Applied Ergonomics 90 (2021) 103286

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Ergonomics
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/apergo

Implementing Virtual Reality technology for safety training in the precast/

prestressed concrete industry
Sayali Joshi a, Michael Hamilton b, Robert Warren c, Danny Faucett d, Wenmeng Tian e,
Yu Wang f, Junfeng Ma e, *
a
Dept. of Industrial & Systems Engineering, Mississippi State University Mississippi State, MS, 39762, USA
b
Institute for Systems Engineering Research Vicksburg, MS, 39180, USA
c
Georgia Division, Tindall Corporation, Conley, GA, 30288, USA
d
Industrial Engineering and Process Improvement, Tindall Corporation, Spartanburg, SC, 29301, USA
e
Dept. of Industrial & Systems Engineering, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, 39762, USA
f
Learning, Design, and Technology Program Dept. of Learning and Performance Systems, The Pennsylvania State University University Park, PA, 16802, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Thousands of people work in the precast/pre-stressed concrete industry every day. Due to the design of the
Virtual reality precast/prestressed concrete product itself and the processes required for its production, employees are occa­
Safety training sionally exposed to hazards. The industry recognizes this and devotes a significant amount of time and invest­
Precast/pre-stressed concrete
ment to mitigate these hazards and protect employees from harm. It is essential for employees to go through
Precast concrete
Efficacy analysis
appropriate safety training before starting work in the plant. Practical safety training should be cost-effective,
Effectiveness analysis and performance guaranteed, and traditional training procedures include paper-based safety guidelines, lec­
tures, videos, and on-site training. Virtual Reality (VR) provides an innovative approach for safety training as it
could offer situational training with negligible risk and at a low cost. In this paper, a VR training module is
developed to deliver safety training in a cost-effective yet repeatable manner, aiming to reduce common plant
injuries. The module is developed using Unity3D and Visual Studio joint platforms and can be interfaced with
using the Oculus Rift/Oculus S. The module addresses three major safety concerns in the plant: personal pro­
tective equipment (PPE), the tensioning of strand (the stressing process), and suspended loads. Efficacy and
effectiveness analyses were conducted to evaluate the performance of the proposed VR module. The efficacy
analysis was based on simulation sickness, user experience, and system usability. This analysis showed that the
developed VR module is a user-friendly simulator with minimal simulation sickness. More than 50% of the
participants reported no indications of simulation sickness. In addition, an effectiveness analysis was performed
based upon a comparative study of this VR training method and the traditional video-based training method. This
analysis indicated that VR training is more engaged and provides a better understanding of safety protocols and
real-life experience of the precast/prestressed concrete plant.

1. Introduction and the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) follows these

guidelines to provide safety and loss prevention programs (Industry and
The employees of the precast/pre-stressed concrete industry are oc­ Security Standards Council, 2014). According to a report from the NPCA
casionally exposed to hazards in its plants because of design character­ (National Precast Concrete Association), each year on average more
istics and the production process of the precast/prestressed concrete than 100,000 employees are injured in the construction industry due to
product. In order to mitigate these hazards and protect employees from safety unawareness in the U.S. (Keep Workers Safe at Heights, 2015;
harm, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has United Stated Department of Labor, 2020). It should be pointed out that
provided guidelines for safety training approaches (Woksepp and the precast/prestressed concrete industry represents less than 5% of the
Olofsson, 2007; Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2015) total construction industry. According to PCI guidelines, workplace

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Joshi), [email protected] (M. Hamilton), [email protected] (R. Warren), dannyfaucette@
tindallcorp.com (D. Faucett), [email protected] (W. Tian), [email protected] (Y. Wang), [email protected] (J. Ma).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2020.103286
Received 8 June 2020; Received in revised form 7 October 2020; Accepted 10 October 2020
Available online 17 October 2020
0003-6870/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Joshi et al. Applied Ergonomics 90 (2021) 103286

safety regulations are established to recognize the hazards and to avoid 2. Literature review
workplace injuries. Training programs are designed to educate em­
ployees on the risks and train them on required safety procedures. Ac­ 2.1. Traditional safety training methods in precast/pre-stressed industry
cident investigations determine the root causes of accidents and allow
corrective action to be taken to prevent the same accidents or injuries Precast concrete systems have several advantages over other con­
from reoccurring (PCI Plant Certification Committee, 1999). struction systems, such as high quality, low project cost, and better
Industries and companies invest a large amount of money and time to sustainability (Polat, 2008). The precast concrete industry makes sig­
ensure that accidents and injuries are prevented. Traditional precast nificant contributions to the economy and labor employment (Murari
concrete safety training methods include video training, on-site training, and Joshi, 2019). However, due to the design and required production
and lecture presentations. These approaches can be either very costly or processes of its products, employees are occasionally exposed to hazards
unengaging. (Schwarze et al., 2019). For instance, lectures, PowerPoint in precast/pre-stressed concrete plants. Prior research (Wang et al.,
presentations and video trainings are cost-effective but not engaging for 2018) indicated that more than 50% of accidents are caused because of
most employees. On-site training is engaging but expensive because it unsafe acts which could be mitigated by effective training programs.
requires professionals to train employees in the plant which interrupts Workers and employees are expected to be well trained and vigilant at
plant operations and affects productivity. There is a need to provide a all times in this industry (National Precast Concrete Association, 2010;
new training approach to satisfy both cost and engagement re­ Sacks and Pikas, 2013). An injury not only affects the employee, but the
quirements for the precast concrete industry, and Virtual Reality (VR) employer as well.
helps to meet these two criteria. A variety of risks exist in a precast plant, such as dangers from sus­
VR technology has grown since 1990. VR initiated in media and grew pended loads, moving equipment, trips and falls, injures from improper
in interest through Hollywood science fiction movies, and even TV sit­ lifting, the stressing process, etc. (Hazards and Risks Associated with
coms (Bowman and McMahan, 2007). VR is now becoming a Manual Risk Handling in the workplace, 2006). In this industry, the
well-known training tool with many benefits, including no risks stressing process is done by placing high tensile steel tendons in the
involved, training in real-life scenarios, retention improvement, better desired profile to be cast into the concrete and tensioning them with a
employee engagement, and flexible training time (Nasios, 2002). hydraulic jack to a high load (30kip). This process is dangerous, and
Interaction, desirable but practical approach, breaking bounds of reality, though it is extremely rare, failures can occur. Employees must follow
and tangible settings are the four most important objectives for using VR safety protocols so that they are protected during these rare failures.
in training (Ryan, 2000). In this study, we propose a VR based training Safety training is a key to mitigate hazards and avoid injuries. OSHA
approach to conduct safety training in the precast/pre-stressed concrete has provided guidelines for safety training approaches (Takacs and
industry. Implementation of a VR based safety training approach is Simon, 2007; Su et al., 2013). NPCA, OSHA and PCI also have intro­
cost-effective as it only requires investing one time for the facility and duced various visual materials for training (National Precast Concrete
VR module development. It is also engaged because the participant will Association, 2008). These training procedures include printed material,
have a feeling of being in the “Virtual Plant” while wearing the VR video lectures, and onsite training. Onsite training is commonly used but
headset. This VR module is designed using the Unity3D and Visual is not the most efficient approach because it interferes with daily pro­
Studio joint platform. The developed VR module can be accessed using duction (Li et al., 2015; Zhao and Lucas, 2015). While printed material
Oculus Rift or Oculus Rift S. C# is the primary programming language and video are able to provide some visual understanding of risks and
used to build the module. safety protocols, due to a lack of engagement, they are not always as
This module provides training for three fundamental safety pro­ effective as onsite training. Hence, there is a need to develop a new
tocols: personal protective equipment, suspended loads, and the stress­ safety training approach to satisfy both cost-effective and real-world
ing process. Audible alarms in the plant, such as alarm/light indications representation requirements.
for suspended loads and alarms for the stressing process, can easily be
unheeded by employees while focusing on their normal routines and 2.2. Virtual Reality safety training module
tasks. The VR module provide experience to a new employee of a plant
setting, training them to become familiar with these audible alarms and Virtual Reality has drastically changed training practices during the
the hazards that they warn of in a no risk environment. In order to past decade. Some VR modules were milestones and great success
evaluate the performance of the proposed VR module, we applied two stories. For example, one of the most important implementations of VR
types of analysis: efficacy and effectiveness. Efficacy analysis includes is in phobia therapy, such as anthrophobia (Cohen et al., 2005; Choi
three measures: simulation sickness, system usability, and user experi­ et al., 2001), public transport phobia (Precast Specific Safety Rules,
ence, while effectiveness analysis compares the VR approach with 2020), and speech therapy (Goedert and Rokooei, 2016). Apart from
traditional approaches. Two groups of participants were recruited from helping subjects overcome their fears, it has been proven that VR has a
a college in the study. One group applied a traditional video training positive impact on personality (Benba et al., 2017). Other important
approach and the other group used the VR training approach. A post-test applications of VR include military training (Chen et al., 1999) and
was conducted to check their understandings of safety protocols. entertainment (Zyda, 2005; Schell and Shochet, 2001). Motivation and
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 dis­ replication of real-world stimuli are the properties of VR helping with
cusses the state of the art of this study, including two sections, one better understanding of a concept in a 3D environment (Chen et al.,
presents current safety training approaches for precast workers, and the 2011; Lucas et al., 2007). A high level of representation to real world
second section provides an overview of VR technology in training ap­ plays a significant role in ensuring the success of VR implementations.
plications. Section 3 states the research questions that motivate this Visual immersion is defined as ‘how close the system’s visual output is to
study. Section 4 provides a detailed description of the design and real-world visual stimuli’, so it may differ from person to person
development of the module. Section 5 discusses experimental design and (Bowman and McMahan, 2007; Goedert and Rokooei, 2016). Hence, this
data collection from the study. Efficacy and effectiveness analysis are representation is considered as one of the critical elements while
performed in Section 6. Section 7 explains conclusions and further work. designing a training or operation VR module. Various VR development
platforms have different effects on engagement levels which need to be
considered in VR module development (Waly and Thabet, 2003).
VR has been used in a variety of training settings. When the tasks to
be trained are dangerous in real life, a computer-generated reality can be
a useful alternative (Lucas et al., 2007). For example, surgeries have

2
S. Joshi et al. Applied Ergonomics 90 (2021) 103286

critical training issues. There are many risks involved in existing training measure the quality of learning (Deb et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019).
procedures. VR is capable of providing a great alternative in surgical These questionnaires are simulation sickness questionnaires (SSQ)
training. It improves the conceptual understanding of medical students (Kennedy and Fowlkes, 1992), the system usability scale (SUS) ques­
regarding surgical operations in a risk-free manner (Cohen et al., 2005). tionnaire (Brooke, 1996), and presence questionnaires (PQ) (Witmer
A project designed by Intel focuses on VR training solutions that will and Singer, 1998). While working in VR, it is possible that participants
supplement existing training tools (Bowman and McMahan, 2007). The will experience some level of simulation sickness. Using SSQ, simulation
project considers four important aspects of the business for Intel: prod­ sickness analysis provides a simulation sickness score. This score is used
uct development and engineering, sales, marketing, and training and to determine if the module is safe for further study, or if it will be
education. Product development uses VR assistance to consider a cus­ problematic. SUS helps determine user expectations from the developed
tomer’s opinion closely in on-going product development. A virtual VR module by using a system usability score. SUS helps with the un­
room gives customers experience of upcoming sales products. Training derstanding of the user’s overall experience with the module and
can be provided to students and employees worldwide at the same time whether or not it helped the user to reach the desired learning objec­
which is more effective in VR than conference calls and meetings. Intel tives. PQ is used to evaluate the user experience. This tool helps to un­
believed that VR would help reduce training costs, increase trainee derstand the satisfaction level of the participants after completing the
attention, motivate trainees, and increase training return on investment. training module.
A VR system is one of the most useful tools while analyzing volume After reviewing the relative studies, the following gaps are found:
visualization. In this case, volume visualization is referred to as a
graphical representation of objects or data sets in three dimensions. This 1) Most of the VR based training modules in the construction field
confirmed understanding of participants is proportional to the replica­ discuss operation procedures. However, to the best of our knowl­
tion of the situation in VR (Laha et al., 2012). edge, there is no safety training approach developed using VR in the
VR has also been employed in the mining industry. Beginning in precast industry.
2014, VR simulation was used to avoid accidents and fatalities in the 2) Although VR based training modules for construction workers are
coal mining industry, and it has been proven to be useful and productive. available, there are no studies that has studied the effectiveness and
The study not only discussed VR safety training for coal mining workers investigated efficacy of a VR module.
but also provided some exercises to enhance the understanding of safety
protocols (Pan et al., 2012). 3. Research questions
In extreme scenarios where real-life training is not feasible, VR
training is a great substitute. Safety knowledge of an aviation life pre­ The study aims to introduce an effective and innovative way to
server is one of them. It is important for airlines to understand how provide safety training for precast/pre-stressed employees. Efficacy
passengers may behave in an emergency. It is infeasible to develop a evaluation of a VR module uses three tools: SSQ, SUS, and PQ. Effec­
real-life training setting and VR training helps airlines understand safety tiveness assessment of a VR module uses two measures: motivation
protocols as real life scenarios without interrupting any on-site pro­ survey and knowledge gain. The following research questions represent
cedures (Chittaro et al., 2018). the study objective:
The implementation of VR in training and education settings is
promising. Compared to other 3D methods, VR requires fewer facilities. 1) Is the average SSQ score of the proposed VR safety training module
VR only requires the headset and virtual hands for operation of the within the acceptable range?
module (Park et al., 2016), while many 3D methods need additional 2) Is the average PQ score of the proposed VR safety training module
hardware for support, such as a keyboard, a mouse, and external de­ within the acceptable range?
vices. VR representation of the site and details included in training are 3) Is the average SUS score of the proposed VR safety training module
more efficient and reliable than traditional training methods such as within the acceptable range?
videos and on-paper training (Saleh and Pendley, 2012; Li et al., 2018). 4) Would the VR safety training module affect participants’ knowledge
Another advantage of VR over other systems is real-time stimuli (Haller gain in safety protocol?
et al., 1999). 5) Would the VR safety training module affect participants’ motivation
Construction training is the second largest application of VR after in learning safety protocol?
healthcare (Wang et al., 2018). Prior research has been conducted to use 6) Is there any difference between males and females in learning safety
game technologies to improve the training performance in construction protocols using the proposed VR module?
plants (Guo et al., 2012; Behm, 2005). These modules include many
activities on an interactive platform to help the trainee to understand 4. Virtual Reality safety training module
safety concerns while becoming familiar with construction plant oper­
ations (Li et al., 2011). Construction plant operations are further focused The primary goal of developing a VR safety training module should
on in the precast industry. Further study was conducted in 2014 to train be to help precast concrete employees gain knowledge of safety pro­
precast workers for the installation process (Yashrri and Hanizam, tocols in an effective way, which will then reduce the quantity and
2014). This study provided detailed information regarding safety in severity of accidents in a precast plant. This training module is devel­
Industrialized Building Systems using precast components, which lead oped using the Unity and Visual Studio joint platform. The primary
to zero accidents in Penang. Precast safety depends on the hazard programming language used is C#. The training module can be viewed
recognition capacity of workers. One study has been conducted for two and operated using Oculus Rift/Oculus s. To experience the developed
years where the objectives was to develop a high-fidelity VR environ­ virtual world, the participant will need to wear the Oculus headset.
ment that would help workers identify hazards more quickly and to Participants can navigate in the module using touch controllers. By
evaluate the effectiveness of the strategy used (Ma et al., 2016; Feng using the left controller, the participant can move forward and back­
et al., 2018). Results suggested that hazard recognition improved by ward, while the right controller helps to rotate 90◦ (Fig. 1a). Each
27% with this study. controller is represented as a virtual hand. These two virtual hands can
Several measures are used to evaluate the performance of a devel­ be used to perform tasks in the virtual world. The audio and visual in­
oped VR module. Measures used to identify the level of engagement of structions are provided whenever necessary. Fig. 1b shows the VR
the VR module are known as efficacy measures. Three efficacy measures module development hardware facility.
are used for this study: simulation sickness, system usability, and user The module includes four major parts: audio/video instructions,
experience. Questionnaires measuring efficiency are also designed to Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), suspended heavy loads, and the

3
S. Joshi et al. Applied Ergonomics 90 (2021) 103286

Fig. 1. a. VR headset and controllers; b. VR development facility.

stressing process. Below Fig. 2 presents these four parts. 4.3. Plant Overview, suspended loads and the stressing process

4.1. Audio/video instruction A precast plant is inherently a noisy and busy place. Due to the design
of the precast/prestressed concrete product itself and the requirements
The VR safety training module begins with a virtual employee of its production process, employees are occasionally exposed to hazards
standing outside a precast plant (Fig. 3). The participant is able to every day. Employees and equipment are constantly moving around the
control the virtual hands to experience the VR module contents. He/she plant (as shown in Fig. 5a). The participants must be aware of their
is instructed regarding navigation in the module. It is essential to go surroundings while navigating the plant environment. The visual in­
through an orientation to have an initial understanding of safety issues structions on the plant wall include informative videos for suspended
and job hazards before entering the plant. After entering the reception loads, the stressing process, and overall plant safety. The participant can
area of the plant, the participant is asked to enter a conference room to play these videos while exploring the plant. In addition to these videos,
receive orientation. The orientation video presents overall hazardous the participant is expected to answer questions while walking around
situations in the plant and an overview of the module. the plant using virtual hands (as shown in Fig. 5b).
Large concrete panels are the finished products of the precast plant
4.2. Personal protective equipment and are produced on casting forms known as beds. Overhead cranes or
travelling cranes (MiJacks) carry the finished panels from the beds and
After successful completion of the orientation, the participant can take them to the storage area (as shown in Fig. 5c). When the concrete
proceed to the plant. However, the plant door remains closed. In order to panels are lifted and being transported, the participant is strictly pro­
open the plant door, the participant needs to pick up all appropriate hibited from being around the crane and its suspended load. The crane
personal protective equipment using virtual hands. The primary purpose indicates this process is underway with specific audible and visual
of this module is to make employees aware of exactly which PPE is alarms that are activated when suspended loads are being carried. The
necessary before entering the plant. The participant needs to pick up all participant must stay a minimum of 10 feet away from the crane and the
the necessary PPE among all equipment assigned in the module (as suspended load being carried. If the participant moves too close to the
shown in Fig. 4). The essential PPE includes a hard hat, safety gloves, crane, he/she will be instructed to restart the module indicating failure
safety glasses, steel-toed boots, and earplugs. Audio indicators and a of this part of their safety training.
counting tool indicate if the appropriate PPE is being picked up. The The plant includes three casting beds. An alarm and a yellow flashing
audio indication differentiates the right PPE from the wrong. Once all light will indicate if one of the beds is conducting the stressing process.
the right PPE is picked up, the message on the wall will indicate that The participant needs to recognize that stressing is underway and avoid
“You May Enter.”, which indicates the participant has successfully walking into the stressing safety zone. If the participant enters the
completed this section. stressing safety zone, he/she will be asked to restart the module (as
shown in Fig. 5d), which notifies the participant of failure of this part of
their safety training. All of the audio and visual indications such as

Fig. 2. Vr safety training module Outline.

4
S. Joshi et al. Applied Ergonomics 90 (2021) 103286

Fig. 3. Environment overview.

controllers, and VR compatible computer with VR safety training

installed were the essential tools used to perform this experiment. Par­
ticipants were asked to wear the Oculus Rift headset and navigate using
touch controllers. Fig. 6 presents the experiment procedure.
Participants reported their feedback by answering questionnaires.
Questionnaires included pre and post-test knowledge, a motivational
survey, and efficacy measures. Pre and post-tests were used to analyze
the knowledge gain of participants in the two different groups. The
motivation survey indicated how much motivation was achieved
through each training method. Efficacy measures collected information
regarding the efficacy of the module, including SSQ, SUS, and PQ.
For the Video experiment group, nine were female and seven were
Fig. 4. Personal protection equipment. male, while for the VR group, eleven were female and five were male.
Initial data collection included a consent form and background ques­
videos, alarms, flashing lights, and voice instructions can be updated for tionnaires. Background questionnaires included gender, the partici­
each plant in a negligible amount of time as C# provides that flexibility. pant’s field of study, level of knowledge in VR, and race. According to
the background survey, none of the participants held an above average
5. Experimental design knowledge of the precast/prestressed industry, 87% of the VR partici­
pants had prior knowledge of VR, and only 31% of the participants had
5.1. Experimental setup prior knowledge of construction safety protocols.

Thirty-two students from Mississippi State University participated in

this experiment, including both graduate and undergraduate students. 5.2. The role of participants
Twenty of them were female and twelve were male. The participants
were further divided into two groups for the study purpose: The Video After checking in for participation, students were assigned to either
group and the VR group. Participants were randomly selected for the the VR group or the traditional training experiment group. This provided
experiment and randomly assigned to one of the groups. Sixteen stu­ randomness for the experiment. In the traditional training case, the
dents participated in the video experiment and another sixteen students student was assigned to the Video group; they were asked to fill out a
participated in the VR experiment. The Oculus Rift headset, touch video consent form, primary questionnaires, which included a back­
ground questionnaire, pre-test, and motivation questionnaires. Next

Fig. 5. a. Plant Overview; b. Practice Question; c. Suspended Loads; d. Stressing Process.

5
S. Joshi et al. Applied Ergonomics 90 (2021) 103286

Fig. 6. Experiment flow chart.

they were asked to watch 17 min of a PCI safety training video. They
Table 1
were asked to go through the video carefully, and then complete the rest
SSQ score conclusion.
of the questionnaires. These questionnaires were used to analyze their
understanding of the safety training content, how much knowledge they SSQ Score Overview

received and the amount of motivation and confidence they felt after 0 No Symptoms
completing the training. <5 Negligible symptoms
5~10 Minimal Symptoms
When a student was assigned to the VR group, they were asked to fill
10~15 Significant Symptoms
out similar preliminary questionnaires as the traditional training group 15~20 Symptoms are a Concern
did. Next, they were shown how to navigate and use the VR module in > 20 A Problem Simulator
order to participate in the safety training. Once participants started
navigating in the VR module, they followed the instructions and paths to
complete the VR training. They primarily needed to perform the tasks as The simulation sickness assessment provides a better understanding
shown in Fig. 7. of the VR module with respect to the experience of the participants. An
SSQ score above 20 indicates that the VR module is a problem simulator,
6. Efficacy and effectiveness analysis and immediate actions need to be taken. Table 2 represents the test
group’s assessment with respect to each symptom in the proposed VR
6.1. Efficacy analysis safety module. The overall score is 14.96, which means the developed
VR safety module has significant symptoms indicating the need for
Efficacy measures the quality of the design in a developed VR further modification, but that the module is still useful.
simulation (Deb et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019). Various questionnaire Based on the study conducted, the results indicate “safe” use of the
evaluation approaches are developed to analyze the quality of perfor­ VR module with respect to oculomotor disturbance, nausea and disori­
mance of the VR system. The most commonly used approaches are SSQ, entation. More than 70% of the participants reported negligible or no
SUS, and PQ. SSQ indicates the level of discomfort encountered by the symptoms for nausea and oculomotor disturbance and more than 40%
participants and has been used to determine if the VR module needs to reported negligible or no symptoms for disorentation. For the overall
be modified. SSQ measures sixteen symptoms and requires participants experiment, more than 50% of the participants reported negligible or no
to report the level of discomfort from 0 to 4 (0, 1, 2, and 3 being none, symptoms of simulation sickness.
slight, moderate, and severe, respectively). Symptoms are categorized The simulation sickness caused by this VR module is maintained at
for each of the discomfort levels caused by VR. Nausea (questions 1,6,7, the “acceptable” level. This study did not take too many efforts on
8,9,15,16) deals with symptoms related to gastrointestinal distress; oc­ investigating simulation sickness reduction, however, after the experi­
ulomotor disturbance (questions 1,2,3,4,5,9,11) indicates symptoms ments, we did ask a few questions relevant to the simulation sickness
related to visual observations such as eye strain and headache; and
disorientation (questions 5,8,10,11,12,13,14) indicates dizziness and
Table 2
vertigo. Each of these symptoms are estimated with their respective Simulation sickness study results.
scores, and the total score indicates if the module can cause problems
Symptoms Weights Scores Participants Indicating Negligible
overall. Each of the scores for symptoms are calculated by adding the
Simulation Sickness
question scores within each group and multiplying the sum by the
Nausea 9.54 23.32 70.4%
weights of the symptom. The weights for nausea, oculomotor distur­
Oculomotor 7.58 18.53 70.4%
bance, and disorientation are 9.54, 7.58, and 13.92, respectively. The Disturbance
total SSQ score is calculated by summing the group’s scores and multi­ Disorientation 13.9 42.79 40.7%
plying that total by the weight of 3.74. Table 1 represents conclusions Total 3.74 14.96 52%
corresponding to each possible score.

Fig. 7. Primary activities after wearing VR headset.

6
S. Joshi et al. Applied Ergonomics 90 (2021) 103286

impacts and reductions if the participants showed apparent symptoms. with a 5% level of significance to test the hypothesis of if male and fe­
For example, we asked the perceptions of impacts of navigation speed, male participants experience similar system usability. Results indicate
lightness, and color as suggested by several pertinent prior studies (Chen that for two-tailed tests (p-value 0.59) the hypothesis is accepted. Male
et al., 2016; So et al., 2001a, 2001b). The feedback shows that relative and female participants experience the same level of usability
slow navigation speed would have less headache and eye strain, but experience.
almost no impact on gastrointestinal distress; relative high-level light­ User experience evaluates the convenience of using the product.
ness and warm-toned color would lead to vertigo. Headache and eye Participants explain their experience through PQ (Kennedy and
strain are symptoms of oculomotor disturbance where vertigo is relative Fowlkes, 1992; Witmer and Singer, 1998). PQ provides an estimation for
to disorientation. These qualitative results confirmed the findings that the following experiences: involvement, immersion, visual fidelity,
navigation speed has significant influence on oculomotor disturbance interface quality, and sound. The questionnaire consists of twenty-two
(Chen et al., 2016). In addition, we recorded the experiment time for all questions with nine involvement questions (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,10,13), six
participants and the it ranges from 33mins to 52mins with a few with­ immersion questions (8,9,14,15,16,19), two visual fidelity questions
drew at the very beginning duo to significant symptom. The symptom (11,12), and three sound questions (20,21,22). Each question is rated on
participants are distributed in this time range randomly, which shows a 7-point scale (0–6). Summing all of the responses generates the PQ
that exposure time might be an influence factor in the beginning, but score, and the total score ranges from 0 to 114. The reported average
after a certain amount of time, it will not be a significant factor. score for the precast training VR module is 3.85. Out of five sub-scales,
Although these findings are derived based upon communication and above-average scores are reported for involvement, visual fidelity, and
qualitative analysis, they still can be used to support the future VR sound. Immersion and interface quality are reported as below average.
module development to reduce simulation sickness. Table 4 below show these observations. These factors should be
The most important factors to be considered are sample size and the addressed moving forward while improving the module.
experience of the participants. A sample size of 200 is considered an A pilot study in a precast plant was also conducted. The purpose of
effective sample size, especially when the sample is being divided in half this study was to investigate the impact of the module on professionals.
for the comparison of groups (Ma et al., 2019). Hence, results may be Fifty-one industry employees participated in this study. The data con­
stabilized by increasing the sample size from 32. Another factor is the sisted of five females and forty-six males. Six of the participants had
relevancy of the sample size. Expanding this study further to include average prior experience in VR, nine had little prior experience, and 36
participants from precast plants should provide more stabilized results. had no prior experience. The overall response provided by professionals
Using relevant participants in the study will be an effective test to confirmed that the VR module has the potential to engage new em­
determine how effective the VR module is compared to traditional ployees better than the traditional training methods. Higher engage­
training methods. ment will help individuals retain more information. This should reduce
System Usability is a measure to analyze expectations from the sys­ accidents and help lower turnover in the precast industry.
tem. SUS consists of 10 items (Ma et al., 2019; Brooke, 1996). Each
response scale ranges from 0 to 5 (0 being the lowest and 5 being the 6.2. Effectiveness analysis
highest). These items are questions worded positively or negatively. The
questions are divided into 2 groups: positively worded and negatively Effectiveness analysis consists of two evaluations: motivation and
worded. Seven questions are worded positively (1,2,3,4,5,7,9) and 3 are knowledge gain.
worded negatively (6,8,10). For the positively worded questions, scores
are calculated by subtracting 1 from the response. For a negatively 6.2.1. Motivation analysis
worded response, the score is subtracted from 5. The total SUS is ob­ The motivational questionnaires represent the motivation generated
tained by summing all of the responses and multiplying by 2.5. through different training methods. Fig. 8 summarizes the motivation
The System Usability score represents usability expectations from the results of the two training approaches.
VR module. A total SU score of 68+ suggests that users experienced A student’s t-test is used to test if the VR training method is signifi­
above-average satisfaction from the module. Table 3 represents the re­ cantly better than the video-based training method with respect to
sults for SUS performance reported by the test group. The total SUS is 64, motivation. The null and alternative hypotheses are listed below.
which is close to average. However, the participants scored above
average for all positively worded questions and two out of the three Ho. Motivation level achieved by the traditional video training
negatively worded questions. Further, a student’s t-test was conducted method is equal to the VR training method.
H1. The VR training method results in a higher motivation level than
Table 3 traditional video training method.
System usability results.
Table 5 represent the hypothesis test summary. There is sufficient
# Questions Average SD
evidence to reject the null hypothesis. It concludes that the VR training
Score
method results in a higher motivation level than the traditional training
1 I think that I would like to use this VR module to 4.4 0.6992 method. The level of motivation may be sensitive, and it may differ with
learn safety protocols.
the method of training used by employees. Further study needs to be
2 I want to use VR in other courses. 3.9 1.1972
3 I found this VR module was easy to use. 3.1 0.9944 conducted in order to confirm this hypothesis.
4 The VR modules helped me to establish the linkage 4.3 1.0593 To test the impact of gender on the motivation hypothesis, a chi-
between the protocols for safety and practice. square () test was performed on the collected data. A chi-square test
5 I found the various functions (e.g., sound, pictures, 3.7 1.0593
control) in this VR module were well-integrated.
6 I thought there was too much inconsistency in this 2.3 1.0593 Table 4
VR module. User experience.
7 I would imagine that most people would learn to use 3.5 1.4337
Sub-scales of PQ Items Average Score
this VR module very quickly.
8 I think I would need the support of a technical 3.6 1.1738 Involvement 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 10, 13 4.12
person to use this VR module. Immersion 8, 9, 14, 15, 16, 19 3.73
9 I felt very confident using this VR module. 2.3 1.3375 Visual Fidelity 11, 12 4.30
10 I should learn more VR base knowledge before I use 3.4 0.8433 Interface Quality 17, 18 2.60
the VR module. Sound 20, 21, 22 3.82

7
S. Joshi et al. Applied Ergonomics 90 (2021) 103286

Fig. 9. Knowledge gain test score.

The average score provided by all participants was 6. The data is

Fig. 8. Motivation survey results. divided into two groups for comparison of knowledge gain: number of
participants scores below 6 and number of participant scores above 6.
The first hypothesis to be tested is if the training method and level of
Table 5
knowledge gain are independent of each other. The chi-square test for
T-test hypothesis data summary.
independence of attributes is the most appropriate test to confirm this
Sample Size Sample Mean Sample S. D Test Statistics p-value hypothesis.
VR 16 56.69 9.41 2.91 0.003
Video 16 67.13 10.84
Ho. Training method and knowledge gain level from the training are
independent of each other.
H1. Training method and knowledge gain level from training methods
looks for the independence of attribute estimates and helps with un­
are dependent on each other.
derstanding if one of the attributes included in the study has any in­
fluence on the other attribute. The null and alternative hypothesis are The study (0.63, p-value 0.37) suggests that the null hypothesis
listed below. cannot be rejected. The training method is independent of the level of
score obtained by participants. Further, a one-tailed paired t-test is used
H0. Gender of the trainee and motivation level achieved are inde­
to confirm the extension of this hypothesis. For Video and VR, the
pendent factors.
following hypothesis is considered:
H1. Gender of the trainee and motivation level achieved are depen­
H0. Knowledge gain after safety training module is equal to the pre-
dent attributes.
training knowledge.
To perform this test, a contingency table (Table 6) is obtained from a
H1. Knowledge gain after safety training module is significantly higher
population group, where all members of the group are included in the
than the pre-training knowledge.
table as categorized. The methodology is estimated based on observed
frequencies and expected frequencies of each category (Zibran, 2007; This tests if the knowledge gain on average by the VR training
Biocca and Delaney, 1995). method is better than the traditional training method. Based on the re­
For the video training method (0.25, p-value 0.69), results indicate sults shown in Table 7 for VR and video, the hypothesis is rejected. Even
that the hypothesis cannot be rejected, and it can be said that the though the chi-square test has proven that there is a significant effect on
motivation achieved by participants is independent of their gender. In the knowledge level achieved due to the training method, the t-test
contrast, for the VR training method (3.14, p-value 0.0468), the hy­ cannot sufficiently prove that due to sample size.
pothesis will be rejected. It can be confirmed that gender plays a sig­ Another attribute to be considered is gender. This test evaluates
nificant role in the motivation gain of participants in the VR group. whether gender is independent from the level of score obtained by
participants.
6.2.2. Knowledge gain analysis
Ho. Knowledge gained by participants is independent of gender.
This questionnaire is designed to test the participant’s knowledge of
safety protocols following training. This questionnaire discusses H1. Knowledge gained by participants depends on gender.
different safety training protocols explained in both video and VR
A Chi-square test for independence of attributes resulted in accep­
training. Fig. 9 represents the knowledge gain level between partici­
tance of the hypothesis for VR (0.09, p-value 0.75) and the traditional
pants’ pre and post-module. Comparing pre-tests and post-tests results,
training method (0.58, p-value 0.45). Gender is independent from the
the minimum score of both the VR and Video groups was increased from
level of knowledge gained by participants regarding the safety protocols.
5 to 6 after the training has completed. The highest score reported by
Further, a similar t-test was used to check whether on average men
participants after training was completed came from the VR training
gained more experience compared to female participants. Due to the
group.
small sample size, the study does not provide any significant evidence to
support the hypothesis. All of the hypotheses are summarized in Table 8.
Table 6 Results of the analysis indicate that the participants gain more
Contingency table for chi-square. knowledge after training is completed in both cases. However, results
Below Avg Above Avg Total

Video Male 0 9 9 Table 7

Female 0 7 7 Paired t-test summary.
Total 0 16 16
Sample Size Test Statistics p-value
VR Male 0 6 6
Female 2 8 10 VR 16 − 1.05 0.16
Total 2 14 16 Video 16 0.65 0.26

8
S. Joshi et al. Applied Ergonomics 90 (2021) 103286

Table 8 results accept the hypothesis that both males and females reported the
Summary of hypothesis testing. same level of satisfaction for the usability study. The last measure
Tests Hypothesis p- Acceptance/ considered for this study tests the presence of participants during the
value Rejection of study. This study divides all of the factors which enhance the perfor­
Hypothesis mance of the VR module into five sub-scales. Involvement, visual fi­
1 Gender and motivation level are 0.0408 Rejected delity, and sound for the module resulted to be issue-free and proves the
independent (VR) efficiency of the module. Immersion and interface quality are less than
2 Gender and motivation level are 0.69 Fail to reject satisfactory. All of the above analyses may provide more accurate and
independent (Video)
3 Motivation level achieved by VR is 0.003 Fail to reject
unbiased results in the future when this study is conducted on a larger
greater than the traditional method number of participants or by utilizing participants from the precast/
4 Training method and knowledge gain 0.57 Fail to reject prestressed concrete industry in the study.
level are independent
5 Knowledge gain with the training 0.15 Fail to reject
6.3. VR implementation insight in the training
module is not significantly higher than
pre-existing knowledge (VR)
6 Knowledge gain with the training 0.26 Fail to reject In this subsection, we will discuss VR safety module development
module is not significantly higher than and its implementation based on the findings of this study. VR module
pre-existing knowledge (VR)
development is a systematic work which needs to involve plenty of
7 Gender and knowledge gain are 0.75 Fail to reject
independent attributes (VR)
considerations. One of the most important considerations in VR module
8 Gender and knowledge gain are 0.45 Fail to reject development is simulation sickness. According to the findings in this
independent attributes (Video) study and many other prior pertinent studies, we could summarize that
navigation velocity needs to be adjusted to a relative low level to avoid
oculomotor disturbance and virtual environment will need to be mid-
from knowledge gain tests reveal that the knowledge gained by the
level of lightness and neutral colors to prevent disorientation; for
traditional training method is lower than the knowledge gained by VR
some participants expose to virtual environment, if they feel severe
training methods. Statistical results indicate that there was no signifi­
uncomfortable in the beginning, then they need to withdraw immedi­
cant difference in the knowledge gain achieved by participants for
ately, otherwise, the uncomfortable feeling will reduce along with the
different training methods. However, according to the current sample
time.
size, the results show the better performance in VR training. In order to
The way of implementing VR training also needs to be considered
obtain more reliable results, more participants will be recruited in the
appropriately. VR is an innovative tool to perform risk and safety
future extension of the study. Utilizing a larger sample size may lead to a
training as it will not need participants to expose to the dangerous sit­
more informed decision in the future. Further tests can be conducted to
uations while experience the reality-like conditions. VR training is
see if gender and knowledge gain by participants have a dependent
usually better than traditional training methods in terms of training
relationship. In both training methods, results indicate that the knowl­
effectiveness, however, male might be more motivated than female in
edge gain by participants is independent of gender.
VR training which leads to higher retention for male workers. Therefore,
Motivation surveys are designed to understand and compare
in some male-dominated industries, VR training might be more suitable
different scenarios and test which situations or training methods moti­
and motivated.
vate participants towards some tasks. Referring to Table 1, test 3 sup­
ports the claim that the motivation level achieved by the VR training
7. Conclusion and future work
method is significantly higher than traditional training methods. This
can be further investigated if the module is better developed and more
The primary purpose of the module is to help new precast/pre-
sections of the safety training program are added. Higher motivation
stressed concrete industry employees understand safety protocols
leads to better achievement, helps achieve efficiency levels, and builds
more accurately and to avoid accidents compared to traditional training
stability in employee actions. In this case, higher motivation should lead
methods. The pilot study proves that participants have higher motiva­
to all of the above results in terms of safety. Employees will be more
tion after participating in the VR training method. Knowledge gain in the
efficient and stable in terms of safety protocols on the plant. Test 1
pilot study shows that the understanding of the participants differs for
(Table 1) checks if the gender and level of motivation achieved after
each training method. The majority of the participants reported a
training are independent for both studies. Motivation achieved by the
satisfactory experience in a usability study. The third efficiency measure
traditional training method is indifferent to the gender of the partici­
analyzed five sub-scales of presence. Out of five factors, involvement,
pants. However, the VR training method reports gender and motivation
visual fidelity, and sound are satisfactory. However, immersion and
level as dependent factors. Hence, it is concluded that male and female
interface quality can improve. The pilot study conducted in the precast
trainees will gain different level of motivation while participating in VR
plant indicates that this module has the potential to reduce the number
training method.
of accidents. Hence, including more safety modules in the future should
While VR is very useful for representing scenarios from real world,
be considered. Current module includes a few sample questions in the
the VR module needs to satisfy efficiency criteria. This includes if the
plant which participants can answer while experiencing the plant
module causes any simulation sickness, and if the user is comfortable
environment. Future studies plan to include some real-life situations in
using a VR environment. This leads to an improved level of under­
this virtual environment that will help participants understand how to
standing of the user in the module. If efficiency measures indicate any
react in a certain situation.
issues, the module needs to be improved. The results of the study show
However, this study itself has potential to be improved. The sample
that the majority of participants did not face any issues with simulation
size or number of participants involved in the study is small. If more
sickness while using the VR module. Usability experience indicates how
participants are included in the study, it will lead to more accurate re­
satisfactory was the performance that candidates reported. A SUS score
sults (Ma et al., 2019). The pilot study in the plant and the feedback
greater than 68 indicates a satisfactory Usability performance. The test
provided by participants support that the professional population will be
group results provide a total SUS of 64, which concludes that usability
more sensitive to the training method. The overall response provided by
experience reported by participants is below a satisfactory level. Other
professionals indicates that the VR module has the potential to engage
results regarding experience show that the positive and negative
and help new employees retain more information. This should reduce
wordings of questionnaires have an impact on this. A Student’s t-test
accidents and help lower turnover in the precast industry. Future

9
S. Joshi et al. Applied Ergonomics 90 (2021) 103286

research will continue to work on these limitations and modify the Laha, B., Sensharma, K., Schiffbauer, J.D., Bowman, D.A., 2012. Effects of immersion on
visual analysis of volume data. IEEE Trans. Visual. Comput. Graph. 18 (4), 597–606.
technique used. VR training can be expanded to teach other operations
Li, H., Guo, H.L., Skitmore, M., Huang, T., Chan, K.Y.N., Chan, G., 2011. Rethinking
in the plant in addition to the safety training such as the stressing prefabricated construction management using the VP-based IKEA model in Hong
process. Kong. Construct. Manag. Econ. 29 (3), 233–245.
Li, H., Lu, M., Chan, G., Skitmore, M., 2015. Proactive training system for safe and
efficient precast installation. Autom. ConStruct. 49, 163–174.
Funding source Li, X., Yi, W., Chi, H.L., Wang, X., Chan, A.P., 2018. A critical review of virtual and
augmented reality (VR/AR) applications in construction safety. Autom. ConStruct.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the research funding support 86, 150–162.
Lucas, J., Thabet, W., Worlikar, P., 2007. Using virtual reality (VR) to improve conveyor
from 2018-2019 Daniel P. Jenny Research Fellowship from the Precast/ belt safety in surface mining. In: 24th W78 Conference Maribor 2007 & 5th ITCEDU
Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI), USA. Workshop & 14th EG-ICE Workshop: Bringing ITC Knowledge to Work, pp. 431–438.
Ma, J., Tucker, C., Kremer, G.E., Jackson, K., 2016. Exposure to digital and hands-on
delivery modes in engineering design education and their impact on task completion
Declaration of competing interest efficiency. J. Integrated Des. Process Sci. 21 (2), 61–78.
Ma, J., Jaradat, R., Ashour, O., Hamilton, M., Jones, P., Dayarathna, V.L., 2019. Efficacy
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial investigation of virtual reality teaching module in manufacturing system design
course. J. Mech. Des. 141 (1).
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Murari, S.S., Joshi, A.M., 2019. Factors affecting labor productivity in precast
the work reported in this paper. construction industry. Proc. Fourth Natl. Conf. Road Infrastr. 2019 (ISBN: 978-93-
5367-163-1). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3370117.
Nasios, K., 2002. Improving Chemical Plant Safety Training Using Virtual Reality.
Acknowledgement Doctoral dissertation, University of Nottingham.
National Precast Concrete Association, 2008. Safety, precast magazines archive 2004-
The authors also gratefully acknowledge the following personnel for 2008. Retrieved from. https://precast.org/safety/.
National Precast Concrete Association, 2010. Risk assessment: a useful safety tool.
their valuable insights and generous data support: Tom Moore, Maria Precast magazines archive 2004-2008. Retrieved from. https://precast.org/201
White, and Isaac Perkins from Tindall Corporation; and Roger J Becker 0/05/risk-assessment-a-useful-safety-tool-risk-assessment-a-useful-safety-tool/.
(from PCI), Steve Brock, Nate Brooks (both from Gate Precast), and Tom Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2015. Training Requirements in OSHA
Standards. Administration OSHA. Retrived from. https://www.mdpi.com/1660
Beam (from High Concrete Industries). -4601/16/24/5005?utm_source=TrendMD&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign
=Int_J_Environ_Res_Public_Health_TrendMD_0.
References Pan, X.Y., Lu, Q., Zhang, Y., Yuan, L.F., Lu, X., 2012. Recycled concrete strength and
deformation performance tests in triaxial compressive state. J. Tianjin Inst. Urban
Constr. 18 (3), 174–178.
Behm, M., 2005. Linking construction fatalities to the design for construction safety
Park, C.S., Le, Q.T., Pedro, A., Lim, C.R., 2016. Interactive building anatomy modeling
concept. Saf. Sci. 43 (8), 589–611.
for experiential building construction education. J. Prof. Issues Eng. Educ. Pract. 142
Benba, A., Jilbab, A., Hammouch, A., 2017. Voice assessments for detecting patients with
(3), 04015019.
neurological diseases using PCA and NPCA. Int. J. Speech Technol. 20 (3), 673–683.
PCI Plant Certification Committee, 1999. Manual for Quality Control for Plants and
Biocca, F., Delaney, B., 1995. Immersive virtual reality technology. Commun. Age Virtual
Production of Structural Precast Concrete Products. Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Reality 15, 32.
Institute. Questionnaire. Presence vol. 7 (3), 225–240.
Bowman, B.D., McMahan, R.P., 2007. Virtual reality: how much immersion is enough?
Polat, G., 2008. Factors affecting the use of precast concrete systems in the United States.
IEEE Comput. Soc. 40 (7), 36–43. https://doi.org/10.1109/MC.2007.257.
J. Construct. Eng. Manag. 134 (3), 169–178.
Brooke, J., 1996. SUS-A quick and dirty usability scale. Usability Eval. Ind. 189 (194),
Precast Specific Safety Rules, 2020. Occupational safety and Health assessment.
4–7.
Retrieved from. http://www.ohioprecast.org/uploads/3/1/9/8/3198765/precas
Chen, J.X., Dede, C.J., Fu, X., Yang, Y., 1999. Distributed interactive learning
t_ppt.pdf.
environment, distributed interactive Simulation and real-time applications 1999. In:
Ryan, M.L., 2000. Narrative as Virtual Reality: Immersion and Interactivity in Literature
Proceedings. 3rd IEEE International Workshop on, pp. 49–56, 1999.
and Electronic Media, first ed. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Chen, Y.C., Chi, H.L., Hung, W.H., Kang, S.C., 2011. Use of tangible and augmented
Sacks, R., Pikas, E., 2013. Building information modeling education for construction
reality models in engineering graphics courses. J. Prof. Issues Eng. Educ. Pract. 137
engineering and management. I: industry requirements, state of the art, and gap
(4), 267–276.
analysis. J. Construct. Eng. Manag. 139 (11), 04013016.
Chen, D., Bao, B., Zhao, Y., So, R.H.Y., 2016. Visually induced motion sickness when
Saleh, J.H., Pendley, C.C., 2012. From learning from accidents to teaching about accident
viewing visual oscillations of different frequencies along the fore-and-aft axis:
causation and prevention: multidisciplinary education and safety literacy for all
keeping velocity constant versus amplitude constant. Ergonomics 59 (4), 582–590.
engineering students. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 99, 105–113.
Chittaro, L., Corbett, C.L., McLean, G.A., Zangrando, N., 2018. Safety knowledge transfer
Schell, J., Shochet, J., 2001. Designing Interactive Theme Park Rides, IEEE Computer
through mobile virtual reality: a study of aviation life preserver donning. Saf. Sci.
Graphics & Applications, July/Aug. 2001, pp. 11–13.
102, 159–168.
Schwarze, A., Kampling, H., Heger, O., Niehaves, B., 2019. Is virtual reality the future of
Choi, Y.H., Jang, D.P., Ku, J.H., Shin, M.B., Kim, S.I., 2001. Short-term treatment of
learning? A critical reflection. Proceedings of the 52nd Hawaii International Conference
acrophobia with virtual reality therapy (VRT). A case reports. Cyberpsychol. Behav. 4
on System Sciences, ISBN 978-0-9981331-2-6.
(3), 349–354.
So, R.H.Y., Lo, W.T., Ho, A.T.K., 2001a. Effects of navigation speed on motion sickness
Cohen, C.J., Hay, R., Urquhart, A., Gauger, P., Andreatta, 2005. A Modular Interactive
caused by an immersive virtual environment. Hum. Factors 43, 452–461.
Virtual Surgical Training Environment. Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation,
So, R.H.Y., Ho, A.T.K., Lo, W.T., 2001b. A proposed metric to quantify virtual scene
and Education Conference (I/ITSEC), 2005, p. 2074.
movement for the study of cybersickness: definition, implementation and
Deb, S., Carruth, D.W., Sween, R., Strawderman, L., Garrison, T.M., 2017. Efficacy of
verification. PRESENCE 10, 193–216.
virtual reality in pedestrian safety research. Appl. Ergon. 65, 449–460.
Su, X., Dunston, P.S., Proctor, R.W., Wang, X., 2013. Influence of training schedule on
Feng, Z., González, V.A., Amor, R., Lovreglio, R., Cabrera-Guerrero, G., 2018. Immersive
development of perceptual–motor control skills for construction equipment
virtual reality serious games for evacuation training and research: a systematic
operators in a virtual training system. Autom. ConStruct. 35, 439–447.
literature review. Comput. Educ. 127, 252–266.
Takacs, B., Simon, L., 2007. A clinical virtual reality rehabilitation system for phobia
Goedert, J.D., Rokooei, S., 2016. Project-based construction education with simulations
treatment. In: 2007 11th International Conference Information Visualization (IV’07).
in a gaming environment. Int. J. Construct. Educ. Res. 12 (3), 208–223.
IEEE, pp. 798–806.
Guo, H., Li, H., Chan, G., Skitmore, M., 2012. Using game technologies to improve the
United Stated Department of Labor, 2020. Accidents results search. Retrieved from.
safety of construction plant operations. Accid. Anal. Prev. 48, 204–213.
https://www.osha.gov/pls/imis/AccidentSearch.search?acc_keyword=%22Precast
Haller, M., Holm, R., Volkert, J., Wagner, R.A., 1999. VR based safety training in a
%22&keyword_list=on.
petroleum refinery. In: The 20th Annual Conf. Of the European Association of CG.
Waly, A.F., Thabet, W.Y., 2003. A virtual construction environment for preconstruction
Eurographics, Milano, Italy.
planning. Autom. ConStruct. 12 (2), 139–154.
Hazards and Risks Associated with Manual Risk Handling in the workplace, 2006.
Wang, P., Wu, P., Wang, J., Chi, H.L., Wang, X., 2018. A critical review of the use of
European agency for safety and Health at work. http://www.osha.mddsz.gov.si/reso
virtual reality in construction engineering education and training. Int. J. Environ.
urces/files/pdf/E-fact_14_-_Hazards_and_risks_associated_with_manual_handling_in_t
Res. Publ. Health 15 (6), 1204.
he_workplace.pdf.
Wang, Y., Ma, J., Kremer, G.E., Jackson, K., 2019. An investigation of effectiveness
Industry, P.C., Security Standards Council, 2014. Best Practices for Implementing a
differences between in-class and online learning: an engineering drawing case study.
Security Awareness Program. PCI DSS. October. Retrived from: Error! Hyperlink
Int. J. Interact. Des. Manuf. 13, 89–98.
reference not valid.
Witmer, B.G., Singer, M.J., 1998. Measuring presence in virtual environments: a presence
Keep Workers Safe at Heights, 2015. National precast concrete institution. Retrieved
questionnaire. MIT Press J., Presence: Virtual Augmented Reality 7 (3), 225–240.
from. https://precast.org/2015/01/keep-workers-safe-heights/.
Kennedy, R.S., Fowlkes, J.E., 1992. Simulator sickness is polygenic and
polysymptomatic: implications for research. Int. J. Aviat. Psychol. 2 (1), 23–38.

10
S. Joshi et al. Applied Ergonomics 90 (2021) 103286

Woksepp, S., Olofsson, T., 2007. Credibility and applicability of virtual reality models in Zhao, D., Lucas, J., 2015. Virtual reality simulation for construction safety promotion.
design and construction. Faculty of Civil Engineering. In: W78 Conference, vol. 1, Int. J. Inj. Contr. Saf. Promot. 22 (1), 57–67.
pp. 467–474. : 26/06/2007-28/06/2007. Zibran, M.F., 2007. Chi-squared Test of Independence. Department of Computer Science,
Yashrri, S.N., Hanizam, A., 2014. Safety assessment in installation of precast concrete. In: University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
MATEC Web of Conferences, vol. 10. EDP Sciences, 06001. Zyda, M., 2005. From visual simulation to virtual reality to games. IEEE Comput. Xplore
Digital Library 38 (9), 25–32.

11