Engineering Physics Vol - II

Superconductivity
It is seen that when some materials (many metals and alloys) are cooled to temperatures near absolute
zero, the electrical resistivity of the substance suddenly drops to zero and current flows in the material
without any loss of energy. The substance under such conditions is called a superconductor.
The phenomenon was first observed by Heik
Kamarlingh Onnes in 1911. Onnes discovered that
when mercury is cooled to a temperature , its
resistance suddenly vanishes.
The temperature below which the electrical
resistivity of the substance falls to zero is called as
Transition Temperature or Critical Temperature . It
separates the superconducting state of the substance
from normal state. In superconducting state the
substance shows perfect diamagnetism and its
conductivity becomes infinite.

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF MAGNETIC

FIELD
In the presence of a sufficiently strong magnetic
field the superconducting behavior of a conductor
disappears and the material is restored to normal
conducting state even at low temperature. At a
temperature , the critical magnetic field
required to restore a superconductor to its
normal conducting state is given by

( )

where is the critical field at for a given

material. It is clear that at higher temperature a lower critical field can restore the substance to normal
state.
Figure shows the variation of critical field with temperature. If the point lies below the curve, the
substance is in superconducting Phase while above the curve substance is in normal conducting state.

MEISSNER EFFECT
The expulsion of magnetic flux by a superconductor from inside it is known as Meissner effect.
It is observed that a bulk superconductor in a weak magnetic field is a perfect diamagnet with zero
magnetic induction in the interior part. When a sample is placed in a magnetic field and cooled beyond the
transition temperature, the magnetic field inside the sample decreases and that outside increases. At
transition temperature the magnetic flux is completely expelled out of the sample and the sample becomes
a superconductor.

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The magnetic induction ⃗⃗ is related to magnetizing field ⃗⃗ and intensity of magnetization ⃗⃗ by the relation
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ . When magnetic induction inside the sample is zero, we have ⃗⃗
i.e. ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗
Hence, susceptibility
⃗⃗
As the susceptibility is negative, the substance becomes diamagnetic. Further from Ohm’s law
⃗ ⃗⃗ or ⃗⃗ ⃗
where and are respectively the conductivity and the resistivity of the material.
In superconducting state , therefore ⃗⃗ and hence from Maxwell’s equation
⃗⃗
⃗⃗

we have ⃗⃗ i.e. the magnetic flux inside the sample does not change. This contradicts the
Meissner effect. Hence perfect diamagnetism and zero resistivity are independent essential properties of a
superconductor.

PERSISTENT CURRENTS
When an electric current is set up in a perfect
superconductor, it can persist for a very long time
without any applied emf due to zero resistivity. If the
superconductor is placed in a magnetic field the
current can be triggered in the superconductor by
suddenly switching off the field. In case of a
superconducting ring the magnetic flux outside the
ring disappears when field is switched off but the flux
inside the ring is trapped due to current induced in the ring. Superconducting coils with persistent current
can be used as magnets which do not require power supply to maintain its magnetic field.

CLASSIFICATION OF SUPERCONDUCTORS
Superconductors can be classified as Type-I (soft) and Type-II (hard) superconductors.
Type-I superconductors
A type-I superconductor is a pure specimen of some element with low value of critical field . Such
substances show perfect diamagnetism and they expel magnetic flux completely below transition
temperature. In type-I superconductors the magnetization falls abruptly at critical field, as shown in figure.

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Type-II superconductors
In type-II superconductors the material is in superconducting state below a critical field at transition
temperature and magnetic flux is expelled out of the material. With increase in magnetic field above ,
the magnetic flux begins to enter the superconductor and at an upper critical magnetic field the
magnetization vanishes completely and the substance comes to normal state. In type-II superconductors
there is gradual fall in magnetization with increase in magnetizing field as against abrupt fall in type-I
superconductors.
A type-I superconductor can be changed to type-II superconductor by adding some impurity in pure
element. For ideal superconductors the magnetization curves for both type-I and type-II superconductors
are reversible.

LONDON PENETRATION DEPTH

The applied magnetic field falls off exponentially inside the superconductor by the equation

where is magnetic field at the surface, is the distance inside the superconductor from the surface and
is a characteristic length known as London Penetration Depth.
For , we have , hence
The penetration depth is the distance over which the field inside the superconductor drops to of its
value outside.
The penetration depth varies with temperature. When temperature is increased, the penetration depth
increases rapidly near transition temperature and substance loses superconductivity finally.
The temperature dependence of penetration depth is given by

{ ( ) } √

is the penetration depth at , is mass and is charge of electron and is the number of super
electrons.

ISOTOPE EFFECT
The critical temperature for different isotopes of a superconductor is different. The transition temperature
changes smoothly, when different isotopes of same element are mixed. For most of the metals

or

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where is isotopic mass.

Since phonon processes depend upon , lattice vibrations play an important role in superconductivity.

BCS THEORY OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY: COOPER PAIR

The general microscopic explanation of superconductivity is given by BCS (John Bardean, Leon Cooper, and
John Schreiffer) theory, which is based upon the electron interaction through phonons.
Below critical temperature the coulomb repulsion between two electrons is lesser than the force of
attraction between the electrons through phonons. Such a pair of electrons is called as Cooper pair.
Cooper pair is a pair of electrons coupled through a phonon in the superconductor.
When an electron approaches a positive ion in the lattice, the ion suffers Coulomb force and lattice is
distorted. Smaller the mass of the positive ion greater will be the distortion in the lattice. This increases
density of positive ions in the region of distortion which in turn attracts another electron. Thus a free
electron exerts an attractive force on other free electron through lattice vibration. This interaction is
strongest when two electrons have equal and opposite Spin and momenta.
Superconductivity occurs when attractive interaction between the electrons of a cooper pair is greater than
usual repulsive interaction. The energy of cooper pair is lesser than the energy of two electrons in Free State.
This difference in energy is the binding energy of cooper pair or the energy gap at Fermi surface. Below
critical temperature the motion of several cooper pairs with same velocity in same direction causes an
electric current in the material. Cooper pairs can drift through the crystal without any scattering due to their
peculiar property of smoothly riding over lattice imperfections without exchanging energy with them, hence
the current can flow without resistance.

HIGH TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

Superconducting behavior at low temperatures nearing absolute zero is not very much useful practically. The
discovery of high superconductors is therefore an important area of research.
The high temperature superconductors discovered so far have transition temperatures ranging from
to . Such superconductors are not metals; they are oxides and have far more complicated unit cell. The
cell contains one atom of a rare earth metal, two barium atoms, three copper atoms and seven oxygen
atoms. The number of atoms of each metal element in the superconductor gives these compounds the name
1-2-3.
New oxide superconductors with transition temperature above even do not have 1-2-3 crystal
structure while newer compounds do not contain rare earth elements.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SUPERCONDUCTING STATE

1. Superconducting state is perfectly diamagnetic.
2. The current in the superconductor persists for a very long time.
3. When current through a superconductor is increases beyond a critical value the substance is
restored to normal state i.e. superconducting state is reversible.
4. Magnetic field does not penetrate into the superconductor.
5. When magnetic field is increased above a critical value, the superconductivity is lost.
6. Superconductor has infinite dc conductivity, but displays normal resistance over a certain frequency.
7. Specific heat of superconducting materials shows an abrupt change at jumping to a large
value for .
8. Good conductors at normal temperature do not exhibit superconductivity.
9. Materials showing superconductivity have high normal resistivity.
10. Number of valence electrons lies between 2 and 8.

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APPLICATIONS OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
1. Superconductors are used to produce very strong magnetic fields.
2. Magnetic energy can be stored in large superconductors and drawn as required.
3. Superconductors are being used in medical industry as superconducting quantum interferometer
(SQUID).
4. Superconductors are also used in computers and information processing.

EXERCISE
1. What are superconductors? Describe Meissner effect in superconductors. (UPTU 13, 12)
2. What are superconductors? Explain their classification as type I and II superconductors. (UPTU 11)
3. Discuss characteristic properties and uses of superconductors. (UPTU 10)
4. What are superconductors? Explain the effect of magnetic field on superconductors. (UPTU 09-II)
5. What are type I and II superconductors? Explain. (UPTU 09)

Numerical Problems
1. Calculate the temperature at which the critical magnetic field is two-third of the value at for a tin
superconductor with critical temperature .[ ] (UPTU 09-II)
2. A superconducting material has a critical temperature of in zero magnetic field and a critical field
of Tesla at . Find the critical field at .[ ] (UPTU 09, 13, 12, 11)
3. The transition temperature for Pb is . However at it loses the superconducting property
subjected to a magnetic field of . Find the maximum value of which will allow the
metal to retain its superconductivity at . [ ]
4. For the transition temperature for an average atomic mass is whereas for the
isotope of mass , . Calculate the isotope effect coefficient . [ ]
5. For a superconductor the number of super electrons is and , find the penetration
depth at and .[ ]
6. Estimate the energy gap for ( ) at and find the minimum photon wavelength
and frequency needed to break the cooper pair. [ , ] Hint:
, , .
7. A lead wire has a critical magnetic field of at . the critical temperature is . At
what temperature the critical field would drop to ? The diameter of the wire is .
What is the critical current density at that temperature? [ ] Hint:
,
8. The penetration depth  of at is about . Find penetration depth at . given for
is .[ ] Hint:
9. At what temperature is for lead having .[ ]
10. Find critical field in lead at . Given: for lead. [ ] Hint:
11. The critical field for niobium is at and at . Calculate the transition
temperature of the element. [ ] Hint:
12. A long thin superconducting wire of a metal produces a magnetic field on its surface
due to the current through it at a temperature . the critical field of the metal is at
. the critical temperature of the metal is . What is the value of ? [ ] Hint:

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13. The transition temperature for lead is . The maximum critical field for the material is
. Lead has to be used as a superconductor subjected to a magnetic field of . What
precaution will have to be taken. [ ]
14. What current can a wire in diameter, carry in its superconducting state at ? Given
.[ ] Hint: ,
15. For a specimen the critical fields are respectively and for and .
Calculate the transition temperatures and critical fields at and . [ , ] Hint:

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 Engineering Physics Vol - II

Nanoscience
Nanoscience deals with the matter on an atomic and molecular scale; generally with structures of 100 nm
or smaller. A number of physical phenomena become pronounced in this size range. For example quantum
effects become dominant when the nanometer size range is reached. Additionally a number of other
physical properties such as electrical, optical etc change on moving from macroscopic system to nanoscale
due to increase in surface area to volume ratio.

CARBON BUCKYBALLS
A buckyball (Buckminster fullerene) is a molecule with 60 carbon
atoms (C60) and with an icosahedral symmetry. The 60 carbon atoms in
C60 are located at the vertices of a regular truncated icosahedron and
every carbon site on C60 is equivalent
to every other site. Each C atom is
trigonally bonded to other carbon
atoms so that there are 20 hexagonal
faces and 12 pentagonal faces in C 60
molecule. The hexagonal faces consist
of alternating single and double bonds while the pentagonal faces are
defined by single bonds. Buckminster fullerene is the most commonly
naturally occurring fullerene molecule.

Creation of buckyballs
Buckyballs in small numbers were produced by
Richard Smalley by vaporizing carbon with a high
power laser and allowing atoms to condense. In
Smalley’s apparatus an intense laser beam falls upon
a rotating graphite disc in helium filled vacuum
chamber. The high energy laser breaks C–C bonds in
graphite. In this process optical energy converted
into chemical energy. The high energy carbon atoms
and small clusters of them cool and collide in the
helium atmosphere to form new bond arrangements
of C atoms.
The common method of producing buckyballs involves an electric arc between two graphite rods placed in
a helium atmosphere. Helium is used because it is un-reactive and transfers heat rapidly.

Uses of buckyballs
1. Buckyballs are used as circuit elements in nano-electronic devices. They may replace silicon in future
electronic devices.
2. Buckyballs are the strongest material known to man.
3. They have applications in composite materials as surface coatings.
4. Possible industrial applications may be in optical devices, chemical sensors etc.
5. As antioxidants to counter free radicals in human body and enhance immune system.

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6. To deliver drugs directly to the infected regions of the body.

7. Buckyballs can reduce the effects of AIDS virus. Buckyball fits in the active cavity of HIV protease
which deactivates the enzyme and kills the virus.

CARBON NANOTUBES
After buckyballs, nanotube is another form of carbon
discovered in 1991. Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical
fullerenes in which each carbon atom is covalently bonded
with three other carbon atoms. Generally these tubes have
closed ends but can be found open ended also. Nanotubes
are about 100 times stronger than steel but just a sixth of
the weight. The fundamental carbon nanotube is SWCNT
(single walled carbon nano tube), however nanotubes may
also be MWCNT (multi walled carbon nano tubes) which
consist of several nested coaxial SWCNT.
Structure of CNT
Carb
on
nanotube (CNT) is like a two dimensional Graphene
sheet rolled in the cylindrical form just a few
nanometers in diameter and several microns long.
Each carbon atom in CNT is covalently bonded with
three other carbon atoms.
The structure of a carbon nanotube can be specified
by a vector where and are the integers of
the vector equation

where and are the unit vectors of the honey

comb lattice. In figure points A and O are
crystalographically equivalent. OT and AT’ are normal
to vector OA. If we superpose OT and AT’, a cylinder of carbon atoms is formed. When capped with half of
buckyballs at both ends, this forms a carbon nanotube. Depending upon the values of and , carbon
nanotubes are categorized as zigzag [ ], armchair [ ] and chiral [otherwise].

Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes can be produced by following techniques
Arc discharge
In the arc discharge with graphite electrodes, carbon nanotubes are found in carbon soot. The high
temperature produced by arc discharge causes carbon in graphite electrode to evaporate and then form
CNT. This method produces both single walled and multi walled CNT with lengths upto 50 µm.
Laser ablation
In this process a laser pulse vaporizes carbon in a graphite target in a high temperature reactor in the
presence of an inert gas. The nanotubes develop at cooler surfaces of the reactor with the condensation of
the vaporized carbon. A water cooled surface may also be used to collect nanotubes.
Chemical vapor deposition

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It is the common method of commercial production of carbon nanotubes. In this method a process gas such
as ammonia or hydrogen or nitrogen, and a carbon containing gas like methane are bled into the chamber.
The carbon containing gas is broken into carbon atoms at the surface of catalyst particles such as iron
forming nanotubes.

Properties of carbon nanotubes

1. These are strongest and stiffest materials.
2. Carbon nanotubes are much softer in radial direction than along tube axis.
3. In MWCNT the inner nanotube may slide almost without friction within its outer nanotube shell. This
property has been used to create world’s smallest rotational motor.
4. Due to unique electronic structure of Graphene the metallic nanotubes can show electric
conductivity 1000 times greater than bulk metal.
5. Nanotubes are good thermal conductor along the axis but good insulator along radial direction.
6. CNT may cause lung cancer.
7. Under certain conditions CNT and enter the organs by crossing the membrane barrier and harm
them.
8. Electron transport in CNT may be only along the length.

Uses of CNT
1. In view of strong mechanical properties, carbon nanotubes find many applications.
2. Nanotube based transistors are capable of digital switching by using single electron.
3. Depending upon the surface structure carbon nanotubes can be used as conductor or
semiconductor.
4. These can be used as a vessel for transporting drug into the body.
5. As radio receiver.
6. In solar cells in place of copper wires to flow current.
7. Bulk carbon nanotubes can be used as composite fibers in polymers to improve the mechanical,
thermal and electrical properties of the material.
8. A sheet of nanotubes can work as a loudspeaker.
9. Can be used to produce bulletproof clothing.

EXERCISE
1. What is nanotechnology? Give some important applications of nanotechnology.
2. What are carbon nanotubes? Explain the CVD technique for its synthesis.
3. How the carbon nanotubes are produced? Discuss properties and uses of carbon nanotubes.
4. What are carbon nanotubes? Write their important properties and applications.
5. Describe bucky balls and their properties and use.

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