Journal of Interdisciplinary Perspectives

ISSN Print: 2984-8288, ISSN Online: 2984-8385

Vol. 2, No. 5, pp. 62-77, May 2024

Predicting Academic Performance in Mathematics through

Online Learning Constructs and Content Proficiencies
Keith A. Madrilejos
Jose V. Palma Senior High School, Quezon City, Philippines

Author email: [email protected]

Dated received: March 10, 2024 Originality: 93%

Date revised: March 27, 2024 Grammarly Score: 99%
Date accepted: April 3, 2024 Similarity: 7%

Recommended citation:
Madrilejos, K. (2024). Predicting academic performance in mathematics through online learning constructs and
content proficiencies. Journal of Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 2(5), 62-77.
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10908010

Abstract. This study explores the evaluation of online distance learning as a significant alternative to
traditional education, specifically focusing on its application in Grade 11 mathematics education. The
research, conducted in six public senior high schools in Quezon City District IV, employs a descriptive-
correlational design and involves 873 Grade 11 students attending online classes. Constructs of online
learning, including motivation, access and use of technology, perception, self-directed learning, and online
teaching approaches, were examined to understand their impact on mathematics academic performance.
The findings revealed that students strongly embraced self-directed learning in the online environment,
demonstrating high motivation. Positive feedback was observed towards technology use, online teaching
approaches, and the overall perception of online learning. Academic performance was generally
satisfactory, with diverse achievements in content-based competencies like Functions and Their Graphs,
Mathematics of Investment, and Math Logic. Significant low positive relationships were identified
between mathematics academic performance and online learning constructs, as well as content-based
competencies. Key predictors of mathematics academic performance included motivation, technology
access and use, and online teaching approaches. However, the perception of online learning and self-
directed learning did not significantly predict academic performance. These findings contribute to a
multiple linear regression model explaining 24% of the variance, highlighting the need to optimize online
learning for enhanced mathematics academic performance. Recommendations include students enhancing
technology skills and self-directed learning, considering specialized mathematics classes, teachers
intensifying instruction in crucial areas, and the Department of Education sustaining the Open High
School program while simplifying essential learning competencies in General Mathematics. Future
research should explore additional online learning factors for a comprehensive understanding of the
subject.

Keywords: Online learning constructs; Content proficiencies in Mathematics; General Mathematics;

Academic performance; Descriptive-correlational.

1.0 Introduction
The immense impact of COVID-19 compels the education sector with the need to shift from the traditional
classroom to distance education for continuity of learning. The global outbreak of COVID-19 has not only
impacted the economic and health sectors but has also significantly affected the education sector. The shift to
online learning has also stressed the importance of teacher training and support for effective online instruction
(Van Wart et al., 2021). Additionally, concerns have been raised about digital equity and the need for innovative
solutions to ensure all students have equal access to quality education. Even though it is a mainstream
education, various reported challenges and problems encountered by teachers and students are inevitable. In
Southeast Asia, Basar et. al. (2021) discussed in their paper that the implementation of online learning must
examine its effectiveness and the challenges that learners experience in terms of participation, accessibility,
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0).
stable internet connection, and motivation to learn. It is of paramount importance to consider various factors in
the online learning environment to determine its effectiveness and empirically understand its influence on
student learning and achievement. The term "constructs" is used by the researcher to denote factors, dimensions,
or domains of the online learning modality, as this has been proven by several related empirical studies to be a
multidimensional variable (Rahayu et. al., 2021; Kamaruzaman et al., 2022). Moreover, Pham et al. (2021)
explored and assessed six significant factors that affect online learning outcomes: learner characteristics,
perceived usefulness, course content, course design, ease of use, and faculty capacity. This study adopted the
framework of Kamaruzaman et al. (2022) which consists of dimensions of online modality such as motivation,
access and use of technology, perception of online learning, self-directed learning, and online teaching approach.

In the local context, the Department of Education Philippines implemented the Basic Education Learning
Continuity Plan enforcing the adoption of alternative delivery modes of teaching and learning (DepEd, 2020).
Online distance learning becomes one of the alternative modalities that consists of latent constructs or
dimensions to evaluate its effectiveness based on students’ perspectives. In the current situation in Philippine
public schools, online and modular learning emerges as a crucial alternative during unforeseen disruptions to
face-to-face classes, such as weather disturbances, extreme temperatures, and transport strikes. Hermosisima et
al. (2023) and Nord Anglia Education (2021) stressed that online teaching provides accessibility, flexibility, and
continuity of learning. Access and use of technology is an indispensable factor of e-learning which needs to be
assessed based on the learner’s skill in using online platforms and gadgets as well as a strong internet
connection (Al Rawashdeh et al., 2021). Self-directed learning is considered an important skill to attain better
academic performance because this remote set-up requires students, especially the senior high school and
college level, to be independent and responsible for their learning. Hua et al. (2024) recently found that self-
directed learning skills had positive effects on the online learning satisfaction of students. The Teaching
Approach in Online set-up and the Motivation of learners to attend online classes and participate in distance
learning tasks play an important role in achieving effective learning (Mazhar et al., 2020; Ozer & Badem, 2022).
The students’ Perception of Online Learning reflects their remote learning experience and how they interact and
adjust to this new learning setup (Purwadi et al., 2021).

Mathematics holds a crucial position in the education of senior high school students, particularly as they prepare
for their chosen fields within the existing Basic Education Curriculum. The academic performance in
mathematics serves as a gauge of how effectively students achieve content-based competencies and skills.
Challenges in attaining improved mathematics achievement have been persistent concerns for both teachers and
students, both before and during the pandemic. Numerous related studies have assessed the implementation of
the Senior High School (SHS) curriculum, focusing on General Mathematics, and examining the scenario before,
during, and after the pandemic (Del Rosario & Medina, 2022; Pagaran et al. 2022; Mamolo & Sugano, 2020;
Jaudinez, 2019). These highlighted the importance of considering the Most Essential Competencies as integral
features of the Basic Education Learning Continuity Plan 2020. It is critical for assessing effectiveness and
monitoring the content knowledge, skills, and academic progress of senior high school students. In the school
year 2019-2020, Herrera (2019) conducted a descriptive study in four DepEd-managed senior high schools in
Luna, Apayao, Region 1. The findings revealed that out of 156 Filipino senior high school students, 37.82%
achieved grades between 75 to 79, and 41 students achieved grades ranging from 80 to 84. Further investigation
into the mathematics academic performance of senior high school students was carried out by Capinding (2021)
during the school year 2020-2021 at Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology. The study unveiled that
out of 211 students, 27.49% received final grades ranging from 75 to 79, while 28.91% attained final grades
falling within the satisfactory level.

In Congressional District IV of Quezon City, the locale of this study where the majority of students choose
online as their modality, school overall data of final grades from teachers indicated that student’s Mathematics
performance has oscillating trends in three public schools such as Final Grades of 85 to 89 during SY 2019-2020,
Final Grades of 75 to 85 in SY 2020-2021, and Final Grades of 80 to 84 in SY 2021-2022. At Jose V. Palma Senior
High School in Quezon City, the public high school where the researcher is currently employed, the average
General mathematics grades in SY 2019-2020, SY 2020-2021, and SY 2021-2022 are 84.25, 79.74, and 80.83,
respectively. The observed disparities in schools on the fluctuating trend on average Mathematics academic
performance may be attributed to the influence of the factors, constructs, or dimensions of online distance

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learning such as Motivation, Access, and Use of Technology, Self-Directed Learning, Perception of Online
Learning, and Online Teaching Approach. Engaging in synchronous remote classes could potentially impact
students' success positively or negatively, depending on these factors.

In light of the provided information, concerns, difficulties, and the absence of a statistical model explaining
mathematics academic performance in a remote setup, a quantitative study is necessary to explore the predictive
associations between the elements of online learning methods, proficiency in mathematical content knowledge
and skills, and academic achievements in mathematics.

2.0 Methodology
2.1 Research Design
This present study utilized descriptive correlational design as it aimed to further investigate the predictive
relationship between the online learning constructs, assessment of most essential learning competencies, and
General Mathematics academic performance. The researcher included the online learning dimensions as a
potential group of variables that affect the academic performance of the respondents in General Mathematics in
the online learning context. According to Chiang et al. (2020), the research design is appropriate as it involves
the measurement of several independent variables that may be influencing a single dependent variable.
Furthermore, this study utilized an observational research design. It gathered and observed online learning
variables and the mathematics proficiencies of the respondents in their natural settings, without manipulation.
Observational design is appropriate for observing, collecting, and measuring variables in their natural settings
without manipulation (Creswell, 2009).

2.2 Research Participants

The respondents of this study were 873 out of 1531 Grade 11 students under the online modality of SY 2021-2022
from six randomly selected public SHS in Congressional District IV of Quezon City. The selected schools with a
corresponding number of respondents are Krus Na Ligas High School (109), Carlos L. Albert High School (110),
Quezon City High School (122), Ramon Magsaysay Cubao High School (315), Eugenio Lopez Jr. Center for
Media Arts SHS (149), and Flora A. Ylagan HS (68).

Cluster Random Sampling was employed for respondent selection, as it is a suitable technique for quantitative
studies seeking to perform statistical inference (Mananghaya, 2020). The researcher randomly chose six (6)
public senior high schools out of the twelve (12) in District IV. The sample included all learners in the online
modality. Employing Statistical Power Analysis with GPower Software with a specified statistical test in A Priori
Type, a minimum sample size of 146 was calculated at a 0.15 effect size and 95% confidence level. The actual
sample size exceeded the minimum required.

2.3 Research Instrument

The researcher developed the Online Learning Assessment Scale (OLAS) to gather the necessary data on
respondent’s agreement on mathematics online learning. The following dimensions were adapted and used in
the initial steps of item development: Motivation (8 items), Access and Use of Technology (7 items), Opinion on
Online Learning (6 items), Self-Directed Learning (8 items), and Online Teaching Approach (8 items). The
indicators of this instrument were based on the study of Sharma et. al. (2020) and Kamaruzaman et al. (2022).
The other questionnaire is the researcher-made test which is the Most Essential Learning Competencies
Assessment Tool (MAT) in the form of a 30-item multiple choice test. Domains of this instrument are Functions
and their Graphs (14 items), Math of Investment (6 items), and Math Logic (10 items). The online learning
assessment scale is a Likert scale instrument with four options to determine the level of agreement of the
respondents in each indicator: 4 – Strongly Agree, 3 – Agree, 2 – Disagree, and 1 – Strongly Disagree.

The Online Learning Assessment Scale (OLAS) was assessed in terms of face validity and content validity by
seven (7) experts (master teachers, principals, and subject area coordinators from Quezon City and Valenzuela
City) in Mathematics, Statistics, and language. The instrument was evaluated with an overall Scale Content
Validity Index of 0.85 which was verbally interpreted as an accepted value (Yusoff, 2019). The questionnaire was
pilot-tested for testing the reliability and conducting the item analysis at Manuel A. Roxas High School (17
participants) and Jose V. Palma SHS (18 participants). As a result, the scale was considered to be internally

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consistent based on Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient of 0.745 for motivation, 0.70 for access and use of technology,
0.70 for perception of online learning, 0.745 for self-directed learning, and 0.846 for online teaching approach.
Each reliability index was interpreted to be internally consistent since each computed value is at least 0.70
(Adamson & Prion, 2013). The Content validity was checked by the validators for the alignment of the test items
in the learning competencies in the MELC Assessment tool for General Mathematics. Table of Specifications
(TOS) was drafted and used by the researcher for this instrument to relate the instructional objectives to the
course content (SAGE Research Methods, 2018). Item Analysis was conducted by the researcher and the results
showed that the difficulty index ranged from 0.44 to 0.63 which means the items are moderately difficult while
the discriminant index ranged from 0.31 to 0.44 which is interpreted as very good items (Calmorin, 2004).

2.4 Data Gathering Procedure

The researcher employed Google Forms to streamline the collection of responses from the designated
participants. Both online and in-person orientations were carried out to elucidate the research objectives and
anticipated outcomes, ensuring the precision and comprehensiveness of the responses. Before the pilot testing
and actual administration of the online validated instrument, a written communication for approval was sent to
the Department of Education - Schools Division Office of Quezon City to conform to the necessary protocol and
procedures. After the approval, two letters (approval and consent form) addressed to the school heads, math
teachers, and parents were sent to the randomly selected schools to virtually administer the survey. The
responses were checked consistently and gradually to determine the degree of completion of submitted answers.
Follow-up on the responses was done through virtual communication, email, phone calls, and personal visits to
the SHS Math teachers, the Head Teacher of the Mathematics Department, and SHS focal persons. After the data
screening and inspection of responses in Google Forms, the researcher tabulated and processed the Likert Scale
data using MS Excel and SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences). Data screening was done to avoid missing
values. The data set was organized and analyzed.

2.5 Data Analysis

Weighted mean was used by the researcher to determine the Grade 11 students’ responses regarding their level
of agreement in Mathematics online learning. This was used to describe the online learning dimensions of the
respondents. The average of responses in each indicator per online learning dimensions was computed using
this type of mean. The arithmetic mean was used to compute the average academic performance (final grades)
in General Mathematics and average scores in the assessment of content proficiencies in General Mathematics of
the respondents. Standard deviation was employed to find out the degree of variances of the scores in the
assessment of content proficiencies in General Mathematics.

Frequency counts and percentage distributions were employed to summarize the mathematics academic
performance of the respondents. The descriptive rating based on the School Form 9 (Report Card) was used. The
researcher used Spearman's Rho correlation to assess the relationship between online learning dimensions and
mathematics academic performance, as well as the assessment of content-based competencies and mathematics
academic performance. This statistical procedure was deemed appropriate because the data set did not meet the
assumptions of parametric tests. Spearman's Rho is preferred over Pearson correlation when dealing with Likert
Scale variables measured on an ordinal scale (Abordo, 2023).

Multiple Linear Regression, a statistical modeling procedure, was utilized since this is aligned with the research
design. If there are a series of values for two or more correlated variables under study, then it is possible to
predict or estimate the value of one variable from the knowledge of other variables (Espinola, 2021).

2.6 Ethical Considerations

Charlesworth Author Services (2017) discussed specific key principles of ethical standards in conducting
research. These key principles enable the present study to be well-guided in terms of regulations and
restrictions. The principle of recruiting participants was followed as the researcher observed the privacy of the
information from the respondents and was not pressured to participate. The researcher adhered to the principle
of obtaining informed consent by providing a parent's consent form to each respondent during both the pilot
testing and the actual administration of the survey.

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To highly protect the data and information in the Google Form Survey, the researcher required only all Grade 11
students with DepEd Quezon City Gmail Accounts to answer the electronic survey form. After obtaining all the
necessary information last May 30, 2022, the researcher closed the Google Form for responses by changing the
privacy settings. Only the Excel File of the organized data set remained as the original copy of all responses
because after performing the data analysis and producing results and findings, the researcher deleted the Excel
File and the survey to ensure that other persons would not be able to access the information. Respondents’
information and actual answers in the survey were not archived in any public data storage. Scored assessment
data, materials, and score sheets were deleted after one year of conducting the study.

3.0 Results and Discussion

3.1 Description of the Online Learning Constructs
Description of the Online Learning Constructs in Terms of Motivation

Table 1. Description of the online learning constructs in terms of motivation

INDICATORS WEIGHTED MEAN VERBAL INTERPRETATION
1. I am optimistic about the use of technology in learning mathematics 3.52 Strongly Agree
online.
2. I embrace learning new things regarding online learning in 3.42 Strongly Agree
mathematics.
3. I am updated with the latest technology in learning mathematics. 3.39 Strongly Agree
4. I used my significant time, effort, and energy to learn mathematics in 3.38 Strongly Agree
online classes
5. I am certain that I understand the math concepts being taught in 3.37 Strongly Agree
synchronous classes.
6. I have a wide interest in ICT about learning mathematics online. 3.36 Strongly Agree
7. I like what I am learning in mathematics online. 3.36 Strongly Agree
8. I am not confident in using online distance learning as my modality to 2.79 Agree
learn mathematics.
Overall Weighted Mean 3.32 Strongly Agree

Presented in Table 1 were the weighted mean and corresponding interpretation of the description of the online
learning constructs in terms of motivation. As gleaned from the table, the top 3 indicators of Motivation in rank
are “I am optimistic about the use of technology in learning mathematics via online” with a weighted mean of
3.52 or Strongly Agree, “I embrace to learn new things regarding online learning in mathematics” with a
weighted mean of 3.42 or Strongly Agree, and “I am updated with the latest technology in learning
mathematics” with a weighted mean of 3.36 or Strongly Agree. The Grade 11 respondents strongly agreed that
they are motivated to engage in learning mathematics using online modality. This implies that respondents have
achieved a certain level of motivation in studying mathematics online despite the pandemic.

The results on Motivation were contradicted in the study of Fulgencio et al. (2021) as well as the investigation
made by Mamolo (2022) which showed those students in mathematics were less motivated in their studies
online. On the other hand, Cabansag et al. (2021) had the same findings that students were broadly motivated to
attend and participate in their online classes.

Description of the Online Learning Constructs in Terms of Access and Use of Technology
Shown in Table 2 were the weighted mean and the corresponding verbal interpretation of the description of
online learning constructs in terms of access and use of technology. Based on the results, the respondents agreed
that they were knowledgeable in the basic functions of the gadgets used in online modality based on the highest
weighted mean of 3.50 which is described as “Strongly Agree.” Other indicators show that respondents used
video lessons and tutorials to learn Mathematics and they have devices to use in their synchronous and
asynchronous classes in Mathematics as numerically shown in the weighted mean of 3.37 and 3.34 which are
both described as “Strongly Agree.” On the other hand, indicators about not being aware of netiquette and not
being aware of the web browsers when doing research were both disagreed by the respondents. The
respondents agreed that accessibility of technology, internet connection, online learning resources as well as
being well-equipped to use gadgets and asynchronous tools are indispensable in learning mathematics online.

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 Table 2. Description of the online learning constructs in terms of access and use of technology
INDICATORS WEIGHTED MEAN VERBAL INTERPRETATION
1. I know the basic functions of my gadget (cellphone, tablet, 3.50 Strongly Agree
laptop, or desktop computer).
2. I used video lessons and tutorials as a reference in my 3.37 Strongly Agree
mathematics lessons.
3. I have a device (cellphone, tablet, or computer) to access 3.34 Strongly Agree
synchronous classes in mathematics.
4. I know how to access online educational resource sites and 3.22 Agree
libraries.
5. I know how to utilize asynchronous tools for my 3.19 Agree
mathematics subject.
6. I am not aware of the netiquette when engaging in learning 2.46 Disagree
mathematics online.
7. I do not know how to use web browsers when doing 2.42 Disagree
research activities.
Overall Weighted Mean 3.07 Agree

The findings discussed above aligned with those of Eze et al. (2020), who investigated the relationship between
technology-related factors such as accessibility, ease of use, and internet service, and students' adoption of ICT
learning facilities.

Description of the Online Learning Constructs in Terms of Perception of Online Learning

Table 3. Description of the online learning constructs in terms of perception of online learning
INDICATORS WEIGHTED MEAN VERBAL INTERPRETATION
1. I find myself saving money since the start of online classes 3.40 Strongly Agree
because I do not spend transportation costs.
2. Online learning improves and simplifies the learning in 3.33 Strongly Agree
mathematics.
3. Online learning provides flexibility in terms of studying 3.30 Strongly Agree
time in mathematics subjects convenient to the learner.
4. Online learning can make studying mathematics accessible 3.22 Agree
to people regardless of their location.
5. The setup of the online learning modality is not compatible 3.20 Agree
with the way I learn mathematics.
6. Online modality is not effective an alternative form of 2.63 Agree
learning.
Overall Weighted Mean 3.18 Agree

Table 3 displays the weighted mean and the corresponding verbal interpretations of the description of the online
learning constructs in terms of perception of online learning. As observed from the matrix, an overall extent of
agreement of 3.18 which is verbally described as “Agree,” implies that respondents in general had positive
perceptions of using online modality in learning Mathematics. Respondents highly rated the indicator “I find
myself saving money since the start of online class because I do not spend transportation costs” as indicated in
the weighted mean of 3.40 which is verbally described as “Strongly Agree.” The second in rank indicator is
“Online Learning improves and simplifies the learning in Mathematics,” with a weighted mean of 3.33 which is
verbally interpreted as “Strongly Agree.” The third in rank among the indicators is “Online learning provides
flexibility in terms of studying time in Mathematics subject convenient to the learner,” with a weighted mean of
3.30 which is described as “Strongly Agree.” The perceptions of online learning of the student-respondents were
positive as they agreed that online modality effectively helps students to learn Mathematics in terms of time,
flexibility, accessibility regardless of location, and budget saving in transportation costs.

These findings are consistent with the research conducted by Baczek et al. (2021), which highlighted the
perceived advantages of online learning, including the ability to study from home, continuous access to online
materials, the opportunity to learn at one's own pace, and the comfort of one's surroundings. On the contrary,
the findings were contradicted by the study of Harefa and Sihombing (2022) which revealed negative
perceptions of online learning being less effective in remote areas due to network and communication issues.

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Description of the Online Learning Constructs in Terms of Self-Directed Learning

Table 4. Description of the online learning constructs in terms of self-directed learning

INDICATORS WEIGHTED MEAN VERBAL INTERPRETATION
1. I carry out my study guide and plan in mathematics 3.43 Strongly Agree
subject.
2. I repeatedly use uploaded mathematics modules in Google 3.40 Strongly Agree
Classroom based on my needs.
3. In this online learning modality, I expect high learning 3.37 Strongly Agree
performance in mathematics.
4. I study my math lessons in advance using supplementary 3.37 Strongly Agree
video tutorials on YouTube and e-books.
5. I can complete my assignments in mathematics online even 3.36 Strongly Agree
if there are distractions.
6. I ask for assistance when dealing with difficult mathematics 3.35 Strongly Agree
learning tasks via online.
7. I can discipline myself and organize my time to avoid the 3.35 Strongly Agree
bulk of work.
8. I feel online learning makes me aware of my study plan in 3.27 Strongly Agree
mathematics subject.
Overall Weighted Mean 3.36 Strongly Agree

Shown in Table 4 were the weighted mean and corresponding verbal interpretation of the online learning
constructs in terms of self-directed learning. Based on the results, among the five online learning dimensions,
Self-Directed Learning has the highest weighted mean of 3.36 which is verbally described as “Strongly Agree.”
The students "strongly agree" that they create their study guide and plan for the Mathematics subject (weighted
mean = 3.43) and that they frequently use uploaded Mathematics modules in Google Classroom based on their
needs (weighted mean = 3.40). These two indicators rank first and second, respectively. Lastly, third in rank are
the indicators “In this online learning modality, I expect high learning performance in Mathematics” and “I
study my math lessons in advance using supplementary video tutorials on YouTube and e-books,” with a
weighted mean of 3.37 which is verbally interpreted as “Strongly Agree.” The student-respondents strongly
agreed that they possess self-directed learning characteristics which are vital to succeed in remote learning set-
up. This level of agreement on self-directed learning implies that respondents were independent learners.

The results on Self-Directed Learning were also confirmed by the study by Van Der Vleuten et al. (2020) that the
perception of students in self-directed learning has increased during the academic year 2020. Moreover, the
findings stated in the previous text were supported by Sun et al. (2022) which indicated that having a self-
directed learning attitude has a positive effect on learning engagement provided that the learners have the
perceived value of knowing the learning goals.

Description of the Online Learning Constructs in Terms of Online Teaching Approach

Table 5. Description of the online learning constructs in terms of online teaching approach
INDICATORS WEIGHTED MEAN VERBAL INTERPRETATION
1. My mathematics teacher gives online assessments that are 3.67 Strongly Agree
relevant to the objectives of our lessons.
2. My mathematics teacher provides feedback during and 3.40 Strongly Agree
after doing the asynchronous tasks.
3. My mathematics teacher stimulated my interest in learning 3.29 Strongly Agree
mathematics online.
4. The teaching approach of my mathematics teacher online is
enjoyable. 3.21 Agree
5. My mathematics teacher uses instructional videos as 3.18 Agree
supplementary materials which are integrated into our online
discussion.
6. My mathematics teacher is well-versed in using techniques 3.15 Agree
in teaching online classes.
7. My mathematics teacher gives clear and specific directions 3.10 Agree
during synchronous and asynchronous classes.
8. My mathematics teacher does not use online games or 2.78 Agree
interactive activities that make learning enjoyable.
Overall Weighted Mean 3.22 Agree

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Presented in Table 5 were the weighted mean and corresponding verbal interpretation of the online learning
constructs in terms of self-directed learning. As observed from the matrix, the respondents strongly agreed that
their Mathematics teachers provide relevant online assessments based on the learning objectives. The
respondents rated the indicator “My Mathematics teacher gives online assessments that are relevant to the
objectives of our lessons,’ as “Strongly Agree” based on a weighted mean of 3.67. Providing feedbacks from their
Mathematics teachers were observed by the respondents based on the weighted mean of 3.40 which verbally
describes “Strongly Agree.” Respondents also strongly agreed that their mathematics teachers stimulated their
interest in learning Mathematics via online as they had a 3.29 level of agreement. The online teaching approach
was positively perceived by the student-respondents as they strongly agreed that their Mathematics teachers
effectively deliver synchronous and asynchronous lessons, provide feedback, give relevant online assessments,
and stimulate their interest in learning Mathematics in an online set-up.

These findings were confirmed also in the study of Van Wart et al. (2021) which found that Teaching Presence
and Instructional Support are among the top seven explored factors of online learning success based on
students’ perspectives. In addition to this, the related study of Gopal et al. (2021) is aligned with the results as
they included the quality of online instruction and prompt feedback of teachers as independent factors that
positively affect student satisfaction.

3.2 Performance of the Respondents Based on the Assessment of Content Proficiencies in General
Mathematics

Table 6. Performance of the respondents in general mathematics

AREAS OF MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES NUMBER OF ITEMS MEAN SD INTERPRETATION
Functions and Their Graphs 14 13.00 2.33 Outstanding
Mathematics of Investment 6 2.00 0.66 Did not meet expectations
Math Logic 10 6.00 2.03 Satisfactory
Total Items/Overall Mean Score 30 21.00 Very Satisfactory

Table 6 shows the mean and standard deviation of the performance of the respondents based on the assessment
of content proficiencies in three areas of General Mathematics. As noticed from the matrix, the data revealed that
the overall average score in the 30-item assessment of the most essential learning competencies (MELCs) in
General Mathematics is 21.00 being rated as very satisfactory. With the highest average score of 13 out of 14
points in Functions and their Graphs, these results suggest that most students have achieved a desirable level of
mastery based on the transmuted scores in Table 2. However, students are still developing their skills in the
areas of Mathematics of Investment and Math Logic, with average scores of 2 out of 6 points and 6 out of 10
points, respectively. Based on the transmutation matrix in Table 2, these scores indicate that the respondents did
not meet the expected competencies in Mathematics of Investment and had a satisfactory level of performance in
Math Logic. The test results show that there is an ongoing need to enhance the most essential competencies of
learners in the two areas of General Mathematics which are typically covered during the second quarter of the
first semester.

Mamolo and Sugano (2020) had related findings as their investigation resulted in fair assessment levels in each
area of General Mathematics based on actual scores of the Grade 11 students. This can be also aligned with the
detailed analysis made by Refugio et al. (2021) and Jaudinez et al. (2019) which found various challenges in the
teaching and learning of the said core subject such as the length of time to cover all the lessons and the bulk of
topics in General Mathematics. The overall average score of 21 out of 30 items can be paralleled in the study of
Mamolo and Sugano (2020) which revealed that the actual learning competency in General Mathematics was fair
based on most scores obtained fall under 17 to 32 out of 80 summative items test.

3.3 Academic Performance of the Respondents in General Mathematics

Table 7 shows the ranking of the academic performance of the respondents in General Mathematics. As gleaned
from the table, it was observed that among the 873 Grade 11 respondents, 302 (35%) had final grades ranging
from 80 to 84 which is rated as “Satisfactory.” Aside from this, 252 (29%) out of 873 respondents were rated as
“Very Satisfactory.” Lastly, the third in rank is the total of 118 (14%) out of 873 respondents who had final
grades rated as “Outstanding.” It is also noticed that 14 respondents did not achieve the learning competencies.
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Based on the feedback of the Math teachers in the selected schools, these respondents were still in the process of
remediation through modular set-up. Based on a random sample of 873 respondents, the overall final grade of
83.82 indicates that Grade 11 respondents had a satisfactory level of academic performance in General
Mathematics.

Table 7. Academic performance of the respondents in general mathematics

INDICATORS f % RANK
Outstanding (90 – 100) 118 14 3
Very Satisfactory (85 – 89) 252 29 2
Satisfactory (80 – 84) 302 35 1
Fairly Satisfactory (75 – 79) 187 21 4
Did Not Meet Expectations (74 and Below) 14 1 5
Total 873 100
Overall Average Final Grade 83.32

This result of having a large proportion of students in satisfactory Mathematics academic performance was also
evident in the study of Capinding (2021) which indicated that 64 (30.33%) out of 211 Grade 11 students had
Mathematics grades ranging from 85 to 89. However, the related study by Herrera (2019) revealed that the
majority of the 156 respondents during the pre-pandemic school year had final grades in General Mathematics
between 75 to 79.

3.4 Test of Relationship between Online Learning Constructs and Mathematics Academic Performance of the
Respondents
The Spearman rank correlation coefficient was utilized due to the assessment of online learning constructs being
determined through a Likert scale instrument. Additionally, the academic performance was assumed to be non-
normally distributed, as indicated by p-values greater than 0.05 obtained from the Shapiro-Wilk Test.

Table 8. The extent of the relationship between online learning constructs and mathematics academic performance
VARIABLES 𝛒 P-VALUE INTERPRETATION DECISION
Motivation and Academic Performance 0.328 < 0.001 Significant Reject Ho
Access and Use of Technology and Academic Performance 0.356 < 0.001 Significant Reject Ho
Perception of Online Learning and Academic Performance 0.351 < 0.001 Significant Reject Ho
Self-directed Learning and Academic Performance 0.305 < 0.001 Significant Reject Ho
Online Teaching Approach and Academic Performance 0.334 < 0.001 Significant Reject Ho

Table 8 presents the extent of the relationship between the online learning domains and the academic
performance in General Mathematics of the respondents. The matrix shows that all variables were positively
and significantly correlated with the mathematics academic performance of the respondents. However, it was
noticed that each correlation coefficient is verbally interpreted as a low positive association which urges further
recommendations. Motivation in online learning and Mathematics academic performance were significantly and
positively correlated based on the computed correlation coefficient of 0.328 and p-value of <0.001. However, the
low positive association of 0.328 between the variables under study encourages teachers to create action plans. It
indicates a relatively weak association between these variables. This means that while there is a positive
relationship, other factors may also be influencing Mathematics academic performance. Math educators need to
consider these additional factors when seeking to improve student performance in Mathematics, even if
motivation in online learning is high. Access and use of technology and mathematics academic performance
were significantly correlated with a positive correlation of 0.356 and a p-value of <0.001. Similarly, having an
outcome of a low correlation coefficient even if it is significant calls for the creation of online learning
enhancement programs. Perception of online learning and Mathematics academic performance were
significantly associated based positive correlation coefficient of 0.351 and a p-value of <0.001. Since the
correlation coefficient is low, this can be attributed to the various challenges, and problems that students
experienced. Self-directed learning and Mathematics academic performance were significantly and positively
associated based on the computed correlation coefficient of 0.305 and p-value of <0.001. Online teaching
approach and Mathematics academic performance were significantly correlated based on the p-value of <0.001
and positive correlation coefficient of 0.334.

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The results on motivation confirm the study of Capinding (2021) which unveiled that student motivation is a
determinant of Mathematics academic success. In terms of access and use of technology, this was supported by
Maheshwari (2021) who found out that ICT infrastructure and access to the internet were associated with
student’s online learning intentions. The result obtained in the case of perception of online learning is related to
the studies of Purwadi et al. (2021), Baczek et al. (2021), and Pinar (2021) which resulted in different findings of
having positive perceptions and negative perceptions in online learning.

In terms of self-directed learning, this affirms the study of Pepito and Acledan (2022) which found that online
learning success and self-directed learning were significantly correlated. Lastly, the findings on the online
teaching approach were parallel to the findings of Bhowmik and Bhattacharya (2021) who investigated
instructional factors, student factors, and teacher factors as variables of online learning. Before the pandemic,
Herrera (2019) had empirical evidence which did not support the current findings. According to Herrera (2019),
teacher-related variables such as teaching strategy, mastery of the content, use of instructional materials, and
teaching attitude were not significantly correlated with mathematics academic performance.

3.5 Relationship Between Content Proficiencies and Mathematics Academic Performance

Table 9. The extent of relationship between content proficiencies and mathematics academic performance
VARIABLES 𝛒 P-VALUE INTERPRETATION DECISION
Content Proficiencies and Academic Performance 0.352 < 0.001 Significant Reject Ho

Table 9 reveals the association between the online learning dimensions and the mathematics academic
performance of the respondents. The assessment of respondents’ content proficiencies in General Mathematics
and academic performance had a significant association based on the coefficient of 0.352 and p-value <0.001. It
implies that as the mathematical content knowledge and skills of students enhance, their academic performance
improves.

The findings on content knowledge and skills contradict the study of Cordova and Tan (2018) conducted at
Valencia, Bukidnon which found that the mathematics proficiency of students was not correlated with academic
performance. On the other hand, the current result confirms the study of Callaman and Itaas (2020) which
revealed that mathematical skills and academic performance were significantly correlated.

3.6 Testing of the Assumptions for a Multiple Linear Regression and Utilization of the Findings
Before conducting multiple linear regression, a series of diagnostic tests were done to determine whether there
are potential violations of the assumptions such as multicollinearity, heteroscedasticity, and normality of
residuals, ensuring the reliability and validity of the regression model. It helps assess the robustness of the
model, enhances the accuracy of predictions, and informs adjustments or transformations to improve the overall
quality of the regression analysis (Amora, 2023).

Normality of the Residuals and Presence of Multivariate Outliers

Table 10 presents the residual statistics consisting of the standard residuals, Mahalanobis distance results, and
Cook’s distance values. The standard residuals in the interval of −2.953 𝑡𝑜 2.156 is a good indication since the
values lie in the standard residual interval of −3 𝑡𝑜 3. The result of the Cook’s Distance at 0.000 which is not
greater than 1 indicates that the data set has no multivariate outliers. Mahalanobis values ranging from 0.636 to
5.729 underwent examination and testing through the Chi-square distribution, yielding non-significant results.
Consequently, no significant multivariate outliers were observed in the dataset.

Table 10. Normality of the residuals and presence of multivariate outliers

MINIMUM MAXIMUM MEAN SD N
Residual -12.96 17.53 0.000 4.37 873
Standard Residual -2.953 2.156 0.000 0.997 873
Mahalanobis Distance 0.636 5.729 5.993 3.762 873
Cook’s Distance 0.000 0.068 0.001 0.003 873

Figure 1 depicts the scatter plot of the residuals (error terms). As noticed from the graph, data points being
plotted did not fall beyond -3.0 and 3.0, which indicates a relatively well-behaved and homoscedastic pattern of
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residuals. This suggests that the variability of the errors remains fairly constant across the range of predictor
values. The limited spread of residuals within the -3.0 to 3.0 range indicates that the model's predictions are
generally consistent and that there are no significant outliers or systematic patterns of deviation from the
expected values. This homoscedasticity is a positive characteristic in regression analysis, contributing to the
reliability of the model's predictions and the validity of statistical inferences drawn from the data.

Figure 1. Scatter Plot of the Residuals

Figure 2 presents the normal p-p plot of the residuals of the regression line. One of the requirements of
performing multiple linear regression is the normality of the error terms or residuals (Yambot, 2020). As noticed
from the graph, the points lie closer to the straight line which is an indication that the error terms were assumed
to exhibit an approximate normal distribution.

Figure 2. Normal P-P Plot of the Residuals

Regression Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

The findings from another assumption test, as illustrated in Table 11, ascertained whether the slope of the
regression line is equal to zero. Given the test was significant at p < 0.001, it can be inferred that the slope of the
regression line is not equal to zero, indicating that the line is not horizontal.

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 Table 11. Regression analysis of variance
SUM OF SQUARES DF MEAN SQUARE F P-VALUE
Regression 5295.46 4 1323.87 68.64 < 0.001
Residual 16740.87 868 19.29
Total 22036.33 872

Coefficients and Collinearity Statistics

Table 12. Coefficients and collinearity statistics

STANDARDIZED P-
VARIABLES 𝛃 STD. ERROR 𝐭 TOLERANCE VIF
COEFFICIENTS VALUE
Constant 68.366 0.954 71.628 < 0.001
Content Proficiencies 0.186 0.021 0.275 9.074 < 0.001 0.937 1.068
Motivation 1.045 0.293 0.119 3.572 < 0.001 0.742 1.348
Access and Use of Technology 1.195 0.232 0.178 5.156 < 0.001 0.333 2.999
Perception of Online Learning 0.036 0.346 0.005 0.103 0.918 0.314 3.188
Self-Directed Learning 0.510 0.295 0.060 1.726 0.085 0.730 1.370
Online Teaching Approach 1.001 0.232 0.151 4.315 < 0.001 0.675 1.481

Table 12 reveals the coefficients of the regression equation with their corresponding p-values and the variance
inflation factor per variable. The coefficients of the regression model served as the average change in the
mathematics academic performance for every unit of change in each independent variable. As observed from
the table, each variance inflation factor (VIF) is less than 4 which indicates that there was no evidence of serious
multicollinearity among the predictors (Yambot, 2020). This shows that the predictors were not highly correlated
to each other. Based on the results, the test is significant as evidenced by each computed p-value of less than 0.05
for the following independent variables: content proficiencies in mathematics, motivation, access and use of
technology, and online teaching approach.

Content proficiencies in General Mathematics were revealed as a significant positive linear predictor of
mathematics academic performance as shown in the p-value less than 0.001 and positive coefficient of 0.186.
Motivation in online learning was found to be a significant positive linear predictor of Mathematics academic
performance based on the p-value of <0.001 and a positive coefficient of 1.045. This shows that as the students
become motivated to study mathematics online, it results in better academic performance. Access and use of
technology were revealed as significant positive linear predictors of Mathematics performance as indicated in
the p-value of < 0.001 and a positive coefficient of 1.195. This implies that a more extensive use of technology is
associated with improved mathematics performance. Similarly, the online teaching approach demonstrates its
significance as a positive linear predictor, supported by a highly significant p-value of <0.001 and a positive
coefficient of 1.001. This underscores the effectiveness of the online teaching methodology in contributing to
favorable mathematics academic outcomes. On the other hand, the perception of online learning and self-
directed learning were found to be not significant linear predictors of Mathematics academic performance of the
respondents based on the p-values of 0.918 and 0.085. While these variables are significantly correlated with
mathematics academic performance, they have limited ability to predict the academic performance of the
respondents in the subject due to the computed weak correlation coefficients. This suggests that these factors
may not play a substantial role in influencing mathematics performance among the respondents.

The results on content proficiencies and academic performance of the students confirmed the findings in the
study of Callaman and Itaas (2020) which unveiled that mathematical skill is a predictor of students’ academic
performance. However, the results were different from the study of Cordova and Tan (2019) before the
pandemic as they revealed no relationship between mathematical proficiency and academic performance. The
findings on motivation and Mathematics academic performance were supported by the empirical results made
by Capinding (2021) which pointed out that students’ Mathematics motivation is a determinant of academic
performance. As compared to the study of Mamolo (2022), student’s Mathematics motivation has decreased
significantly in synchronous classes which differs from the result of having a positive trend in motivation and
final grades. Furthermore, the findings regarding access to and use of technology and Mathematics academic
performance are consistent with Garcia et al. (2020), who found that the availability of ICT resources in schools
positively influences students' mathematics academic performance. In contrast, the results of the model
contradict the study of Aumentado (2021), which found no correlation between technological domains and

73
Mathematics academic performance. The lack of dependency of academic performance on perceptions of online
learning and online teaching approach differs from Gopal et al. (2021), which indicated that the quality of online
instruction influences student satisfaction in online learning, leading to improved class performance.

Model Summary
Table 13. Model summary
𝐑 𝐑𝟐 Adjusted 𝐑𝟐 Standard Error of R Square F-Change 𝐝𝐟 𝟏 𝐝𝐟 𝟐 Sig. F- Durbin-
the Estimate Change Change Watson
0.493 0.243 0.238 4.39 0.243 68.64 4 868 0.000 1.268

Table 13 shows the substantiality of the model based on the coefficient of determination 𝑅2 and the result of the
Durbin-Watson test. While Table 12 presents noteworthy findings, the overall robustness of the regression
model is somewhat limited, given the coefficient of determination of 24.3%. This suggests that only a quarter of
the variability in mathematics academic performance is accounted for by the independent variables in the
model. The proportion of 76% of unexplained variances may be attributed to factors not considered in the
analysis, underscoring the need for exploration of additional predictors.

Additionally, the Durbin-Watson test statistic of 1.268 assures that the error terms within the model exhibit
independence. The Durbin-Watson statistic should be within the range of 1.5 to 2.5 (Azami et al., 2020). This
suggests that there is no systematic pattern of correlation among the residuals, reinforcing the reliability of the
model's assumptions and highlighting its ability to provide unbiased estimates. However, the relatively low
coefficient of determination emphasizes the importance of further research to uncover and incorporate
additional variables that might contribute to a more in-depth and profound understanding of the dynamics
influencing mathematics academic performance.

The estimated multiple linear regression model is given by: 𝑌̂ = 𝛽1 𝑥1 + 𝛽2 𝑥2 + 𝛽𝑥3 + 𝛽𝑥4 + 𝛽0 + 𝜀 is shown
below:
̂ = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟔𝒙𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒𝟓𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟏𝟗𝟓𝒙𝟑 + 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝒙𝟒 + 𝟔𝟖. 𝟑𝟔𝟔
𝒀

Where:

̂ = Predicted value of Mathematics academic performance

Y
x1 = Observed value of Content − Based Competencies,
x2 = Observed value of Motivation
x3 = Observed value of Access and Use of Technology
x4 = Observed value of Online Teaching Approach
ε = Error Terms or Residuals

4.0 Conclusion
Despite the challenges posed by the pandemic, the student respondents displayed impressive motivation and
enthusiasm for online mathematics education, highlighting the potential of online platforms in facilitating
effective learning even in difficult circumstances. Moreover, their proficient technology usage demonstrated
their adaptability and competence in utilizing digital tools for learning, ensuring a seamless integration of
technology in education. The students' positive attitudes towards online learning further emphasized their
favorable perception of this mode of education, fostering increased engagement and improved learning
outcomes. Additionally, their self-directed learning traits showcased their ability to take ownership of their
learning, a valuable skill in remote learning environments.

It can be inferred from the findings that the respondents demonstrated an outstanding level of performance in
the domain of Functions and their Graphs, likely due to sufficient instructional time dedicated to these lessons
during the first quarter. However, there is room for improvement in the competencies associated with
Mathematics of Investment and Math Logic. These results emphasize the importance of targeted interventions
and focused instruction to strengthen these specific areas of General Mathematics, typically covered in the
second quarter of the first semester. By addressing these competencies, educators can effectively support
students in achieving enhanced performance and a comprehensive understanding of the subject.

74
The satisfactory academic performance of Grade 11 students in General Mathematics, with a notable proportion
achieving grades between 80 and 84, embarks the effectiveness of teaching strategies resulting in students'
developing phase of learning. The presence of students who attained a very satisfactory level further validates
the success of the teaching methodologies and instructional materials used. However, it remains important to
provide ongoing support and vigilance for students who may require additional assistance in their continuous
development and success. Additionally, it is necessary to acknowledge that a minority of respondents did not
meet the required learning competencies, prompting the implementation of remedial interventions through a
modular approach.

The positive significant association of the online learning dimensions and mathematics academic performance
infer that when students demonstrate high levels of motivation, have adequate access to technology, hold
positive perceptions of online learning, exhibit self-directed learning behaviors, and experience effective online
teaching, they are more likely to perform well in mathematics. The observed relationship among these variables
was unlikely to have occurred by chance. However, the low correlation coefficients indicate that additional
challenges and issues experienced by students may have influenced the outcomes. Thus, there is a call for the
development of online learning enhancement programs and the implementation of effective strategies to
address these challenges and improve overall academic performance in General Mathematics.

A multiple linear regression model of academic performance was derived based on the significant results of the
stepwise method. The model implies that several independent variables, including content-based competencies,
motivation, access and use of technology, and online teaching approach, were found to be significant linear
predictors of mathematics academic performance indicating that higher levels of these variables can lead to
better academic outcomes. This formulated a linear model that can explain academic performance will serve as
the basis for creating academic policies, guidelines, and development of the curriculum in mathematics
education in a remote learning context.

In light of the study's findings and conclusions, the researcher presents the following recommendations:

Students are encouraged to enhance their technological skills by actively engaging with educational software,
watching tutorials on platforms like YouTube, and enrolling in short computer courses. Improving self-directed
learning skills is also crucial, achieved through better study habits, understanding learning goals, and creating
study guides. Special Mathematics classes can further enhance competencies for senior high school, preparing
students for the National Achievement Test and their chosen tertiary education track.

For senior high school mathematics teachers, intensified teaching efforts through enrichment classes and back-
to-basics lessons are advised, focusing on areas like Mathematics of Investment and Logic. Action research on
variables of online learning and open high school programs is also recommended. Developing a Mathematics
Learning Enhancement Program (MLEP) for Grade 11 students can cater to both advanced and developing
learners, saving time in covering competencies. Proposing teaching innovations and online learning intervention
programs can enhance student learning effectiveness and positive online experiences.

Parents should create a home monitoring system to support their children's online learning and study habits.
They should also participate in training to understand student learning psychology and their role in boosting
academic performance. School leaders should develop online programs that enhance self-directed learning
skills, while initiatives like the Mathematics Learning Enhancement Program can benefit students in both STEM
and non-STEM schools. The Department of Education should evaluate the effectiveness of the Open High School
program, which offers distance learning through online and modular approaches, and simplifies essential
learning competencies in General Mathematics. Future research should explore factors affecting mathematics
academic performance in online learning, considering the unexplained variances in current regression models.

5.0 Contributions of Authors

The authors confirm the equal contribution in each part of this work. All authors reviewed and approved the
final version of this work.
75
6.0 Funding
This work received no specific grant from any funding agency.

7.0 Conflict of Interests

All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest

8.0 Acknowledgment
The author thanks the project advisory board and colleagues for the helpful guidance and suggestions.

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