Particles have strong forces of attraction
V1 V2 V Particles have more freedom than in solid
​

= T2 or T
​

=k
T1 Indefinite shape but definite volume
​ ​ ​

​ ​

Boyle’s Law: at constant temperature, the volume of a gas

varies inversely as pressure changes 7.3. Phase Changes
P1 V1 = P2 V2 or P V = k
​ ​ ​

Heat of fusion: energy put in to melt a substance

Heat of vaporization: energy needed to cause transition
Guy-Lussac’s Law: at constant volume, the pressure varies from liquid to gas
directly with the absolute temperature
P1 P2 P
T1 = T2 or T = k
​ ​

7.4. Phase Change Diagram

​ ​ ​

​ ​

Combined Gas Law:

P1 V1 P2 V2 1st type: temperature against pressure

=
​ ​ ​ ​

T1 T2
​ ​

Dalton’s Law: the pressure of a mixture of gases is equal

to the sum of partial pressures of the component

Ptotal = P1 + P2 + … + Px
​ ​ ​

Ideal Gas Law:

P V = nRT

7. Liquids and Solids

7.1. Solids
Particles held together by ionic or string covalent bonds:
Triple point: temperature and pressure at which the
Attractive force is very strong
substance can exist in all three phases in equilibrium (T)
Definite shape and volume

Types of Solids: 2nd type: energy against temperature (heating curve)

Amorphous: solids without form, random structure with

little or no long-range ordering e.g. glass
Crystalline: regular structure, particles in a repeating
pattern

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moles of solute
m=
kg of solvent
​

Percent by Mass: another expression of concentration

mass of solute
P ercent by M ass = × 100
mass of solute & solvent
​

8.2. Solubility
Rule of solutions:
Polar solvent dissolves polar solute
7.5. Phase Equilibrium Non-polar solvent dissolves non-polar solute
Solubility: degree to which a given solute will dissolve in a
The evaporation of a liquid in a closed container given solvent
Constant evaporation from surface Solubility of solids in water:
Increases with increasing temperature
Not affected by pressure
Solubility of gases in water:
Decreases with increasing temperature
Increases with increasing pressure

8.3. Electrolyte
Ionic substances dissolve, ionic bonds broken and
substance dissociates into mobile ions
Electrolyte: solutions capable of carrying conducting
electrical current

Particles continue to break away from surface but are 8.4. Colligative Properties
trapped in space above the liquid
As gaseous particles collide, some of them hit the Properties of solutions that depends on the ratio of
surface of the liquid again, and become trapped there solute to solvent particles: freezing and boiling point, and
An equilibrium is set up in which number of particles vapor pressure
leaving surface is balanced by number re-joining it. Freezing Point Depression (FPD):
Pure solvent has a certain freezing point and when
liquid water molecules ⇌ vapor water molecules freezing particles must cluster.
In solution, solute particles get in the way and
In this equilibrium, there will be a fixed number of the
prevents tight clustering
gaseous particles in the space above liquid. Causes the freezing point to decrease
Vapor pressure: pressure exerted by a vapor in Boiling Point Elevation (BPE):
equilibrium with a liquid. Pure solvent has a certain boiling point and when
Vapor pressure increases as: boiling the particles try to escape.
In solution, solute particles get in the way which
requires more energy to escape
Causes the boiling point to increase
FPD and BPE expression:
8. Solutions ΔT = kmi

8.1. Measuring Concentration where k is a constant dependent on solvent, m is molarity

and i is the no. of ions in solution (1 for covalent compounds)
Molarity (M): no. of moles of solute per liter of solution
FPD and BPE depend only on type of solvent and number
moles of solute of solute particles, not type of solute particles
M=
litres of solution
​

Reaction Types
Molality (m): no. of moles of solute per kg of solvent
Synthesis: 2 or more reactants form 1 product
l f l

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A+B →C Acids will react with metals that are more reactive than
hydrogen ions to liberate hydrogen gas
Decomposition: breakdown into 2 or more products Acids react with bases to neutralize each other, forming
water and a salt
AB → A + B Acids react with carbonates to release carbon dioxide
Displacement: units replace each other
Single: more reactive element replaces less reactive 9.4. Strong Acids
A + BC → AC + B HCl hydrochloric acid
HBr hydrobromic acid
Double: 2 compounds react to form 2 new compounds
HI hydroiodic acid
HNO3 nitric acid
AB + CD → AD + CB
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
Combustion: hydrocarbon burnt in oxygen HClO4 perchloric acid

Cx Hy + O2 → CO2 + H2 O
9.5. Properties of Bases
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Hydrolysis: reaction with water

Bases are conductors of electricity in aqueous solution
X − + H2 O → XH + OH −
​
Bases react with acids to neutralize each other, forming
water and a salt
Bases react with fats to form soaps
9. Acids and Bases
9.6. Strong Bases
9.1. Acid and Bases Theories
KOH potassium hydroxide
Acid Base NaOH sodium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide
Arrhenius Produces H3O+ Produces OH-
Sr(OH)2 strontium hydroxide
Brønsted-Lowry Proton donor Proton acceptor Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide
Lewis Accepts electrons Donates electrons

9.7. Conjugate Acids and Bases

9.2. Strong and Weak Acids and Bases
When acid-base reacts, an equilibrium mixture is formed
Strong acids/bases: acids/bases which dissociate almost
completely in solutions

HX(aq) H+(aq) + X-(aq)

HX(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + X-(aq)

Weak acids/bases: acids/bases which are only partially

dissociated in solutions

X-(aq) + H+(aq) XA(aq)

The stronger an acid, the weaker its conjugate base
X-(aq) + H2O(l) HX(aq) + OH-(aq) The stronger a base, the weaker its conjugate acid
Strong and weak acids and bases can be distinguished by
the pH value of their aqueous solutions 9.8. Acid/Base Properties of Salts
Amphoteric: substance that can act as an acid or a base
Weak acid + strong base = basic salt
Monoprotic acids: donate one H+ proton per molecule
Weak acid + weak base = neutral salt
Diprotic acids: donate two H+ protons per molecule
Strong acid + weak base = acidic salt
Strong acid + Strong base = neutral salt
9.3. Properties of Acids
9.9. Acid/Base Equilibrium
Acids are conductors of electricity in aqueous solution

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When an acid/base is added to water, it dissociates and a

dynamic equilibrium is set up between acid/base and
ions
Calculating acid dissociation constants:

[H + ] [X − ]
Ka =
[HX]
​ ​

Calculating base dissociation constants:

[X + ] [OH− ]
Kb =
[XOH]
​ ​

9.10. pH Scale

Gives strength of acid/bases by concentration of H+/OH-

ions

pH = − log [Ka ] pOH = − log [Kb ]

​ ​

pH = 14 − pOH
Calculating the pH:
Firstly, use all the information and calculate the Equivalence point where curve steepest
constant as you would in other equilibrium questions
Find the log without a calculator, see the power of 10 9.12. Indicators
it is to and that is your log
If it is Ka, this is the pH pH Color Below Color Above
If it is Kb, do (14 – Ans) hence finding pH Indicator
Range Lower pH Higher pH
3.1 –
Methyl orange Red Yellow
9.11. Titration 4.4
Bromthymol 6.0 –
Adding strong acid or base of known identity and Yellow Blue
blue 7.6
concentration (titrant) to unknown acid or base solution
4.5 –
with an indicator Litmus Red Blue
8.3
Equivalence (end) point; enough titrant has been added
to neutralize the subject acid or base 8.3 –
Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink
Titration curve: 10.0

Titration of strong acid and strong base; end point will be

pH 7 and any indicator can be used
Titration of strong acid and weak base; use methyl
orange; changes color in acid region
Titration of strong base and weak acid; use
phenolphthalein; changes color in basic region

9.13. Buffer Solutions

Equilibrium systems that resist changes in acidity and
maintain constant pH when acid or bases are added
It is a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a
weak base and its conjugate acid
Work by reacting with any added acid or base to control
the pH

10. Oxidation-Reduction

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The EMF of a voltaic cell is due to potential energy

10.1. Redox Reactions
difference of the electrons before and after the transfer
Oxidation: loss of electrons, gain of +ve charge Standard Reduction Potentials (EO): potential that would
Oxidizing agent (OA): reduces itself to oxidize others be produced between a given half-reaction and hydrogen
Reduction: gain of electrons, gain of –ve charge
EMF = cathode potential – anode potential
Reducing agent (RA): oxidizes itself to reduce others
Half-reaction: equation that shows only either oxidation +ve EMF indicates a spontaneous process
or reduction The greater the difference between the electrode
Redox reaction: reaction where both oxidation and potentials, the larger the EMF
reduction occur
Can be shown with changes in oxidation numbers of
elements from the product side to the reactant side
10.4. Standard Reduction Potentials

10.2. Calculating Oxidation Numbers

Ionic Molecules: group number = valence electrons

Rules:
Atoms in a diatomic molecule; oxidation number = 0
Oxygen in a compound; oxidation number = -2
Oxygen as peroxide; oxidation number = -1
1st group elements & hydrogen; oxidation number =
+1
H with highly reactive metal; oxidation number = -1
Following these rules, all other atoms in a covalent bond
must balance out the charge

10.3. Voltaic (Galvanic) Cells

Separates the reduction and oxidation reaction and
forces the electrons to flow over a wire (producing 10.5. Electrolytic Cell
electricity) from the oxidation reaction (at the anode) to
the reduction reaction (at the cathode). Energy from a cell used to bring about a non-
spontaneous redox reaction
Used for:
Purification of elements
Separating metals
Charge batteries
Example:

Anode: +ve electrode, attracts –vely charged anions

Cathode: -ve electrode, attracts +vely charged cations
Salt bridge: device that maintains electrical neutrality
11. Precipitation

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Formula applies to gases at r.t.p.

11.1. Precipitation Reaction
Unit of volume is dm3 and 1000cm3 = 1dm3
Occur when cations and anions in aqueous solution Moles
combine to form an insoluble ionic solid; precipitate Concentration =
Volume
​

It is a double replacement reaction when the reactants

are soluble and one of the products formed is insoluble.
13.2. Reagents
11.2. Solubility Table Reactants may not always be present in perfect number
of reacting moles
Soluble Salts Insoluble Salts Limiting reagent: reactant with fewer number of reacting
All sodium, potassium and moles
The rest
ammonium salts Excess reagent: reactant with greater number of reacting
All nitrates N/A moles

Chlorides Except silver and lead

Except barium, lead and 13.3. Yields
Sulphates
calcium
Theoretical: equations say we can get this much of
Potassium, sodium and
All other carbonates product from that much of reactant
ammonium carbonates
Actual: experiments say we got this much of product from
that much of reactant

12. Stoichiometry Percent: ratio of actual to theoretical as a percentage

Actual Yield
× 100 = P ercent Yield
12.1. Mole Concept Theoretical Yield
​

The Mole 14. Equilibrium & Reaction

Mole: amount of substance that has the same number of Rates
particles (atoms, ions, molecules or electrons) as there
are atoms in exactly 12g of the carbon-12 isotope.
Avogadro’s constant: number of atoms, ions, molecules 14.1. Equilibrium Systems
or electrons in a mole = 6.02 × 1023
Molar mass: mass of a given substance divided by its Reversible reaction: a reaction in which products can be
amount of substance; g/mol changed back to reactants by reversing the conditions
Dynamic Equilibrium: the state of a reversible reaction
carried out in a closed container where the rates of
12.2. Formulae forward and backward reactions are equal and constant

Empirical formula: gives simplest ratio of different atoms

present in a molecule 14.2. Le Chatelier’s Principle
Molecular formula: gives actual numbers of each type of
atom in a molecule When a chemical system in dynamic equilibrium is
Molecular formula can be calculated using the Mr of a disturbed (conditions changed) it tends to respond in
compound and its empirical formula such a way so as to oppose the change and a new
equilibrium is set up
M olecular F ormula = (Empirical Formula)n ​

Molecular Mass
Where n = Mass of Empirical Formula ​

13. Chemical Equations 14.3. Equilibrium Constants

13.1. Stoichiometric Calculations

Mass
M oles =
Molar Mass
​

V olume of a Gas = M oles × 24

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Large value of KC /KP

​ ​ ⇒ equi. towards products side

Smaller value of KC /KP ⇒ equi. towards reactants side

​ ​

KC /KP changes only with changes in temperature

​ ​

Amount of reactants that disappear always appear in the

Endothermic reaction:
products in same ratio as present in equation

14.4. Rates of Reactions

Rate of a reaction: change in concentration of reactants
or products per unit time
Activation energy: minimum energy colliding particles
must possess for a successful collision to take place

14.5. Factors Affecting Rates of

Reactions
Concentration: mole per volume of a substance

Higher reactant conc. - forward reaction faster Addition of a catalyst:

Higher product conc. – backward reaction faster
Higher conc. = more chance of successful collisions

Temperature: thermal energy provided to molecules

Higher temp. more EK, increasing rate of reaction

Lower temp. less EK, decreasing rate of reaction

Catalyst: decreases Ea of reaction

Provides a different path for the reaction to take

Unconsumed by reaction
Biological catalysts are called enzymes

Physical State:
15. Thermochemistry
Homogenous: reactants in same physical state
Heterogeneous: reactants in different physical states
In hetero; reactants limited to contact area therefore
15.1. Calorimetry & Specific Heats
larger contact area allows for faster reaction
Heat Capacity
14.6. Potential Energy Diagrams Amount of heat energy required to raise temperature of
a substance by 1oC
Exothermic reaction:
Molar: 1 mol of the substance
Specific: 1 gram of the substance

Q = mcΔT

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When pure solid or liquid dissolves in solvent, entropy of

15.2. Calorimetry
substance increases
Enthalpy of reaction measured using a calorimeter When gas molecules escapes from solvent, there is an
increase in entropy
Measures heat flowing out/into system as reaction
Entropy generally increases with increasing molecular
proceeds
complexity
Calorie: amount of heat required to raise the
Reactions that increase no. of moles of particles often
temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1oC
increase entropy of system
1 calorie = 4.184 joules
17. Gibbs Free Energy
15.3. Enthalpy
Equation
Enthalpy (ΔH): heat content of a chemical reaction
ΔG = ΔH − T ΔS
15.4. Types
ΔH : enthalpy ΔS : entropy
Enthalpy of Combustion (ΔHcomb ): 1 mole of element or
​
T : temperature in Kelvin
compound is completely combusted under standard
The sign of ΔG used to predict spontaneity of a reaction
conditions in its standard state
at constant temperature and pressure
Enthalpy of Formation (ΔHf ): 1 mole of compound is
​

formed from its elements under standard conditions in

their standard states 17.2. Interpreting Sign of ΔG
Enthalpy of Fusion (ΔHfus ): 1 mole of a solid melted to 1
​

mole of the corresponding liquid at the normal melting ΔG negative: reaction (probably) spontaneous
point of the substance ΔG positive: reaction improbable
Enthalpy of Vaporization (ΔHvap ): 1 mole of a liquid
​
ΔG = 0: system at equilibrium; no net reaction
changed to 1 mole of the corresponding gas at the
normal boiling point of the substance 17.3. Factors Affecting ΔG
15.5. Hess’s Law ΔH ΔS Will it happen?
-ve +ve Always
The total enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is
+ve +ve At high temp.
independent of the route by which the chemical reaction
takes place as long as the initial and final conditions are -ve -ve At low temp.
the same. +ve +ve Never
Reason to use Hess’s Law:
Std. conditions hard to maintain (e.g. exo/endo)
Elements don’t always react directly 18. Descriptive & Organic
Chemistry
16. Entropy
18.1. Carbon
16.1. Laws of Thermodynamics
Allotropes of Carbon
1st Law: energy can neither be created nor destroyed;
only transformed from one type to another Carbon can exist as:
nd
2 Law: disorder of universe, its entropy, is constantly
increasing
3rd Law: entropy of a perfect crystal at 0K is zero

16.2. Rules when Determining Entropy

Greater disorder in a system - larger entropy
Entropy of substance always increases changing state
from solid to liquid to gas

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Diamond: sp3 hybrid orbitals

Graphite: sp2 hybrid orbitals

Laboratory preparation: react marble chips with acid

CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

Fullerenes: spherical cage of carbons
Testing for carbon dioxide: limewater turns milky

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

Excess CO2: continued passing will eliminate cloudy solution,
forming soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 Ca(HCO3)2

18.3. Uses of Carbon Dioxide

Used to make carbonated drinks:

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

18.2. Carbon Dioxide
Solid CO2, “dry ice”, used as refrigerant as it sublimes
Carbon cycle: Used in fire extinguishers as it is heavier than air and
prevents combustion from occurring
Used by plants for photosynthesis:

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

19. Hydrocarbons
19.1. Alkanes

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Aromatic = unsaturated ring structures

Saturated; 4 single sp3 bonds

General formula = CnH2n+2
Cycloalkanes: single bonded ring compounds; Cn­H2n
First four alkanes = gases
Non-polar; weak intermolecular forces of attraction
Compounds separated due to difference in b.p. by
fractional distillation

19.2. Alkenes Benzene is the simplest aromatic compound = C6H6

General formula = CnH2n-6

20. Alcohols

Unsaturated; 3 sigma sp2 bonds and 1 pi pure p bond on

double bond
General formula = CnH2n

19.3. Alkyne Functional group: R–OH (hydroxyl)

Colorless, flammable liquids

20.2. Uses of Alcohol

Unsaturated; 2 sigma sp bond and 2 pi pure p bond on Methanol Ethanol

triple bond b.p. 65oC b.p. 78oC
Name: -yne
Miscible with water and
General formula = Cn­H2n-2 Miscible with water
solvent for many substances
Poisonous; cause blindness if
19.4. Aromatic ingested
Used as fuel

Used as fuel and solvent

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20.3. Types of Alcohols

Primary 1o Secondary 2o Tertiary 3o

21. Ethers
Functional group: R–O–R’
Functional group: R–CHO
Preparation from 1o alcohol: mild oxidation of alcohol
using oxidizing agent or inserting hot copper wire

CH3 OH + [O] → [CH2 (OH)2 ] → HCHO + H2 O

​ ​ ​ ​

22.2. Ketone
Formed when a primary alcohol is dehydrated with
sulfuric acid
Naming ethers:
Shorter chain becomes first part of name with –ane
suffix changed to –oxy.
Longer alkane chain becomes suffix of name
E.g. ethoxypropane or ethyl propyl ether

E.g. ethoxyethane or ethyl ether or diethyl ether

Functional group R–CO–R’
Preparation from 2o alcohol: oxidation of alcohol

23. Carboxylic Acids and

Derivatives

22. Carbonyl Compounds

22.1. Aldehyde

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Functional group: R–COOH

Preparation from an aldehyde: mild oxidation of an
aldehyde
Amino acids: acids containing amine group (NH2)

24. Amines and Amides

Functional group: R–COOH
Preparation from an aldehyde: mild oxidation of an 24.1. Amines
aldehyde
Amino acids: acids containing amine group (NH2)

23.2. Esters

Functional group: R–NH2

Example: ethanamine or ethylamine

Inorganic salts produced by reaction of alcohol and acid

Reaction occurs with H2SO4

24.2. Amides

Functional group: R–COO–R’

Sweet smelling; used in perfumes and flavor extracts

Naming esters:

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Functional group: RCO–NH2 Layers of Atmosphere:

Replaces hydrogen in the carboxyl group
Example: ethanamide or ethylamide

25. Colored Compounds 26.2. CFCs Effect on Ozone Layer

CFCs escape in atmosphere and because of their
25.1. Soluble and Insoluble inertness, remain without further reaction until they
reach the stratosphere and ozone layer.
Colored Insoluble In stratosphere, high energy U.V causes Cl atom to split of
Colored Soluble Compounds
Compounds
CFC molecule forming Cl⋅ which reacts with ozone
Soluble copper salts are
AgCl is white
blue/green
26.3. Greenhouse Effect
Chromate precipitates are
Fe salts are red/brown
orange Refers to build up of CO2 and other carbon gases in the
Dichromate precipitates are atmosphere
Cobalt salts are blue
yellow As Earth’s surface absorbs solar radiation, it warms and
Complex ions are often Hydroxide precipitates are radiates infrared radiation back into atmosphere
coloured white Extra CO2 reflects and traps radiation causing Earth to
warm
25.2. Oxides
26.4. Acid Rain
Oxide Color
Nitrogen and Sulphur oxides produced by pollution
Titanium oxide White
interacts with water producing acid rain
Copper oxide Green (patina)
Iron oxide Red (rust) SO3 + H2O H2SO4
Silver oxide Black (tarnish) 2NO2 + H2O HNO3 + HNO2 or NO2 + H2O + ½O2 HNO3

Damages trees & plants, kills fish and other river life,
26. Environmental Chemistry buildings, statues and metal structures

26.1. Earth’s Atmosphere 27. The Laboratory

Atmospheric Composition:
27.1. Laboratory
Nitrogen (N2) 78%
Oxygen (O2) 20% Technological Tools
Argon (Ar) < 1%
Gravimetric balance: direct readings to thousandth of a
Water Vapor Variable
gram instead of mechanical balance
Other < 1%
pH meters: direct pH readings instead of indicators

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Spectrophotometer: measures % of light transmitted at

specific frequencies so that molarity of sample can be
determined without titration
Computer-assisted lab: probes take readings and
computer programs can monitor variables, collect data
and produce graphs

27.2. Laboratory Safety Rules

Dress appropriately for lab; safety goggles, lab coat, tie
back long hair and do not wear open-toed shoes.
Know safety equipment available and how to use;
eyewash fountain, fire blanket, fire extinguisher etc.
Know dangers of chemical; read labels, don’t taste/sniff
Dispose of chemicals according to instructions.
Always add acids and bases to water slowly to avoid
splattering; can generate heat, steam, and splash
Direct test tubes away when heating/reaction occurring Simple distillation: separate solvent from a solution
Never pipette by mouth; don’t use it as a suction pump
Use the fume hood when dealing with toxic fumes
Do not eat or drink in the lab; can ingest toxic chemicals
Follow all directions; never haphazardly mix chemicals

Laboratory Equipment

Fractional distillation: separate liquids from each other

28. Experiment Setups

28.1. Methods of Separation
Filtration: separate solid from a liquid

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Calorimetry: finding heat capacity of a substance

29. Identifying Chemicals

Chromatography: different substances from a solution
29.1. Gas Tests
Gas Test and result
1) Damp red litmus paper turns
blue
Ammonia (NH3)
2) White fumes form with HCl
3) Smell = sharp odor
1) Bubble thru limewater; goes
Carbon dioxide
milky
1) Place light splinted; ignites,
Hydrogen (H2) pop
2) Burns with blue flame
28.2. Other Set-ups
1) Damp blue litmus turns red
Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)
Titration: finding concentration of unknown acid or alkali 2) Smell = choking odor
1) Damp lead acetate paper
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) turns brown-black
2) Smell = rotten egg odor
1) Insert glowing splint = relights
Oxygen (O2) 2) Nitric oxide gas turns red-
brown

29.2. Cations Test

Ion Test and result
Add strong base (NaOH) - produces
Ammonium (NH4+)
ammonium
Iron(II) (Fe2+) NaOH or Ammonia = green ppt.

Iron(III) (Fe3+) NaOH or Ammonia = red-brown ppt.

Hydrogen (H+) Blue litmus turns red

29.3. Anions Test

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Ion Test and result Metal Flame Color

Add conc. H2SO4 and warm = vinegar Lithium, Strontium, Calcium Red
Acetate (C2H3O2-)
odor released Sodium Yellow
Carbonate (CO32-) Add HCl; limewater turns milky Potassium Lilac
Add nitric acid, then aqueous silver Barium Green
Chloride (Cl-) nitrate = white ppt. soluble in NH3(aq) Copper Blue-Green

Hydroxide (OH-) Red litmus turns blue Iron Gold

Sulfate (SO42-) Add HCl then BaCl2 = white ppt

Add HCl then test gas with lead
29.6. Hydrogen Sulphide Tests
Sulfide (S2-) acetate paper = turns black-brown
Bubble H2S gas through solution being tested; ppt. formed
(H2S)
Metal Color of Sulphide ppt.
Lead Brown-black
29.4. Colors of Solutions Copper, Silver, Mercury, Nickel,
Black
Iron
Ion Present Solution color
Cadmium, Arsenic Yellow
Cu2+ Blue
Antimony Orange
Fe3+ Yellow to orange (rusty) Zinc White
Ni2+ Green Bismuth Brown

MnO4- Purple

CrO42- Yellow

Cr2O72- Orange

29.5. Flame Tests

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