United Arab Emirates University

Department of Electrical Engineering

ELEC 372: Electro-mechanical Devices

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

1
Learning Objectives

1. Identify the principal elements of electric circuits: nodes, loops, meshes,

and branches.

2. Apply Kirchhoff's laws to simple electric circuits.

3. Apply the passive sign convention to compute the power consumed or

supplied by circuit elements.

4. Apply Ohm's law and voltage and current division to calculate unknown
voltages and currents in simple series, parallel, and series-parallel
circuits.

5. Compute the equivalent resistance between two nodes.

6. Understand the impact of internal resistance in practical models of voltage

and current sources as well as of voltmeters, ammeters, and wattmeters.

2
DEFINITIONS

Ideal Voltage Sources (Independent voltage sources)

An ideal voltage source provides a constant voltage across its terminals

regardless of the current flowing through it.

3
DEFINITIONS

Electrical circuit representation

4
DEFINITIONS

Ideal current source (Independent current sources)

An ideal current source provides a constant current to any circuit connected

to it. The voltage generated by the source is determined by the circuit
connected to it.
DEFINITIONS

Dependent (Controlled) Sources

sources, whose output (current or voltage) is a function of some other voltage

or current in a circuit

vs & is are voltage and current value that depends on vx or ix which can
be any voltage or current in the circuit.

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DEFINITIONS

Branch: is any portion of a circuit with two terminals connected to it.

Node: is the junction of two or more branches

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DEFINITIONS

Loop: A loop is any path that goes from node to node and returns to the starting
node, passing only once through each branch

Mesh: Mesh is a loop that does

not contain other loops

Note: All meshes are loops but not

all loops are meshes

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Charge and Current

• Charge is a fundamental physical quantity.

• The amount of charge is expressed in coulombs (C).
• The smallest amount of charge that exists is the charge carried by an
Electron, equal to.
Qe = −1.6 10 −19 C
• The Proton, is assigned a plus sign and the same magnitude.

• Electric current is defined as the time rate of change of charge passing through a
certain area.

• The units of current are called amperes,

where 1 ampere (A) = 1 coulomb/second

• Current convention. e- -e -e

i
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Charge and Current

Example: Given q(t), sketch current i(t)

q(t)

2C

1 3 4 6 7 9 sec

Solution:
dq
i(t) i=
dt
2A

-1 A 1 3 4 6 7 9 sec

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Types of currents

Direct current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC)

DC current (or voltage) does

not change with time. It is
always fixed. Battery is a dc AC current (or voltage) changes with time.
voltage source

V or I Vm

(t )

t T
1
T = Period , f = frequency , f =
T
(a) DC (b) AC
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Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).

• In order for current to flow, there must exist a closed circuit.

• Charge cannot be created but must be conserved,

• Kirchhoff’s current law states

that
The sum of the currents at a node
must equal zero.
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Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).

Example: Determine the unknown currents in the following circuit if

IS = 5A, I1 = 2A, I2 = −3A I3 = 1.5A

Solution: Applying KCL at node a:

I0 + I1 + I2 = 0
I0 + 2 − 3 = 0
∴ I0 = 1A

Applying KCL at node b:

I0 + I1 + I2 + Is – I3 – I4 = 0
5 – 1.5 − I4 = 0
∴ I4 = 3.5A

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Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).

Example: Apply KCL to the following circuit, using the concept of super-node to
determine the source current IS1. I3 = 2A I5 = 0A

Solution: Treating the super-node as a simple node,

apply KCL at the super-node

IS1 − I3 − I5 = 0
IS1 = I3 + I5 = 2A

Comment: we can also solve this problem by

applying KCL at the ground node

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Voltage, Current and Resistance

Voltage (V): Is a measure of the pressure applied to

electrons to make them move.

Current (I): Electrons flowing between two points having

a difference in voltage.
Voltage
Using the water analogy, the water pressure due to the
difference in level (V) causes water flow (I) from high to
low level

Resistance (R): Is a property that slows the flow of

electrons. Using the water analogy, resistance is
anything that slows water flow, such as a smaller pipe or Current
fins inside the pipe.

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Energy and Voltage

• Energy, by definition, is the capacity to do work.

• Current through a light bulb produces heat and light because the moving charges
give up energy to the bulb.

• The electrical variable associated with potential difference is called voltage.

Charge Q
Point A Point B
1 volt
Vab =1V =1J /1C
• A potential difference of 1 volt (V) exists between two points if 1 joule (J) of
energy is exchanged in moving 1 coulomb of charge between the two points.
∆W dW
V= Or in differential form V=
∆Q dQ
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Power and Energy

Power is the time rate of change of energy.

𝑑𝑤(𝑡)
𝑃 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑤(𝑡) 𝑑𝑤(𝑡) 𝑑𝑞
𝑃 𝑡 = = ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡
𝑷 𝒕 = 𝑽 𝒕 × 𝒊(𝒕)

• The unit of power is Watt [W] 1 W = 1 V * 1A

t2 t2
• Energy can be expressed as w(t) =  p(t) dt =  v(t) i(t) dt
t = t1 t = t1
Basic Quantities

dW
Voltage (V) V= Volt (V)
dQ
dQ
Current (I) i= Ampere (A)
dt
t2

Charge (Q) Q =  i dt Coulomb (C)

t1

W Q W Work
Power (P) P =V I =  = = Watt (W)
Q T T Time

Energy (E) W = P T Joule (J)

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Conductor and Insulator

Conductors are those materials that permit a high flow of electrons (or
current) with very little external force (voltage) applied.
So a good conductor allow the current to flow easily. The resistance of
the conductors is very low. For example: Silver, copper, Gold,
Aluminum, Tungsten, Nickel, Iron etc.

Insulators are those materials that permits very few free electrons to
flow and require a large applied potential (voltage) to establish a
measurable current level.
So an insulator does not allow the current to flow easily. The
resistance of the Insulator is very high. For example: rubber, plastic,
glass, air, porcelain, oils, paper, mica, etc.

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that

the net voltage around a closed circuit (Loop) is zero.

• The principle underlying KVL is that no energy (=V Q) is lost or created
in an electric circuit
The work (W) done in moving Q from b to a
(across the battery) is Wba = Q × V1
(Source)

The work done in moving Q from a to b

(across the light bulb) is Wab = Q × V2
(Load)

The energy must be the same and the Q must

be the same also.
Consequently V1 = V2

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Example: Determine the unknown voltage V2 by applying KVL to the following circuit
Where: VS2 = 12 V, V1 = 6 V, V3 = 1 V

Solution: Applying KVL around the simple

loop, we write
-VS2 + V1 + V2 + V3 = 0
(note the different in sign)

V2 = VS2 − V1 − V3 = 12 − 6 − 1 = 5 V
Closed
Loop
Comments: Note that V2 is the voltage across
two branches in parallel, and it must be equal for
each of the two elements, since the two
elements share the same nodes.

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Example: Use KVL to determine the unknown voltages V1 ,V4, and V5 in the following
circuit Where: VS1 = 12 V, VS2 = −4 V, V2 = 2 V, V3 = 6 V

Solution: To determine the unknown voltages,

we apply KVL clockwise around each of the
three meshes:

VS1 − V1 − V2 − V3 = 0
V2 − VS2 + V4 = 0
V3 − V4 − V5 = 0

Next, substitute numerical values:

12 − V1 − 2 − 6 = 0  V1 = 4 V
2 − (−4) + V4 = 0  V4 = −6 V
6 − (−6) − V5 = 0  V5 = 12 V

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Power sign convention

Power (V I) is a signed quantity

Circuit A is doing work in moving circuit B is dissipating energy, because

charge from a lower potential to a charge is being displaced from a higher
higher potential potential to a lower potential
(Active element) (Passive element)

Passive sign convention states that the power dissipated by a load is a positive
quantity (if current flows from plus to minus the power is dissipated and will be
a positive quantity)
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Power sign convention

Example: For the circuit shown, determine which components are absorbing power
and which are delivering power. Is conservation of power satisfied?

Solution: By KCL, the current through element B

is 5 A, to the right.
By KVL, −Va − 3 + 10 + 5 = 0  Va = 12 V
(positive at the top)
A supplies (12 V)(5 A) = 60W
B supplies (3 V)(5 A) = 15W
C absorbs (5 V)(5 A) = 25W
D absorbs (10 V)(3 A) = 30W
E absorbs (10 V)(2 A) = 20W
Total power supplied = 60W+ 15W= 75W
Total power absorbed = 25W+ 30W+ 20W= 75W
Total power supplied = Total power absorbed, so
conservation of power is satisfied

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Resistance and Ohm’s Law

• The magnitude of Resistance (R) for a cylindrical element depends on:

1.The electrical properties of the material (Resistivity ) (=1/Conductivity )
2.The length of the element (directly proportional)
3.The cross sectional area of the element (Inversely proportional)
• The unit of the resistance is Ohm (Ω)
• For ideal resistor the relation between V , I , and R is
V = IR (Ohm’s law)

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Resistance and Ohm’s Law

• Current in a resistive element in a branch is equal to the potential difference

divided by the resistance

Figure 3.2

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Resistance and Ohm’s Law

• Conductance G = 1/R and its unit is siemens(S)

• Power dissipation in a resistor:
P = VI = ( IR) I = I 2 R
or
V V2
P = VI = V ( ) =
R R
• Resistors made of cylindrical
sections of carbon are very
common
• There are standard values of
resistors
• The resistor value is mentioned
by color code

27
Class Activity 1

The charge cycle shown in the following figure an example of a two-rate charge. The
current is held constant at 50 mA for 5 h. Then it is switched to+20 mA
- for the next 5h.
Find: W=1732.5 J
a. The total charge transferred to the battery. Q = 1260 C
b. The energy transferred to the battery. - + + - + -
+ + +
- - -

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Class Activity 2

Apply KVL to find the voltages v1 and v2 in the shown circuit

v2 = 2 V
v1 = 12 V

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Class Activity 3

The battery in the following circuit supplies power to resistors R1, R2, and R3.
Use KCL to determine the current iB, and find the power supplied by the battery if
Vbattery = 3 V.

P = 27/5 mW
iB = 27/15 mA

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Class Activity 4

For the circuit shown, find

a. The currents i1 and i2.
b. The power delivered by the 3-A current source and by the 12-V voltage source.
c. The total power dissipated by the circuit.
Let R1 = 25 , R2 = 10 , R3 = 5 , R4 = 7

i2 = -1.2 A
i1 = -1.8 A

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Series Resistors

Two or more circuit elements are said to be in series if the current from one
element exclusively flows into the next element.

For the following circuit, by KVL 1.5 = v1 + v2 + v3

according to Ohm’s law v1 = iR1 , v2 = iR2 , v3 = iR3
1.5 V = i(R1 + R2 + R3)

In general

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ……………+ RN (Ohms, )

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Voltage Divider Rule

The voltage across each resistor in a series circuit divides in direct proportion
to the individual series resistances

For the following circuit :

𝑉𝑠 𝑅1
𝑣1 = 𝑖𝑅1 = 𝑅 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑞 1 𝑅𝑒𝑞
For N series resistors

35
Parallel Resistors

Two or more circuit elements are said to be in parallel if the elements share the
same terminals. From KVL, it follows that the elements will have the same voltage.
For the following circuit, using KCL: iS = i1 + i2 + i3
But by Ohm’s law :
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑖1 = ,𝑖 = ,𝑖 =
𝑅1 2 𝑅2 3 𝑅3
1 1 1
𝑖𝑆 = 𝑣( + + )
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1
𝑖𝑆 = 𝑣( )
𝑅𝑒𝑞

1 1 1 1
Where : = + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

In general for N parallel resistors :

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑁

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Current Divider Rule

The current in a parallel circuit divides in inverse proportion to the resistances of the
individual parallel elements.
For the following circuit,

1 1
1/( + ∗ ) ∗
𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑖1 = = = 𝑖𝑠 = 𝑖𝑠 ∗ +𝑅
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅𝑒𝑞 1

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Class Activity 5

Find the equivalent resistance seen by the source and the current i in the following
circuit

i = 0.5 A
Req = 10 

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Class Activity 6

Find Io

i = 4.5 mA

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Class Activity 7

Find IL

i = 1 mA

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Practical Voltage Sources

A practical voltage source, composed of an ideal voltage source vS in series with a

small resistance rS

𝑣𝑠
𝑖𝑠 =
𝑟𝑠 + 𝑅𝑙
𝑣𝑠
lim 𝑖𝑠 =
𝑟𝑠 →𝑜 𝑅𝑙
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Practical Current Sources

A practical current source, composed of an ideal current source iS in parallel with a

large resistance rS

𝑟𝑠
𝑣𝑠 = (𝑖𝑠 )𝑅
𝑟𝑠 + 𝑅𝑙 𝑙
lim 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑙
𝑟𝑠 →∞

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Ohmmeter

• The ohmmeter is a device that measure the resistance

• The resistance of an element can be measured only when the element is
disconnected from any other circuit.

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Ammeter

• The Ammeter is a device that measure the current

• The ammeter must be placed in series with the element that current is
to be measured
• An ideal ammeter has zero internal resistance.

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Voltmeter

• The Voltmeter is a device that measure the voltage

• The voltmeter must be placed in parallel with the element that voltage is
to be measured across it
• An ideal Voltmeter has infinite internal resistance.

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Wattmeter

• The Wattmeter is a device that measure the power dissipated

• Wattmeter has four terminals; two of them are connected as ammeter and two are
connected as voltmeter

46
Lab Activity

• A Digital Multi-Meter (DMM) can measure a variety

of different parameters within an electrical circuit. The
basic DMMs can measure amps, volts and ohms
• Most of DMMs can measure AC and DC with + / -
indication
• Typically the main terminals are:
Common(COM): Used with all measurements and
this will take the negative or black lead
Volts, ohms (V/):Used for voltage and resistance
measurements and will take the positive or red lead.
Amps (A) : Used for the current measurements and
will again take the red lead.
• Construct the following circuit in the lab and measure
the voltages v1 and v2 across the resistors. Verify
KVL
• Measure the current (I) in the circuit and verify Ohm’s
law

12-Jan-23 Eng. Sameer Mohammad 47

Conclusion

1. Identify the principal elements of electric circuits: nodes, loops, meshes,

branches, and voltage and current sources.

2. Apply Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws to simple electric circuits and derive
the basic circuit equations.

3. Apply the passive sign convention and compute the power dissipated by
circuit elements.

4. Apply the voltage and current divider laws to calculate unknown

variables in a simple series, parallel, and series-parallel circuits.

5. Understand the rules for connecting electric measuring instruments to

electric circuits for the measurement of resistance, voltage, current, and
power.

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