STEEL BUILDINGS IN EUROPE

Single-Storey Steel Buildings

Part 3: Actions
Single-Storey Steel Buildings
Part 3: Actions
3 - ii
Part 3: Actions

FOREWORD
This publication is part three of a design guide, Single-Storey Steel Buildings.

The 10 parts in the Single-Storey Steel Buildings guide are:

Part 1: Architect’s guide
Part 2: Concept design
Part 3: Actions
Part 4: Detailed design of portal frames
Part 5: Detailed design of trusses
Part 6: Detailed design of built up columns
Part 7: Fire engineering
Part 8: Building envelope
Part 9: Introduction to computer software
Part 10: Model construction specification
Part 11: Moment connections

Single-Storey Steel Buildings is one of two design guides. The second design guide is
Multi-Storey Steel Buildings.

The two design guides have been produced in the framework of the European project
“Facilitating the market development for sections in industrial halls and low rise
buildings (SECHALO) RFS2-CT-2008-0030”.

The design guides have been prepared under the direction of Arcelor Mittal, Peiner
Träger and Corus. The technical content has been prepared by CTICM and SCI,
collaborating as the Steel Alliance.

3 - iii
Part 3: Actions

3 - iv
Part 3: Actions

Contents
Page No
FOREWORD iii
SUMMARY vi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 SAFETY PHILOSOPHY ACCORDING TO EN 1990 2
2.1 General format of the verifications 2
2.2 Ultimate limit states and serviceability limit states 2
2.3 Characteristic values and design values of actions 3
3 COMBINATIONS OF ACTIONS 4
3.1 General 4
3.2 ULS combinations 4
3.3 SLS combinations 6
4 PERMANENT ACTIONS 8
5 CONSTRUCTION LOADS 9
6 IMPOSED LOADS 10
6.1 General 10
6.2 Actions induced by cranes according to EN 1991-3 10
6.3 Horizontal loads on parapets 15
7 SNOW LOADS 16
7.1 General 16
7.2 Methodology 16
8 WIND ACTIONS 22
8.1 General 22
8.2 Methodology 22
8.3 Flowcharts 31
9 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE 32
REFERENCES 33
Appendix A Worked Example: Snow load applied on a single-storey building 35
Appendix B Worked Example: Wind action on a single-storey building 45

3-v
Part 3: Actions

SUMMARY
This document provides guidelines for the determination of the actions on a
single-storey building according to EN 1990 and EN 1991. After a short description of
the general format for limit state design, this guide provides information on the
determination of the permanent loads, the variable actions and the combinations of
actions. The determination of the snow loads and the calculation of the wind action are
described and summarized in comprehensive flowcharts. Simple worked examples on
the snow loads and the wind action are also included.

3 - vi
 Part 3: Actions

1 INTRODUCTION

This guide provides essential information on the determination of the design

actions on a single-storey building. It describes the basis of design with
reference to the limit state concept in conjunction with the partial factor
method, according to the following parts of the Eurocodes:

EN 1990: Basis of structural design[1].

EN 1991: Actions on structures
- Part 1-1: General actions – Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for
buildings[2].
- Part 1-3: General actions – Snow loads[3]
- Part 1-4: General actions – Wind actions[4]
- Part 1-5: General actions – Thermal actions[5]
- Part 3: Actions induced by cranes and machinery.[6]

The guide is a comprehensive presentation of the design rules applied to

single-storey buildings with reference to the appropriate clauses, tables and
graphs of the Eurocodes.

Additional information can be found in the references [7][8].

3-1
 Part 3: Actions

2 SAFETY PHILOSOPHY ACCORDING TO

EN 1990

2.1 General format of the verifications

A distinction is made between ultimate limit states (ULS) and serviceability
limit states (SLS).

The ultimate limit states are related to the following design situations:
Persistent design situations (conditions of normal use)
Transient design situations (temporary conditions applicable to the
structure, e.g. during execution, repair, etc.)
Accidental design situations (exceptional conditions applicable to the
structure)
Seismic design situations (conditions applicable to the structure when
subjected to seismic events). These events are dealt within EN 1998[9], and
are outside the scope of this guide.

The serviceability limit states concern the functioning of the structure under
normal use, the comfort of people and the appearance of the construction.

The verifications shall be carried out for all relevant design situations and load
cases.

2.2 Ultimate limit states and serviceability limit states

2.2.1 Ultimate limit states (ULS)
The states classified as ultimate limit states are those that concern the safety of
people and /or the safety of the structure. The structure shall be verified at ULS
when there is:
Loss of equilibrium of the structure or any part of it (EQU)
Failure by excessive deformation, rupture, loss of stability of the structure
or any part of it (STR)
Failure or excessive deformation of the ground (GEO)
Failure caused by fatigue or other time-dependent effects (FAT).

2.2.2 Serviceability Limit States (SLS)

The structure shall be verified at SLS when there is:
Deformations that affect the appearance, the comfort of users or the
functioning of the structure
Vibrations that cause discomfort to people or that limit the functional
effectiveness of the structure
Damage that is likely to adversely affect the appearance, the durability or
the functioning of the structure.

3-2
 Part 3: Actions

2.3 Characteristic values and design values of

actions
2.3.1 General
Actions shall be classified by their variation in time as follows:
Permanent actions (G), e.g. self-weight of structures, fixed equipment, etc.
Variable actions (Q), e.g. imposed loads, wind actions, snow loads, etc.
Accidental actions (A), e.g. explosions, impact from vehicles, etc.

Certain actions may be considered as either accidental and/or variable actions,

e.g. seismic actions, snow loads, wind actions with some design situations.

2.3.2 Characteristic values of actions

The characteristic value (Fk) of an action is its principal representative value.
As it can be defined on statistical bases, it is chosen so as to correspond to a
prescribed probability of not exceeding on the unfavourable side, during a
‘reference period’ taking into account the design working life of the structure.

These characteristic values are specified in the various Parts of EN 1991.

2.3.3 Design values of actions

The design value Fd of an action F can be expressed in general terms as:
Fd = f Fk
where:
Fk is the characteristic value of the action
f is a partial factor for the action
is either 1,00, 0, 1 or 2

2.3.4 Partial factors

Partial factors are used to verify the structures at ULS and SLS. They should be
obtained from EN 1990 Annex A1, or from EN 1991 or from the relevant
National Annex.

2.3.5 factors
In the combinations of actions, factors apply to variable actions in order to
take into account the reduced probability of simultaneous occurrence of their
characteristic values.

The recommended values for factors for buildings should be obtained from
EN 1990 Annex A1 Table A1.1, or from EN 1991 or from the relevant
National Annex.

3-3
 Part 3: Actions

3 COMBINATIONS OF ACTIONS

3.1 General
The individual actions should be combined so as not to exceed the limit state
for the relevant design situations.

Actions that cannot occur simultaneously, e.g. due to physical reasons, should
not be considered together in a same combination.

Depending on its uses and the form and the location of a building, the
combinations of actions may be based on not more than two variable actions –
See Note 1 in EN 1990 § A1.2.1(1). The National Annex may provide
additional information.

3.2 ULS combinations

3.2.1 Static equilibrium
To verify a limit state of static equilibrium of the structure (EQU), it shall be
ensured that:
Ed,dst Ed,stb
where:
Ed,dst is the design value of the effect of destabilising actions
Ed,stb is the design value of the effect of stabilising actions

3.2.2 Rupture or excessive deformation of an element

To verify a limit state of rupture or excessive deformation of a section, member
or connection (STR and/or GEO), it shall be ensured that:
Ed Rd
where:
Ed is the design value of the effect of actions
Rd is the design value of the corresponding resistance
Each combination of actions should include a leading variable action or an
accidental action.

3.2.3 Combinations of actions for persistent or transient design

situations
According to EN 1990 § 6.4.3.2(3), the combinations of actions can be derived
either from expression (6.10) or from expressions (6.10a and 6.10b –
whichever is more onerous). The choice between these two sets of expressions
may be imposed by the National Annex.

In general, expression (6.10) is conservative in comparison to the pair of

expressions (6.10a and 6.10b), but it leads to a reduced number of
combinations to consider.

3-4
 Part 3: Actions

Permanent Leading Accompanying

actions variable action variable actions

G, jGk, j 0, iQk, i
Ed = + Q,1Qk,1 + Q, i (6.10)
j 1 i 1

Ed = G, jGk, j + Qk,1 + Q, i 0, iQk, i (6.10a)

0,1 Q,1
j 1 i 1

Gk, j 0, iQk, i
Ed = G, j + Q,1Qk,1 + Q, i (6.10b)
j 1 i 1

Gk and Qk are found in EN 1991 or its National Annex.

G and Q are found in Table A1.2(A) for static equilibrium (EQU);

Tables A1.2(B) and A1.2(C) for rupture (STR and/or GEO) of EN 1990 or in
the National Annex. Table 3.1 gives the recommended values of the partial
factors.

Table 3.1 Recommended values of partial factors

Table
Limit state Gj,inf Gj,sup Q,1 = Q,I Q,1 = Q,I
(EN 1990)

A1.2(A) EQU 0,90 1,10 1,50 1,50

A1.2(B) STR/GEO 1,00 1,35 1,50 1,50
A1.2(C) STR/GEO 1,00 1,00 1,30 1,30

0 factors are found in EN 1990 Table A1.1 or in its National Annex. This
factor varies between 0,5 and 1 except for roofs of category H ( 0 = 0).

ξ is a reduction factor for permanent loads. According to EN 1990

Table A1.2(B), the recommended value for buildings is ξ = 0,85. The National
Annex may specify a different value.

For example, according to expression 6.10:

1. With snow as the leading variable action:
Ed = 1,35 G + 1,5 S + (1,5 0,6) W = 1,35 G + 1,5 S + 0,9 W

2. With wind as the leading variable action:

Ed = 1,35 G + 1,5 W + (1,5 0,5) S = 1,35 G + 1,5 W + 0,75 S

3.2.4 Combinations of actions for accidental design situations

Combinations of actions for accidental design situations should either involve
an explicit accidental action or refer to a situation after an accident event.

Permanent Accidental Leading variable Accompanying

actions action action variable actions

Gk, j ( or 2,1 )
0, iQk, i
1,1
Ed = + Ad + + Q, i
j 1 Qk,1 i 1

3-5
 Part 3: Actions

The choice between 1,1Qk,1 or 2,1Qk,1 should be related to the relevant

accidental design situation. Guidance is given in EN 1990 or in the National
Annex to EN 1990.

3.3 SLS combinations

3.3.1 Serviceability Limit State
To verify a serviceability limit state, it shall be ensured that:

Ed Cd
where:
Ed is the design value of the effects of actions specified in the
serviceability criterion,
Cd is the limiting design value of the relevant serviceability criterion.

3.3.2 Characteristic combination

The characteristic combination is normally used for irreversible limit states.

Permanent Leading Accompanying

actions variable action variable actions
Gk, j Qk,1 0, iQk, i
Ed = + +
j 1 i 1

For example:
Ed = G + S + 0,6 W

Ed = G + W + 0,5 S

3.3.3 Frequent combination

The frequent combination is normally used for reversible limit states.

Permanent Leading Accompanying

actions variable action variable actions
Gk, j 2,iQk,i
Ed = + 1,1Qk,1 +
j 1 i 1

For example:

Ed = G + 0,2 S ( 2 = 0 for the wind action)

Ed = G + 0,2 W ( 2 = 0 for the snow load)

3-6
 Part 3: Actions

3.3.4 Quasi-permanent combination

The quasi-permanent combination is normally used for long-term effects and
the appearance of the structure.
Permanent Variable
actions actions
Gk, j 2,iQk,i
Ed = +
j 1 i 1

For example:
Ed = G (since 2 = 0 for both the wind action and the snow load)

3-7
 Part 3: Actions

4 PERMANENT ACTIONS

The self-weight of construction works is generally the main permanent load. It

should be classified as a permanent fixed action. In most cases, it should be
represented by a single-characteristic value.

The total self-weight of structural and non-structural members, including fixed

services, should be taken into account in combinations of actions as a single
action.

Non-structural elements include roofing, surfacing and coverings, partitions

and linings, hand rails, safety barriers, parapets, wall claddings, suspended
ceilings, thermal insulation, fixed machinery and all fixed services (heating,
ventilating, electrical and air conditioning equipment, pipes without their
contents, cable trunking and conduits).

The characteristic values of self-weight should be defined from the dimensions

and densities of the elements.

Values of densities of construction materials are provided in EN 1991-1-1

Annex A (Tables A.1 to A.5).

For example:
Steel: = 77,0 to 78,5 kN/m3

Aluminium: = 27,0 kN/m3

For manufactured elements (façades, ceilings and other equipment for

buildings), data may be provided by the manufacturer.

3-8
 Part 3: Actions

5 CONSTRUCTION LOADS

EN 1991-1-6 gives rules for the determination of the actions during execution.
Verifications are required for both serviceability limit states and ultimate limit
states.

Table 4.1 defines construction loads that have to be taken into account:
Personnel and hand tools (Qca)
Storage of movable items (Qcb)
Non permanent equipment (Qcc)
Moveable heavy machinery and equipment (Qcd)
Accumulation of waste material (Qce)
Loads from parts of structure in a temporary state (Qcf).

Recommended values are provided in the same table but values may be given
in the National Annex.

In single-storey buildings, an example of construction load would be the

weight of cladding bundles on the structure prior to fitting.

3-9
 Part 3: Actions

6 IMPOSED LOADS

6.1 General
Generally, imposed loads on buildings shall be classified as variable actions.
They arise from occupancy. They include normal use by persons, furniture and
moveable objects, vehicles, anticipating rare events (concentrations of persons
or of furniture, momentary moving or stacking of objects, etc.). Movable
partitions should be treated as imposed loads.

Imposed loads are represented by uniformly distributed loads, line loads or

point loads applied on roofs or floors, or a combination of these loads.

Floor and roof areas in buildings are sub-divided into categories according to
their use (EN 1991-1-1 Table 6.1). The characteristic values qk (uniformly
distributed load) and Qk (concentred load) related to these categories are
specified in EN 1991-1-1 Table 6.2 or in the relevant National Annex.

For the design of a single floor or a roof, the imposed load shall be taken into
account as a free action applied at the most unfavourable part of the influence
area of the action effects considered.

For imposed loads for floors and accessible roofs, the characteristic value qk
may be multiplied by reduction factors due to the loaded area and the number
of storeys (EN 1991-1-1 § 6.3.1.2). More information is provided in Section 6
of Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 3: Actions[10].

Characteristic values of imposed loads are specified in EN 1991-1-1

Section 6.3 as follows:
6.3.1 Residential, social, commercial and administration areas

6.3.2 Areas for storage and industrial activities

6.3.3 Garages and vehicle traffic areas

6.3.4 Roofs.

6.2 Actions induced by cranes according to

EN 1991-3
6.2.1 General
Most industrial buildings have to be equipped with handling devices to allow
movement and carriage of loads through the building. A typical crane used in
industrial buildings is shown in Figure 6.1 with the main technical terms.

One of the convenient solutions is the installation of cranes. The structure is

subject to loads acting both vertically and laterally. Such actions can become
the dominant ones for the structure.

3 - 10
 Part 3: Actions

The determination of the actions induced by cranes is complex, as they include

many parameters such as:
Weight of the crane and safe working load
Stiffness of both the crane structure and the runway girders
Speed and acceleration of the crane
Design of the crane (wheel drives, guidance systems, etc.).
The characteristics of the crane generally have to be supplied by the crane
manufacturers.
7
1

7
7

8
7 6

1 Axis of wheels 5 motor drive unit

2 Bogies 6 Hook
3 Main girders of the crane 7 Axes of runway beams
4 Crab 8 Axis of track wheels

Figure 6.1 Main components of a crane

The relevant standard which specifies these actions is EN 1991-3 ‘Actions on

structures – Actions induced by cranes and machinery’.

The variable crane actions are separated into:

Variable vertical crane actions caused by self weight of the crane and the
hoist load
Variable horizontal actions caused by acceleration or deceleration or by
skewing or other dynamic effects.

6.2.2 Vertical actions

Vertical actions include dead loads (self weight of the crane, safe working load,
hook block, etc.)

The distribution of these dead loads is generally assumed on the basis of

simply supported beams, considering both the main girders and the secondary
beams over the bogies.

Two positions of the crab are generally considered to obtain the worst load
arrangement on the crane runway: crab located in the middle of the crane span
or crab located at the minimum distance of hook approach from the runway.

3 - 11
 Part 3: Actions

Considering both crab positions leads to the maximum and minimum loads per
wheel acting on the crane runway.

An eccentricity of application for these loads, generally taken as ¼ of the rail

head, also has to be considered.

In order to consider some features such as impact of wheels at rail joints, wear
of rail and wheels, release or lifting of the working load etc., dynamic factors
are applied to the above static action values.

For vertical action, the dynamic factors are called 1 to 4 (refer to Table 2.4 of
EN 1991-3).

6.2.3 Horizontal actions

The following types of horizontal forces should be taken into account:
Horizontal forces caused by acceleration and deceleration of the crane in
relation to its movement along the runway beams
Horizontal forces caused by acceleration and deceleration of the crab in
relation to its movement along the crane bridge
Horizontal forces caused by skewing of the crane in relation to its
movement along the runway beam
Buffer forces related to crane movement
Buffer forces related to movement of the crab.

Only one of the 5 types of the above horizontal forces should be considered at
the same time. The third one is generally assumed to be covered by the fifth
one. The two last ones are considered as accidental forces.

The following details considering the first two types are generally those that
lead to dimensioning configurations for the crane runway:
1. Forces that result from acceleration and deceleration of the crane
along its crane way.
They act at the contact surface between the rail and the wheel. They have to
be amplified by a dynamic factor 5 (see Table 2.6 of EN 1991-3) whose
value may vary from 1,0 to 3,0, the value 1,5 being generally relevant.
These forces consist of longitudinal forces (K1 and K2) and transverse
forces (HT,1 and HT,2) as shown in Figure 6.2.
The longitudinal forces correspond to the resultant drive force K; such force
must be transmitted through the driven wheels without skidding even when
the crane carries no working load.
The resultant of the drive force does not pass through the centre of mass
‘S’, generating a couple that causes a skewing moment each time the crane
accelerates or brakes. This moment is distributed on each runway according
to their distance from the centre of mass.

3 - 12
Part 3: Actions

1 2
HT,1 HT,2

S
M
HT,1 HT,2

ls
3 K=K1+K2 3
K1 K2
1l 2l

1 Rail
2 Rail
3 Driven wheels

Figure 6.2 Acceleration forces

2 Forces that result from skewing of the crane in relation to its

movement along the runway beam
The forces described hereunder are due to the oblique travel of the crane
when it assumes a skew position, for any reason, and then continues
obliquely until the guidance mean comes in contact with the side of the rail.
The lateral force on the side of the rail increases to reach a peak value ‘S’;
due to the action of this force, the crane returns to its proper course, at least
temporarily.
Guidance systems can be either specific guide roller or the flanges of the
track wheels.
The calculation of the corresponding forces depends on the type of drive
system (drive units without synchronisation of the driven track wheels or
central drive unit coupled to the wheels), the fixing of wheels according to
lateral movement and the location of the instantaneous centre of rotation.

Forces resulting from skewing consist of longitudinal and transverse forces

such as indicated in Figure 6.3.

These loads act at each wheel (HS,i,j,k) and a guide force S (also called steering
force) acts at the guidance system.

In the forces HS,i,j,k the indexes refer to:

S for ‘skewing’
i for beam runway
j for wheel pair (the number 1 refers to the farthest from the centre of
rotation)
k for direction of the force, L if acting longitudinally or T if acting
transversally.
The force S equilibrates the sum of the transverse forces.

3 - 13
 Part 3: Actions

i=1 i=2

x
2
1

ej
aext
h
HS,1,j,T j HS,2,j,T
HS,1,j,L HS,2,j,L 1 Guidance system
2 Direction of motion
3 Instantaneous centre of
x
rotation
y
3 is the skew angle
i = Rails
1l 2l
1 j = Pairs of wheels
i=1 i=2

j=1 HS,1,1,T S HS,2,1,T

4

j=2 HS,1,2,T HS,2,2,T

5

6
HS,1,2,L HS,2,2,L

Figure 6.3 Forces resulting from skewing

6.2.4 Other loads or forces

To give an overall picture of the loads induced by cranes, it is necessary to
mention:

1. The wind actions on the structure of the crane and on the payload
The wind is generally considered at a speed of 20 m/s if considered together
with the payload (external use).
2. Test loads
- Dynamic test load: at least 110% of the nominal hoist load, amplified by
a dynamic factor 6 (see EN 1991-3 §2.10 (4)).
- Static test load: at least 125% of the nominal hoist load without dynamic
factor.

3. Accidental forces
- Tilting force: when the load or lifting attachments collides with an
obstacle.
- And if relevant: Mechanical failure (failure of a single brake, wheel axle
failure, etc.).

3 - 14
 Part 3: Actions

6.2.5 Multiple crane action

There is often more than one crane in one building; they can move either on the
same runway or on several levels in a same bay or in multi-bay buildings.

Multiple cranes have to be considered in the most unfavourable position for:

The crane runway
The supporting structure.

Table 6.1 Recommended maximum number of cranes to be considered in

the most unfavourable position
Cranes to Cranes in each Cranes in
each runway shop bay multi-bay buildings

Crane action
Vertical 3 4 4 2
Horizontal 2 2 2 2

For horizontal crane actions, it is acceptable to limit the number of cranes

acting with their payload to two; for vertical actions, the number of cranes
varies from two to four.

The cranes which are unloaded have nevertheless to be considered, if

unfavourable.

6.3 Horizontal loads on parapets

The characteristic values of the line loads qk acting at the height of the partition
walls or parapets but not higher than 1,20 m should be taken from EN 1991-1-1
Table 6.12 or from the National Annex.

3 - 15
 Part 3: Actions

7 SNOW LOADS

7.1 General
This document gives guidance to determine the values of loads due to snow to
be used for a typical single-storey building according to EN 1991-1-3. The
design procedure is summarized in a flowchart (Figure 7.5). A worked example
dealing with the determination of the snow loads on a single-storey building is
given in Appendix A.

The guidance does not apply to sites at altitudes above 1500 m (unless
otherwise specified).

Snow loads shall be classified as variable, fixed actions, unless otherwise

stated in EN 1991-1-3. For particular conditions like exceptional snow loads
and/or loads due to exceptional snow drifts, they may be treated as accidental
actions depending on geographical locations.

Snow loads should be classified as static actions.

Two design situations may need to be considered:

Transient/persistent situation should be used for both the undrifted and
drifted snow load arrangements for locations where exceptional snow falls
and exceptional snow drifts are unlikely to occur.
Accidental design situation should be used for geographical locations where
exceptional snow falls and/or exceptional snow drifts are likely to occur.
The National Annex may define which design situation to apply.

7.2 Methodology
7.2.1 Snow load on the ground
Different climatic conditions will give rise to different design situations. The
possibilities are:
Case A: Normal case (non exceptional falls and drifts)
Case B1: Exceptional falls and no exceptional drifts
Case B2: Exceptional drift and no exceptional falls (in accordance with
EN 1991-1-3 Annex B)
Case B3: Exceptional falls and exceptional drifts (in accordance with
EN 1991-1-3 Annex B)
The National Authority may choose the case applicable to particular locations
for their own territory.

The National Annex specifies the characteristic value sk of snow load on the
ground to be used.

3 - 16
 Part 3: Actions

For locations where exceptional snow loads on the ground can occur, they may
be determined by:
sAd = Cesl sk
where:
sAd is the design value of exceptional snow load on the ground for the
given location
Cesl is the coefficient for exceptional snow loads (the recommended value
is = 2,0)
sk is the characteristic value of snow load on the ground for the given
location.
The National Annex may recommend another value of Cesl, or the design value
of exceptional snow load on the ground sAd.

7.2.2 Snow load on roofs

The load acts vertically and refers to a horizontal projection of the roof area.
Snow can be deposited on a roof in many different patterns.

Two primary load arrangements shall be taken into account:

Undrifted snow load on roofs
Drifted snow load on roofs.

Snow loads on roofs are derived from the snow loads on the ground,
multiplying by appropriate conversion factors (shape, exposure and thermal
coefficients). They shall be determined as follows:
Persistent (conditions of normal use)/transient (temporary conditions)
design situations:
s= i Ce Ct sk
Accidental (exceptional conditions) design situations where exceptional
snow load is the accidental action:
s= i Ce Ct sAd
Accidental design situations where the accidental action is the exceptional
drift and where EN 1991-1-3 Annex B applies:
s= i sk

where:
i is the snow shape coefficient. It depends on the angle of pitch of roof
(Table 6.1)
Ce is the exposure coefficient (Ce = 1,0 is the default value)
Ct is the thermal coefficient (Ct 1; Ct = 1,0 is the default value).

The National Annex may give the conditions of use for Ce and Ct.

3 - 17
Part 3: Actions

Table 7.1 Snow load shape coefficients

Angle of pitch of roof 0° 30° 30° < < 60° 60°
1 0.8 0.8 (60 – )/30 0
2 0.8 + 0.8 /30 1.6 -

These values 1 and 2 apply when the snow is not prevented from sliding off
the roof (no snow fences or other obstructions like parapets). If obstructions
exist, the snow load shape coefficient should not be reduced below 0.8.

The snow load shape coefficient that should be used for monopitch roofs is
shown in Figure 7.1, where 1 is given in Table 7.1.

The load arrangement should be used for both the undrifted and drifted load
arrangements.

1( )

Figure 7.1 Snow load shape coefficient – Monopitch roof

The snow load shape coefficients that should be used for pitched roofs are
shown in Figure 7.2, where 1 is given in Table 7.1.
Case (i) corresponds to the undrifted load arrangement.
Cases (ii) and (iii) correspond to the drifted load arrangements.

(i)

(ii) 0,5 )

(iii) )

1 2

(i) Undrifted load arrangement

(ii) and (iii) Drifted load arrangement

Figure 7.2 Snow load shape coefficient – Pitched roof

3 - 18
Part 3: Actions

The snow load shape coefficients that should be used for multi-span roofs are
shown in Figure 7.3, where 1 and 2 are given in Table 7.1.

Case (i) corresponds to the undrifted load arrangement.

Case (ii) corresponds to the drifted load arrangement.

1 ( 2) 1 ( 1) 1 ( 2)
(i)

2 [( 1+ 2)/2]
1 ( 1) 1 ( 2)
(ii)

1 2 1 2

(i) Undrifted load arrangement

(ii) Drifted load arrangement

Figure 7.3 Snow load shape coefficient – Multi-span roof

The snow load shape coefficients that should be used for roofs abutting to taller
construction works are shown in Figure 7.4, where 1, 2, s, w are given by
the following expressions:
1 = 0,8 This value assumes that the lower roof is flat. If it is not, a
specific study should be carried out by taking into account the
direction of the slope.
2 = s + w

where:
s is the snow shape coefficient due to sliding of snow from the upper
roof.
For 15°, s =0
For > 15°, s = half the snow load on the adjacent slope of the
upper roof
w is the snow load shape coefficient due to wind
w = (b1 + b2)/2h with w h / sk
And the recommended range is (it may be given in the National
Annex):
0,8 w 4
b1, b2 and h are defined in Figure 7.4
is the weight density of snow for this calculation (2 kN/m3)

3 - 19
 Part 3: Actions

ls is the drift length determined as :

ls = 2 h
The recommended limits of the drift length are (they may be given in the
National Annex):

5m ls 15 m

If b2 < ls, the coefficient 2 is truncated at the end of the lower roof.

The cases (i) corresponds to with the undrifted load arrangement.

The cases (ii) corresponds to with the drifted load arrangements.

(i) 1 (i) 1

s s
(ii) 2
w (ii) 2
w
1

ls ls

h h

b1 b2 b1 b2 < ls

Figure 7.4 Snow load shape coefficient – Roofs abutting to taller construction
works

7.2.3 Local effects

The design situations to be considered are persistent/transient. EN 1991-1-3
Section 6 gives forces to be applied for the local verifications of:
Drifting at projections and obstructions (EN 1991-1-3 § 6.2)
The edge of the roof (EN 1991-1-3 § 6.3)
Snow fences (EN 1991-1-3 § 6.4).

3 - 20
 Part 3: Actions

7.2.4 Flowchart

Persistent / transient design situations

Location of the construction Characteristic value of the snow load National Annex
National map sk on the ground

Shape of the roof Shape coefficients i EN 1991-1-3

§ 5.3

Exposure coefficient Ce
Thermal coefficient Ct Snow load on the roof: s = I Ce Ct sk EN 1991-1-3
§ 5.2(3) a)

Exceptional drifts EN 1991-1-3

Snow load on the roof: Annex B
s = I sk
Accidental design situations
No drift due to local effect

Location of the construction Coefficient Cesl for EN 1991-1-3

National map § 4.3
exceptional snow load

Exceptional load on the ground EN 1991-1-3

sAd = Cesl sk § 4.3

Snow load on the roof: EN 1991-1-3

s = I Ce Ct sAd § 5.2(3) b)
(including drifts, except local effects)

Figure 7.5 Determination of the snow loads

3 - 21
 Part 3: Actions

8 WIND ACTIONS

8.1 General
This Section provides guidance to determine the values of the wind action to be
used for the design of a typical single-storey building according to
EN 1991-1-4. The design procedure is summarized by a flowchart in Figure 8.6
and Figure 8.7. A worked example dealing with the determination of the wind
action on a single-storey building is given in Appendix B.

The rules apply to the whole structure or part of the structure, e.g. components,
cladding units and their fixings.

A simplified set of pressures or forces whose effects are equivalent to the

extreme effects of the turbulent wind represent the wind action.

Wind actions should be classified as variable fixed actions.

The relevant wind actions shall be determined for each design situation
identified.

Where, in design, windows and doors are assumed to be shut under storm
conditions, the effect of these being open should be treated as an accidental
design situation.

8.2 Methodology
The response of the structure to the effect of wind depends on the size, shape
and dynamic properties of the structure. This response should be calculated
from the peak velocity pressure qp and from the force and/or pressure
coefficients.

8.2.1 Peak velocity pressure

The peak velocity pressure qp(z) is the velocity pressure used in the
calculations.

It depends on the wind climate, the reference height, the terrain roughness and
orography. It is equal to the mean velocity pressure plus a contribution from
short-term pressure fluctuations.

The peak velocity pressure can be calculated using the following procedure.

1. Fundamental value of the basic wind velocity vb,0

The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity is the characteristic 10
minutes mean wind velocity, irrespective of wind direction and time of year, at
10 m above ground level, in open country terrain. It corresponds to a mean
return period of 50 years (annual probability of exceedence of 0,02).

The National Annex specifies the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity.

3 - 22
Part 3: Actions

2. Basic wind velocity vb

vb = cdir cseason vb,0
where:
cdir is the directional factor
cseason is the seasonal factor
The recommended value is 1,0 for both cdir and cseason but the National Annex
may give other values.

3. Basic velocity pressure

The basic velocity pressure qb is calculated as follows:

1
qb vb2
2
where:
is the air density
= 1,25 kg/m3 (recommended value but the National Annex may give
another value)
4. Terrain factor kr
0 , 07
z
kr 0,19 0
z0, II

where:
z0 is the roughness length according to the terrain category
z0,II is the roughness length for the terrain category II:
z0,II = 0,05 m
zmax = 200 m
Terrain categories and terrain parameters are defined in EN 1991-1-4
Table 4.1, but the National Annex may give other values.

5. Roughness factor cr(z)

cr(z) = kr ln(z/z0) for zmin z zmax
cr(z) = cr(zmin) for z zmin
where:
z is the reference height defined by EN 1991-1-4 Figure 7.4.
zmin depends on the terrain category, EN 1991-1-4 Table 4.1.

6. Orography factor co(z)

The orography consists of the study of the shape of the terrain in the vicinity of
the construction.

3 - 23
 Part 3: Actions

The effects of orography may be neglected when the average slope of the
upwind terrain is less than 3°. The recommended value of co(z) is 1,0, but the
National Annex may give the procedure to calculate the orography factor.

Annex A3 of EN 1991-1-4 gives the recommended procedure to determine co

for hills, cliffs, etc.

7. Turbulence factor kl
The recommended value is 1,0 but the National Annex may give other values.

8. Peak velocity pressure qp(z)

1
qp ( z ) 1 7I v ( z) vm2 ( z )
2
where:
Iv(z) is the turbulence intensity which allows to take into account the
contribution from short-term fluctuations
kl
I v ( z) for zmin z zmax
co ( z ) ln( z / z0 )
I v ( z) I v ( zmin ) for z < zmin
zmax = 200 m
vm(z) is the mean wind velocity at height z above the terrain:
vm(z) = cr(z) co(z) vb

Alternative for step 8:

For single-storey-buildings, the determination of the mean wind velocity vm(z)

is not absolutely necessary. The peak velocity pressure can be directly obtained
from the exposure factor ce(z):

qp ( z ) ce ( z ) qb

where:
7 kl k r
ce ( z ) 1 co2 ( z ) cr2 ( z )
co ( z ) cr ( z )
For flat terrain (co(z) = 1) and for turbulence factor kl = 1, the exposure factor
ce(z) can be directly obtained from Figure 4.2 of EN 1991-1-4, as a function of
the height above terrain and a function of terrain category.

8.2.2 Wind pressure on surfaces – Wind forces

There are three types of wind forces acting on a building:

External forces Fw,e (see 8.2.2.1)

Internal forces Fw,i (see 8.2.2.2)
Friction forces Ffr (see 8.2.2.3).

3 - 24
Part 3: Actions

The external and internal forces result in pressures perpendicular to the walls
(vertical walls, roofs, etc.). By convention, pressure directed towards the
surface is taken as positive, and suction, directed away from the surface as
negative (Figure 8.1).

q<0 q>0

Figure 8.1 Sign convention for the pressure

As stated in EN 1991-1-4 § 5.3(2), the resulting wind force Fw acting on a

structure, or a structural component, can be determined by the vector
summation of Fw,e, Fw,i and Ffr. It can be globally expressed as follows:

Fw = cscd cf qp(ze) Aref

where:
cscd is the structural factor (for buildings with a height less than 15 m, it
may be taken as 1)
Note: the mean wind velocity vm(z) is necessary to calculate the
structural factor cscd.
cf is the force coefficient for the structure (or structural element)
Aref is the reference area of the structure (or structural element). Here it
can be defined as the area of the projection of the structure or the
structural component, on a vertical plan perpendicular to the wind
direction.
Practical approach

In practice, the designer needs to evaluate the resulting pressure on the walls in
order to determine the actions on the structural members. The resulting
pressure can be expressed as follows:

Fw/Aref = cscd we – wi

where:
we is the wind pressure acting on the external surface (see 7.2.1.2),
wi is the wind pressure acting on the internal surface (see 7.2.1.3).
In addition the effects of the friction forces (see 7.2.1.4) have to be considered
when necessary.

3 - 25
 Part 3: Actions

8.2.2.1 External forces

The external forces are obtained from:
Fw, e cs cd we Aref
surfaces

where:
cscd is the structural factor (see 7.2.1.1)
we is the wind pressure acting on the external surface:
we = qp(ze) cpe
qp(ze) is the peak velocity pressure at the reference height ze
ze is the reference height for the external pressure (generally, the height
of the structure). It depends on the aspect ratio h/b, where h is the
height of the building and b is the crosswind dimension.
Generally, h is lower than b for single-storey buildings. In this case, ze
is taken equal to the height of the building and the velocity pressure
qp(z) is uniform on the whole structure: qp(ze) = qp(h).
cpe is the pressure coefficient for the external pressure. See §8.2.3 for
vertical walls and §8.2.4 for roofs.
Aref is the reference area. Here it is the area of the surface under
consideration for the design of the structure or the structural
component.

8.2.2.2 Internal forces

The internal forces are obtained from:
Fw,i wi Aref
surfaces

where:
wi is the wind pressure acting on the internal surface:
wi = qp(zi) cpi
zi is the reference height for the internal pressure (generally: zi = ze)
qp(zi) is the peak velocity pressure at the height zi (generally: qp(zi) = qp(ze))
cpi is the pressure coefficient for the internal pressure, see §8.2.5.

8.2.2.3 Friction forces

The friction force results from the friction of the wind parallel to the external
surface. Friction is allowed for when the total area of all surfaces parallel to the
wind is higher than four times the total area of all external surfaces
perpendicular to the wind (windward and leeward), which is the case for long
structures.

3 - 26
 Part 3: Actions

h W

b
Min(2b ; 4h)
d

Figure 8.2 Friction forces

The friction forces are obtained from:

Ffr cfr qp ze Afr

where:
cfr is the friction coefficient. It can be taken equal to:
0,01 for smooth surface (steel, smooth concrete, etc.)
0,02 for rough surface (rough concrete, tar-boards, etc.)
0,03 for very rough surface (ripples, ribs, folds, etc.).
qp(ze) is the peak velocity pressure at the reference height ze.
Afr is the reference area. Friction forces are applied on the part of the
external surfaces parallel to the wind Afr, located beyond a distance
from the upwind eaves or corners, equal to the smallest value of 2b or
4h, b and h as defined in Figure 8.2.

8.2.3 External pressure coefficients on vertical walls

The values of the external pressure coefficients, given in tables in the Eurocode
are attached to defined zones. The coefficients depend on the size of the loaded
area A that produces the wind action in the zone under consideratiion. In the
tables, the external pressure coefficients are given for loaded areas of 1 m2
(cpe,1) and 10 m2 (cpe,10). In this guide, only the values cpe,10 are taken into
account, because they are used for the design of the overall load bearing
structure of buildings.

Zones for vertical walls are defined in EN 1991-1-4 Figure 7.5 and the external
pressure coefficients cpe,10 are given in EN 1991-1-4 Table 7.1. For
intermediate values of h/d, linear interpolation may apply.

The values of the external pressure coefficients may be given in the National
Annex.

3 - 27
 Part 3: Actions

d
1
A B C h

e/5 4/5 e d–e

1
D E b

1
A B C h

2
Plan Elevation for e < d

1 1
A B h A h

e/5 d – e/5 d

1 1
A B h A h

Elevation for e d Elevation for e 5d

1 Wind direction e = min(b ; 2h)
2 Elevation b is the crosswind dimension

Figure 8.3 Key for vertical walls

For buildings with h/d > 5, the total wind loading may be determined by the
force coefficients cf.

In cases where the wind force on building structures is determined by

application of the pressure coefficient cpe on windward and leeward side (zones
D and E) of the building simultaneously, the lack of correlation of wind
pressures between the windward and leeward side may have to be taken into
account as follows:
For buildings with h/d 5, the resulting force is multiplied by 1
For buildings with h/d 1, the resulting force is multiplied by 0,85
For intermediate values of h/d, linear interpolation may be applied.

8.2.4 External pressure coefficients on roofs

Zones for roofs and external coefficients cpe,10 attached to these zones are
defined in EN 1991-1-4 as follows:
Flat roofs: Figure 7.6 and Table 7.2
Monopitch roofs: Figure 7.7 and Tables 7.3a and 7.3b
Duopitch roofs: Figure 7.8 and Tables 7.4a and 7.4b
Hipped roofs: Figure 7.9 and Table 7.5

3 - 28
 Part 3: Actions

Multispan roofs : Figure 7.10 and the coefficients cpe are derived from
Tables 7.3 to 7.4.

Figure 8.4 of this guide shows the zones for duopitch roofs.

e/10 e/10
e/2
e/4 F e/10 2

e/4 F
1 H I
G H J I
b 1 G
b
G
H I
e/4 F e/4 F

3 2 4
Wind on the long side Wind on the gable
(perpendicular to the ridge line) (parallel to the ridge line)
1 Wind direction e = min(b ; 2h)
2 Ridge line b is the crosswind dimension
3 Upwind face
4 Downwind face

Figure 8.4 Zones for duopitch roofs

8.2.5 Internal pressure coefficients

The internal pressure coefficient cpi depends on the size and distribution of the
openings in the building envelope.

When in at least two sides of the building (façades or roof) the total area of
openings in each side is more than 30 % of the area of that side, the structure
should be considered as a canopy roof and free-standing walls.

A face of a building should be regarded as dominant when the area of openings

in that face is at least twice the area of openings in the remaining faces of the
building considered.

Where an external opening would be dominant when open but is considered to

be closed in the ultimate limit state, during severe windstorms (wind used for
the design of the structure), the condition with the opening open should be
considered as an accidental design situation.

For a building with a dominant face, the internal pressure should be taken as a
fraction of the external pressure at the openings of the dominant face:
Area of the openings on the dominant face = 2 area of openings in the
remaining faces:
cpi = 0,75 cpe
Area of the openings in the dominant face = 3 area of openings in the
remaining faces:
cpi = 0,90 cpe

3 - 29
Part 3: Actions

Area of the openings at the dominant face between 2 and 3 times the area of
the openings in the remaining faces:
Linear interpolation for calculating cpi.

When the openings are located in zones with different values of cpe, an area
weighted average value should be used.

For buildings without a dominant face, the coefficient cpi should be determined
from a function of the ratio h/d and the opening ratio for each direction, as
shown in Figure 8.5.

area of openings where cpe 0

where: μ
area of all openings

Figure 8.5 Internal pressure coefficients for uniformly distributed openings

For values between h/d = 0,25 and h/d = 1,0, linear interpolation may be used.

Where it is not possible or not considered justified to estimate for a particular

case, then cpi should be taken as the more onerous of + 0,2 and – 0,3.

The reference height zi for the internal pressures should be equal to the
reference height ze for the external pressures on the faces which contribute by
their openings to the creation of the internal pressure. Generally, for
single-storey buildings, zi = ze = h and the velocity pressure qp(z):
qp(zi) = qp(ze) = qp(h)

3 - 30
 Part 3: Actions

8.3 Flowcharts
Construction location Fundamental value EN 1991-1-4
National map of the basic wind velocity vb,0 § 4.2(1)
(See National Annex)

Directional factor cdir

Basic wind velocity vb
Season factor cseason

Air density Basic velocity pressure qb EN 1991-1-4

§ 4.5(1)

Terrain category EN 1991-1-4

Terrain factor kr
§ 4.3.2

Reference height z
Roughness factor cr(z)

Orography factor co(z) EN 1991-1-4

§ 4.3.3 and A.3
(See National Annex)

Turbulence factor kl EN 1991-1-4

§ 4.4
(See National Annex)

Peak velocity pressure qp(z) EN 1991-1-4

§ 4.5(1)

Figure 8.6 Flowchart A: calculation of the peak velocity pressure

See Flowchart A
Peak velocity pressure qp(z)

EN 1991-1-4
Structural factor cs cd § 6 and Annexes B, C, D
(See National Annex)

Dimensions External pressure coefficients cpe EN 1991-1-4

of the building on vertical walls §7

External pressure coefficients cpe

on roof

Internal pressure coefficients cpi EN 1991-1-4

§ 7.2.9

Wind forces Fw,e and Fw,i EN 1991-1-4

§ 5.3

Type of surface Friction coefficient cfr EN 1991-1-4

Reference area Afr § 7.5
Table 7.10

Friction forces Ffr EN 1991-1-4

§ 5.3

Figure 8.7 Flowchart B: Calculation of the wind forces

3 - 31
 Part 3: Actions

9 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

Buildings not exposed to daily or seasonal climatic changes may not need to be
assessed under thermal actions. For large buildings, it is generally good
practice to design the building with expansion joints so that the temperature
changes do not induce internal forces in the structure. Information about the
design of expansion joints is given in Section 1.4.2 of Single-storey steel
buildings Part 2: Concept design[11].

When the effects of temperature have to be taken into account, EN 1993-1-5

provides rules to determine them.

3 - 32
Part 3: Actions

REFERENCES

1 EN 1990:2002: Eurocode Basis of structural design

2 EN 1991-1-1:2002: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures. General actions. Densities,
self-weight, imposed loads for buildings.
3 EN 1991-1-3:2003: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures. General actions. Snow
loads
4 EN 1991-1-4:2005: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures. General actions. Wind
actions
5 EN 1991-1-5:2003: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures. General actions. Thermal
actions
6 EN 1991-3:2006: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures. Actions induced by cranes
and machinery
7 CLAVAUD, D.
Exemple de détermination des charges de neige selon l’EN 1991-1-3. Revue
Construction Métallique n°2-2007.
CTICM.
8 CLAVAUD, D.
Exemple de détermination des actions du vent selon l’EN 1991-1-4. Revue
Construction Métallique n°1-2008.
CTICM.
9 EN 1998-1:2004: Eurocode 8 Design of structures for earthquake resistance.
General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings.
10 Steel Buildings in Europe
Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 3: Actions
11 Steel Buildings in Europe
Multi-storey steel buildings. Part 2: Concept design

3 - 33
Part 3: Actions

3 - 34
Part 3: Actions

APPENDIX A

Worked Example: Snow load applied on a

single-storey building

3 - 35
 APPENDIX A. Worked Example: Snow load
1 of 8
applied on a single-storey building
Made by DC Date 02/2009
Calculation sheet
Checked by AB Date 03/2009

1. Data
This worked example deals with the single-storey building shown below.

25,00 m

B’ B

A’

Plan view
1

1 15% 0,75 m
3,00 m
1,25 m
10%
10,25 m
6,00 m

b1 = 40,00 m b2 = 10,00 m 25,00 m

Cross-section BB’ Cross-section AA’

1 Parapets

Figure A.1– Geometry of the building

2. Snow load on the ground

Characteristic value sk of snow load on the ground:
sk = 0,65 kN/m2
Coefficient for exceptional snow load: EN 1991-1-3
§ 4.3
Cesl = 2
Exceptional snow on the ground:
sAd = Cesl sk = 2 0,65 = 1,30 kN/m2

3 - 36
 APPENDIX A. Worked Example: Snow load applied on a single-storey
Title 2 of 8
building

3. Snow load on the roof

3.1. General EN 1991-1-3
§5.2(1)
The loads act vertically and refer to a horizontal projection of the roof area.
Two primary load arrangements shall be taken account:
undrifted snow load on roofs
drifted snow load on roofs
Snow loads on roofs are determined as follows:
Persistent (conditions of normal use)/transient (temporary conditions) EN 1991-1-3
design situations: § 5.2(3) a)
s= i Ce Ct sk
Accidental design situations (exceptional snow fall) where exceptional
snow load is the accidental action:
§ 5.2(3) b)
s= i Ce Ct sAd
Accidental design situations (exceptional snow drift) where the accidental
action is the exceptional drift and where Annex B applies:
§ 5.2(3) c)
s= i sk
where:
EN 1991-1-3
i is the snow shape coefficient § 5.3
Ce is the exposure coefficient, Ce = 1,0
§ 5.2(7)
Ct is the thermal coefficient, Ct = 1,0
§ 5.2(8)

3.2. Upper roof (duo pitch roof)

Angle of the roof (15%):
= arc tan (0,15) = 8,5°
0 30°
Persistent /transient design situations
EN 1991-1-3
- Case (i) : undrifted load arrangement § 5.3.3
Figure 5.3
1( = 8,5°) = 0,8
s = 0,8 0,65 = 0,52 kN/m2
- Case (ii): Drifted load arrangement
0,5 1 ( = 8,5°) = 0,4
s = 0,4 0,65 = 0,26 kN/m2
- Case (iii): Drifted load arrangement
The case (iii) is symmetrical about the case (ii) because of the
symmetry of the roof ( 1 = 2 = 8,5°).

3 - 37
 APPENDIX A. Worked Example: Snow load applied on a single-storey
Title 3 of 8
building

EN 1991-1-3
0,52 kN/m2
Case (i) Figure 5.3

2
0,52 kN/m2
Case (ii) 0,26 kN/m

0,26 kN/m2
Case (iii) 0,52 kN/m2

Figure A.2 Snow load arrangements on the upper roof in persistent design
situation

Accidental design situations – exceptional load on the ground

- Case (i): Undrifted load arrangement
1( = 8,5°) = 0,8
s = 0,8 1,30 = 1,04 kN/m2
- Case (ii): Drifted load arrangement
0,5 1( = 8,5°) = 0,4
s = 0,4 1,30 = 0,52 kN/m2

- Case (iii): Drifted load arrangement

The case (iii) is symmetrical about the case (ii) because of the
symmetry of the roof ( 1 = 2 = 8,5°)

1,04 kN/m2
Case (i)

1,04 kN/m2
Case (ii) 0,52 kN/m2

2
0,52 kN/m2
Case (iii) 1,04 kN/m

Figure A.3 Snow load arrangements on the upper roof in accidental design
situation

Accidental design situations – exceptional drift:

This case is not applicable. There are no parapets or valleys.

3 - 38
 APPENDIX A. Worked Example: Snow load applied on a single-storey
Title 4 of 8
building

3.3. Lower roof: duo pitch roof abutting to taller

EN 1991-1-3
construction works § 5.3.6(1)
Angle of the roof (10%):
= arc tan (0,10) = 5,7°
0 30°
Persistent /transient design situations
- Case (i): Undrifted load arrangement
1(5,7°) = 0,8
s = 0,8 0,65 = 0,52 kN/m2
0,52 kN/m2

0,52 kN/m2

Figure A.4 – Undrifted snow load arrangement on the lower roof in persistent
design situation

- Case (ii): drifted load arrangement

1(5,7°) = 0,8
s = 0,8 0,65 = 0,52 kN/m2
2 = s + w

where:
s is the snow shape coefficient due to sliding of snow from the
upper roof.
For 15°: s =0
w is the snow load shape coefficient due to wind
w = (b1 + b2) / 2h
with: w h/sk
b1 = 10 m
b2 = 40 m
h varies between 3 m at ridge to 4,25 m at eaves
= 2 kN/m3

3 - 39
 APPENDIX A. Worked Example: Snow load applied on a single-storey
Title 5 of 8
building

The recommended range is: 0,8 w 4

At ridge: h/sk = 2 3/0,65 = 9,2
w = (10 + 40)/(2 3) = 8,3 h/sk

At eave: h/sk = 2 4,25/0,65 = 13,1

w = (10 + 40)/(2 4,25) = 5,9 h/sk
But w should be maximum 4, so:
w =4
Therefore:
s=4 0,65 = 2,60 kN/m2
ls is the drift length determined as: EN 1991-1-3
§ 5.3.6(1)
ls = 2h
This drift length varies between 6 m at ridge to 8,50 m at eaves.
The recommended restriction is: 5 m ls 15 m
8,50 m EN 1991-1-3
Figure 5.7
6,00 m
2,60 kN/m2
2,60 kN/m2

0,52 kN/m2
0,52 kN/m2

Figure A.5 Drifted snow load arrangement on the lower roof in the case of
abutting to taller construction works in persistent design situation

Accidental design situations – exceptional load on the ground:

- Case (i): Undrifted load arrangement
1(5,7°) = 0,8
s = 0,8 1,3 = 1,04 kN/m2
The arrangement is the same as Figure A.4 with: s = 1,04 kN/m2
- Case (ii): Drifted load arrangement
The arrangement is the same as Figure A.5 with: s1 = 1,04 kN/m2

3 - 40
 APPENDIX A. Worked Example: Snow load applied on a single-storey
Title 6 of 8
building

where:
1 = 0,8
and s2 = 5,20 kN/m2 where w =4

3.4. Lower roof: drifting at obstructions (parapets)

Only persistent/transient design situations are to be considered. EN 1991-1-3
§ 6.2(2)
Angle of the roof (10%): = 5,7°
1(5,7°) = 0,8
s = 0,8 0,65 = 0,52 kN/m2
2 = h/sk
where:
h is the height of parapet. It varies between 0 m at ridge and 1,25 m at
low eaves.
= 2 kN/m3
At ridge: 2 =0
At low eaves: 2 =2 1,25/0,65 = 3,8
With the restriction: 0,8 2 2
2 varies between 0,8 at ridge, and 2 at eave.
s varies between 0,52 kN/m2 at ridge, and 2 0,65 = 1,30 kN/m2 at
low eaves.
The drift length ls is determined by: ls = 2 h
This drift length varies between 0 m at ridge and 2,50 m at low eaves.
The recommended restriction is: 5 m ls 15 m. Therefore:
ls = 5 m at low eaves.
5,00 m
1,30 kN/m2 1,30 kN/m2
2
1,30 kN/m

0,52 kN/m2
2 2
0,52 kN/m 0,52 kN/m

5,00 m 5,00 m

5,00 m

5,00 m

FigureA.6 Drifted snow load arrangement on the lower roof in the case of
obstruction in persistent design situation

3 - 41
 APPENDIX A. Worked Example: Snow load applied on a single-storey
Title 7 of 8
building

3.5. Exceptional snow drifts

3.5.1. Roofs abutting and close to taller structures
EN 1991-1-3
1 = 2 = 3 = Min(2h/sk ; 2b/ls ; 8) Annex B § B.3
where b is the larger of b1 or b2
ls = Min(5h ; b1 ; 15 m)
h = 4,25 m
b1 = 40,00 m
b2 = 10,00 m
sk = 0,65 kN/m2
5 h = 21,25m; ls = 15,00 m; 2h/sk = 13,08; 2b/ls = 5,3
1 = 2 = 3 = 5,3
And: s= 3 sk = 3,45 kN/m2

15,00 m

3,45 kN/m2

Figure A.7 Exceptional snow drifted on the lower roof in the case of roofs
abutting and close to taller building

3 - 42
 APPENDIX A. Worked Example: Snow load applied on a single-storey
Title 8 of 8
building

3.5.2. Roofs where drifting occurs behind parapets at eaves

EN 1991-1-3
1 = Min(2 h/sk ; 2 b2/ls ; 8) Annex B § B.4
where: ls = Min(5h ; b1 ; 15 m)
h = 3,00 m
b1 = 12,50 m
b2 = 25,00 m
sk = 0,65 kN/m2
5h = 15,00 m ; ls = 12,50 m ; 2h/sk = 9,23 ; 2b2/ls = 4,00
1 = 4,00
And: s= 1 sk = 2,60 kN/m2

3.5.3. Roofs where drifting occurs behind parapets at gable end

EN 1991-1-3
1 = Min(2 h/sk ; 2 b2/ls ; 8) Annex B § B.4
where: ls = Min(5h ; b1 ; 15 m)
h = 3,00 m
b1 = 40,00 m
b2 = 25,00 m
sk = 0,65 kN/m2
5h = 15,00 m ; ls = 15,00m ; 2h/sk = 9,23 ; 2b2/ls = 5,33
1 = 5,33
And: s= 1 sk = 3,46 kN/m2
15,00 m

3,46 kN/m2

2,60 kN/m2 2,60 kN/m2

0,00 kN/m2

12,50 m 12,50 m

Snow behind the parapet at gable end Snow behind the parapets at eaves
Figure A.8 Exceptional snow drifted on the lower roof in the case of roofs
where drifting occurs behind parapets at eaves

3 - 43
Part 3: Actions

3 - 44
Part 3: Actions

APPENDIX B

Worked Example: Wind action on a single-storey

building

3 - 45
 APPENDIX B. Worked Example: Wind action on
1 of 11
a single-storey building
Made by DC Date 06/2009
Calculation sheet
Checked by AB Date 07/2009

1. Data
This worked example deals with the calculation of the wind action on a
single-storey building according to EN 1991-1-4. The overall dimensions of
the building are given in Figure B.1.

6m 14 °

5m
6m
16 m
4,8 m 60 m
6m
16 m 5m

Figure B.1 Geometry of the building

The doors are assumed to be shut during severe gales.

The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity is:
vb,0 = 26 m/s

2. Peak velocity pressure

The peak velocity pressure is determined according to the step-by-step
procedure given in this guide.
1. Fundamental value of the basic wind velocity
vb,0 = 26 m/s

2. Basic wind velocity

EN 1991-1-4
For cdir and cseason, the recommended values are: § 4.2(2)
cdir = 1,0
cseason = 1,0
Then: vb = vb,0 = 26 m/s

3 - 46
 APPENDIX B. Worked Example: Wind action on a single-storey
Title 2 of 11
building

3. Basic velocity pressure

EN 1991-1-4
1 2 § 4.5(1)
qb vb
2
where:
= 1,25 kg/m3 (recommended value)
Then: qb = 0,5 1,25 262 = 422,5 N/m2

4. Terrain factor
0, 07
EN 1991-1-4
z0 § 4.3.2(1)
kr 0,19 Table 4.1
z0, II

The terrain category is category III, then:

z0 = 0,3 m
zmin = 5 m
0, 07
0,30
kr 0,19 0,215
0,05

5. Roughness factor
EN 1991-1-4
z § 4.3.2(1)
cr ( z ) k r ln
z0
z is taken equal to the height of the building:
z=8m
8,0
Then: cr ( z ) 0,215 ln 0,706
0,3

6. Orography factor
EN 1991-1-4
The building is erected on a suburban terrain where the average slope of the § 4.3.3(2)
upwind terrain is very low (< 3°), so:
co(z) = 1

7. Turbulence factor
EN 1991-1-4
The recommended value is used: § 4.4(1)
kl = 1,0

3 - 47
 APPENDIX B. Worked Example: Wind action on a single-storey
Title 3 of 11
building

8. Peak velocity pressure (alternative for a single-storey building)

EN 1991-1-4
qp(z) = ce(z) qb § 4.5(1)
where:
7kl k r
ce ( z ) 1 co2 ( z ) cr2 ( z )
co ( z ) cr ( z )

7 1,0 0,215
ce ( z ) 1 1,0 2 0,706 2 1,56
1,0 0,706
Then: qp(z) = 1,56 423 = 659 N/m2
qp(z) = 0,659 kN/m2 for z = 8 m

3. Wind pressure on surfaces

3.1. External pressure coefficients cpe,10
3.1.1. Vertical walls
1. Wind on gable
h =8m
b = 32 m (crosswind dimension) EN 1991-1-4
7.2.2 (1)
h < b, so ze = reference height = h = 8 m Figure 7.4
d = 60 m EN 1991-1-4
7.2.2 (2)
h/d = 8/60 = 0,13 (h/d < 0,25) Table 7.1
2h = 16 m EN 1991-1-4
§ 7.2.2 (1)
e = 16 m (b or 2h, whichever is smaller) Figure 7.5
e <d
e/5 = 3,2 m
4/5 e = 12,8 m
d – e = 44 m
Figure B.2 defines the external pressure coefficients cpe,10 on vertical walls for EN 1991-1-4
zones A, B, C, D and E with wind on the gable. § 7.2.2(2)
Table 7.1

3 - 48
 APPENDIX B. Worked Example: Wind action on a single-storey
Title 4 of 11
building

3,2 m 12,8 m 44 m

Wind B C
A h=8m
D E
- 1,2 - 0,5
+ 0,7 - 0,8 - 0,3

Figure B.2 cpe,10 for zones A, B, C, D and E with wind on gable

2. Wind on the long side

EN 1991-1-4
h=8m 7.2.2 (1)
b = 60 m (crosswind dimension) Figure 7.4

h < b, so ze = reference height = h = 8 m

d = 32 m
h/d = 8/32 = 0,25 EN 1991-1-4
§ 7.2.2(2)
2h = 16 m Table 7.1
e = 16 m (b or 2h, whichever is smaller) EN 1991-1-4
§ 7.2.2(1)
e<d Figure 7.5
e/5 = 3,2 m
4/5 e = 12,8 m
d – e = 16 m
Figure B.3 defines the external pressure coefficients cpe,10 on vertical walls for EN 1991-1-4
zones A, B, C, D and E with wind on the long side. § 7.2.2(2)
Table 7.1

3 - 49
 APPENDIX B. Worked Example: Wind action on a single-storey
Title 5 of 11
building

3,2 m 12,8 m 16 m

Wind
B C
D A E
h= 8m
- 1,2 - 0,8 - 0,5
+ 0,7 - 0,3

Figure B.3 cpe,10 for zones A, B, C, D and E with wind on long side

3.1.2. Roofs
1. Wind on gable EN 1991-1-4
§ 7.2.5(1)
Ridges are parallel to the wind direction: = 90° Figure 7.8
Pitch angle: = 14°
h =8m
b = 32 m (crosswind dimension)
The reference height is: ze = h = 8 m EN 1991-1-4
§ 7.2.7(3)
2h = 16 m
e = 16 m (b or 2h, whichever is smaller) EN 1991-1-4
§ 7.2.5(1)
e/4 =4m Figure 7.8
e/10 = 1,6 m
e/2 =8m
Figure B.4 defines the external pressure coefficients cpe,10 on roofs for zones EN 1991-1-4
F, G, H and I with a wind on gable. § 7.2.2(2)
Table 7b

3 - 50
 APPENDIX B. Worked Example: Wind action on a single-storey
Title 6 of 11
building

d = 60 m
F

4m - 1,3 H
- 0,5
I
G - 0,6
- 1,3 Ridge

G - 0,6
- 0,5 I
- 1,3
Wind H Trough
b = 32 m
- 0,6
G - 0,5 I
- 1,3 H
Ridge
G
- 1,3 - 0,6
I - 0,5
4m - 1,3 H

F
1,6 m

8m

Figure B.4 cpe,10 for zones F, G, H and I with wind on gable

2. Wind on long side EN 1991-1-4

§ 7.2.5(1)
i. Ridges are perpendicular to the wind direction: = 0° Figure 7.8
ii. Pitch angle = 14°
iii. h=8m
iv. b = 60 m (crosswind dimension)
v. h < b, so the reference height is: ze = h = 8 m
vi. d = 32 m EN 1991-1-4
§ 7.2.5(1)
vii. 2h = 16 m Figure 7.8
viii. e = 16 m (b or 2h, whichever is smaller)
ix. e/4 = 4 m
x. e/10 = 1,6m
Figure B.5 defines the external pressure coefficients cpe,10 on roofs for zones EN 1991-1-4
F, G, H, I and J with a wind on long side. § 7.2.7(2)
Figure 7.10c

3 - 51
 APPENDIX B. Worked Example: Wind action on a single-storey
Title 7 of 11
building

b = 60 m

H
- 0,5
Trough

I
- 0,5
Ridge
d = 32 m

- 0,9 H

Trough

- 0,3
+ 0,2 H
- 0,9 - 0,9
1,6 m + 0,2 G - 0,8 + 0,2
+ 0,2
F 4m 4m F
Wind

Figure B.5 cpe,10 for zones F, G, H and I with wind on long side

3.2. Internal pressure coefficients cpi

3.2.1. Persistent or transient design situation
The doors are assumed to stay shut during severe gales: EN 1991-1-4
§ 7.2.9(6)
cpi = + 0,2
And cpi = -0,3 § 7.2.9(7)

with reference height for the internal pressure: zi = ze = h = 8 m

3.2.2. Accidental design situation

A door opens upwind (wind on gable): this face is dominant and area of
EN 1991-1-4
the openings at the dominant face = 3 area of the openings in the
§ 7.2.9(3)
remaining faces:
cpi = 0,90 cpe § 7.2.9(5)

cpi = 0,90 (+0,7) = +0,63

A door opens downwind (wind on long side): this face is dominant and
area of the openings at the dominant face = 3 area of openings in the
remaining faces.

3 - 52
 APPENDIX B. Worked Example: Wind action on a single-storey
Title 8 of 11
building

The most severe case is when the opening is in a zone where |cpe| is the highest
(the door is completely in zone B). EN 1991-1-4
§ 7.2.9(6)
cpi = 0,90 cpe
cpi = 0,90 -0,8 = -0,72

4. Friction forces
4.1. Wind on gable
The area of the external surfaces parallel to the wind is calculated by:
60 2 (6 + 8,25 2) = 2700 m2
The area of the external surfaces perpendicular to the wind is:
2 2 16 (6 + 1) = 448 m2
The area of the external surfaces parallel to the wind is higher than 4 area of EN 1991-1-4
external surfaces perpendicular to the wind: friction forces should be taken § 5.3(4)
into account:
4 h = 32 m
2 b = 64 m
4h<2b EN 1991-1-4
§ 7.5(3)
The friction forces apply on the area Afr:
Afr = 2 (60 – 32) (6 + 8,25 2) = 1260 m2
For a smooth surface (steel):
cfr = 0,01
and the friction force Ffr (acting in the direction of the wind): EN 1991-1-4
§ 5.5(3)
Ffr = cfr qp(ze) Afr = (0,01 66 1260) 10-2 = 8,316 kN
4h<2b EN 1991-1-4
§ 7.5(3)
The friction forces apply on the area Afr:
Afr = 2 (60 – 32) (6 + 8,25 2) = 1260 m2
For a smooth surface (steel):
cfr = 0,01
and the friction force Ffr (acting in the direction of the wind): EN 1991-1-4
§ 5.5(3)
Ffr = cfr qp(ze) Afr = (0,01 66 1260) 10-2 = 8,316 kN

4.2. Wind on long side

Area of external surfaces parallel to the wind < 4 area of external surfaces EN 1991-1-4
perpendicular to the wind: friction forces should not be taken account § 5.3(4)

3 - 53
 APPENDIX B. Worked Example: Wind action on a single-storey
Title 9 of 11
building

5. Wind forces on surfaces

F/Aref = cscd qp(ze) cpe – qp(zi) cpi EN 1991-1-4
§ 6.2(1)b
with: cscd = 1 (height < 15 m)
qp(ze) = qp(zi) = 0,66 kN/m2
The figures below show the wind forces per unit surfaces:
F/Aref = 0,66 (cpe – cpi) (in kN/m2)

Ffr = 8,32 kN

-0,33
-0,53
-0,46
-0,99

+0,33 -0,46

Wind -0,66

-0,92

Figure B.6 Wind on gable with cpi = +0,2

Ffr = 8,32 kN

-0,20
-0,13
-0,66

+0,66 -0,13

Wind -0,33

-0,59

Figure B.7 Wind on gable with cpi = -0,3

3 - 54
 APPENDIX B. Worked Example: Wind action on a single-storey
Title 10 of 11
building

-0,73
-0,33
-0,46 -0,33
(+ 0)

-0,46 -0,66 -0,73

(+ 0) (+ 0)
+0,33

-0,73
-0,66 (+ 0)
Wind
-0,92

Figure B.8 Wind on long side with cpi = +0,2

The values in brackets should be used together.

0 -0,40
-0,13 -0
(+0,33)

-0,13 -0,33 -0,40

(+0,33) (+0,33)
+0,66

-0,40
-0,33 (+0,33)
Wind
-0,59

Figure B.9 Wind on long side with cpi = -0,3

Values in brackets should be used together.

3 - 55
 APPENDIX B. Worked Example: Wind action on a single-storey
Title 11 of 11
building

Ffr = 8,32 kN

-0,59

-0,79
-0,73
-1,25

+0,07 -0,73

Wind -0,92

-1,19

Figure B.10 Accidental design situation: door open upwind (wind on gable)
with cpi = +0,6

+0,26 +0,13
+0,13 -0,26
(+0,59)

+0,13 -0,07 -0,13

(+0,59) (+0,59)
+0,92

-0,13
-0,7 (+0,59)
Wind
-0,33

Figure B.11 Accidental design situation: door open downwind (wind on long
side) with cpi = -0,7
Values in brackets should be used together

3 - 56