Earth’s Core: Geophysics Of A

Planet’s Deepest Interior - eBook

PDF
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/earths-core-geophysics-of-a-planets-deepest-inter
ior-ebook-pdf/
EARTH’S CORE
EARTH’S CORE
Geophysics of a Planet’s
Deepest Interior
VERNON F. CORMIER
Professor of Physics and Geophysics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States

MICHAEL I. BERGMAN
Professor of Physics, Bard College at Simon’s Rock, Great Barrington, MA, United States

PETER L. OLSON
Adjunct Professor, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance
Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using
any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods
they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a
professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability
for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or
from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-12-811400-1

For information on all Elsevier publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Candice Janco

Acquisitions Editor: Amy Shapiro
Editorial Project Manager: Lena Sparks
Production Project Manager: Bharatwaj Varatharajan
Cover Designer: Mark Rogers

Typeset by STRAIVE, India

 Contents

About the authors vii Appendix 109

References 111
Preface ix
Further readings and resources 112
1. Radial structure of Earth’s core 4. Outer core dynamics
1.1 Geophysical evidence 1
4.1 The outer core environment 115
1.2 Reference models 3
4.2 Dimensionless parameters 118
1.3 Analysis of the seismic wavefield 4
4.3 Thermochemical transport and buoyancy 121
1.4 Viscoelastic attenuation 11
4.4 Steady laminar flows 124
1.5 Scattering 12
4.5 Waves in the outer core 135
1.6 Anisotropy 14
4.6 Outer core convection 143
1.7 Viscosity 15
4.7 Numerical dynamos 151
1.8 Summary 17
4.8 Summary 168
Appendix 1.1 Moment of inertia 18
Appendix 169
Appendix 1.2 Elastic equation of motion 19
References 175
Appendix 1.3 Seismic nomenclature 21
Further readings and resources 176
Appendix 1.4 Adams-Williamson equation and the Bullen
parameter 23
Appendix 1.5 Viscoeleastic attenuation parameterization 24
5. Boundary regions
Appendix 1.6 Birch’s law and seismic velocity/density 5.1 D00 (lowermost mantle region) 179
relations 26 5.2 CMB topography 186
Appendix 1.7 Composite elastic moduli and density 27 5.3 E0 region (uppermost outer core) 187
Appendix 1.8 Elastic anisotropy 28 5.4 F region 189
Appendix 1.9 Equations of state 30 5.5 ICB topography 190
References 31 5.6 Summary 191
References 192
2. Chemical and physical state of the core
6. Inner core explored with seismology
2.1 Composition of the core 33
2.2 Temperature in the core 38 6.1 Elastic anisotropy 195
2.3 Transport properties of the core 40 6.2 Attenuation and scattering 197
2.4 Thermodynamics of the core 46 6.3 Hemispherical differences 201
2.5 Inner core mineralogy 57 6.4 Differential rotation 204
2.6 Summary 64 6.5 Shear modulus, density, and viscosity 207
Appendix 2.1 Construction of phase diagrams and the 6.6 Summary 212
partition coefficient 64 References 213
Appendix 2.2 Thermodynamic relations and the Gruneisen
parameter 67 7. Inner core dynamics
Appendix 2.3 The free electron Fermi gas, phonons,
and the Debye model 68 7.1 Solidification of the inner core 215
Appendix 2.4 Miller indices and pole figures 69 7.2 Deformation in the inner core 223
References 71 7.3 Annealing: Recovery, recrystallization, grain growth,
Further reading 73 and coarsening 234
7.4 Grain size and the deformation mechanism map of the
3. Geodynamo and geomagnetic basics inner core 239
7.5 Inner core viscosity 240
3.1 Preliminaries 75 7.6 Inner core elastic anisotropy, attenuation, and isotropic
3.2 The geomagnetic field in the core 78 heterogeneity 242
3.3 The geodynamo process 91 7.7 Summary 244
3.4 Geomagnetic images of the core flow 104 References 245
3.5 Summary 109 Further reading 246

v
vi Contents

9.2 Seismology 281

8. Formation and evolution of the core 9.3 Mineral physics 283
9.4 Core dynamics 286
8.1 Formation of the core 247 References 289
8.2 Core evolution 259
8.3 The geodynamo in the deep past 271
8.4 Seeding the early geodynamo 273
Notation tables 291
8.5 Summary 276 Core properties and parameters 297
Appendix 276 Glossary 301
References 278 Index 309

9. Future research goals

9.1 Introduction 281
 About the authors

Vernon F. Cormier is a professor of physics and geophysics at the University of Connecticut. He received a BS from
the California Institute of Technology and an MPhil and a PhD from Columbia University. His research has specialized
in seismic wave propagation and deep Earth structure, with applications that have included earthquake ground
motion, monitoring of underground nuclear tests, and the structure and dynamics of the crust, mantle, and core.
He has served as an editor for the Geophysical Journal International and Physics of the Earth’s Interior. Among services
to professional societies, he has served the Seismological Society of America as Vice President and the American
Geophysical Union as Secretary of the Seismology Section and Chair of the Study of the Earth’s Deep Interior (SEDI)
interest group.
Michael I. Bergman is the Emily H. Fisher Professor of Physics at Bard College at Simon’s Rock, where he teaches
courses ranging from introduction to geology to solid-state physics to a field course in volcanology on the island of
Montserrat. He earned a BA from Columbia University and a PhD from MIT. His research has focused on the solid-
ification and deformation of metals, alloys, and aqueous solutions, with applications to Earth’s core and sea ice. He is
the recipient of the Doornbos Memorial Prize for research on the deep Earth by a beginning investigator, has been the
long-standing secretary of SEDI, and has served as a guest editor for several journals.
Peter L. Olson is an adjunct professor at the University of New Mexico. He earned a BA from the University of
Colorado Boulder; an MA and a PhD from the University of California, Berkeley; and taught earth and planetary
science for 37 years at Johns Hopkins University. His research focuses on the dynamics of planetary interiors, including
Earth’s mantle and core. His service activities include Editor for numerous journals, past President of the Tectonophy-
sics Section of the American Geophysical Union, and a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences.

vii
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

Earth’s core is the most remote part of our planet, recognized as a compositionally distinct region little more than a
century ago. It remains the final frontier of our knowledge about Earth. Advances in seismology, computational and
experimental mineral physics, geodynamics, geomagnetism, paleomagnetism, and geochemistry have made core
research into a truly multidisciplinary effort. Exploration of the solar system has revealed iron-rich cores in all the ter-
restrial planets and several planetary satellites. Exoplanet exploration will doubtless reveal many more. Most obser-
vationally accessible of all cores, Earth’s offers great challenges for understanding its composition, structure, and
dynamics. Molten iron at over 4000 K churns in the outer core to produce Earth’s magnetic field, and is compressed
to a solid in the inner core to pressures that exceed three million times the atmospheric pressure. Research of Earth’s
core requires applying known chemistry and physics to an extreme environment, while being open to new theories to
explain surprising phenomena.
The aim of this book is twofold: to give the foundation required to investigate Earth’s core and to present the out-
standing research questions. Our intended audience includes those at the beginning of their graduate studies. Few of
the audience will have studied deep Earth geophysics in detail, having entered the field with disparate backgrounds in
physics, geology, chemistry, mathematics, or engineering. While we assume our readers have a background in at least
one of these disciplines, we endeavor to broaden their comprehension of other disciplines that bear on the core. This
will, for example, enable an established researcher to appreciate more clearly the issues discussed at multidisciplinary
meetings such as the Study of the Earth’s Deep Interior.
In Chapters 1–3, we present (1) the basic radial structure of the core; (2) its composition, temperature, and material
properties, core thermodynamics, and inner core mineralogy; and (3) geomagnetism and elementary dynamo theory.
These chapters review the seismology, mineral physics, and geodynamics required to begin a study of the core. Much
in these chapters is widely accepted by the geophysical community, except the precise composition of the core, and
some of the material properties of iron and its alloys under core conditions, which continue to be active areas of
research. Chapters 4–7, while still presenting foundational material, emphasize current research problems. These
include (4) details of outer core dynamics and the dynamo process; (5) boundary layers on both sides of the
core–mantle boundary and above the inner core boundary; (6) inner core seismology, including elastic anisotropy
and attenuation; and (7) inner core solidification and deformation. Some overlap of topics is inevitable because dif-
ferent disciplines often ask the same questions. Chapter 8 delves into the truly speculative—the formation and early
evolution of the Earth and its core. We conclude with Chapter 9: a brief chapter on future directions.
There are many excellent monographs that cover the particular disciplines relevant to Earth’s deep interior. Except
for those on geomagnetism and dynamo theory, few of these specialize in applications to the core and are often more
detailed than useful for introducing topics of current research. Stacey’s Physics of the Earth and Anderson’s New Theory
of the Earth come closest to the spirit of this book, although they do not focus on the core. The choice of topics here
reflects those that are of the most pressing interest, tempered by our own expertise. It is for this reason that the book
is admittedly short on the contributions of geochemistry. In a book of this broad scope, it is not possible to cover details
of experimental techniques, ab initio calculations, or computational methods for seismology or dynamo studies. Many
excellent detailed reviews on the research topics introduced in this book can act as supplements and extensions to the
book, including Elsevier’s Treatise on Geophysics.
The question of how to deal with uncertainty is central to the study of Earth’s core. Readers will immediately
encounter instances of uncertainty, starting in Chapter 1 and increasing as the book progresses. For example, the uncer-
tainty in seismic wave speeds in the core is generally less than 1%, but for density a few percentage. The temperature of
the core is uncertain at about 10% level, and it is difficult to put uncertainties on quantities such as alloying elements in
the core. Many thermodynamic and geomagnetic field properties inside the core have uncertainties as large as a factor
of 2. Certain dynamical properties, such as the outer core convective velocities, are uncertain by almost an order of
magnitude, and the outer and inner core viscosities even more so. In many cases, the uncertainty itself is uncertain.
In light of these uncertainties, the challenge becomes how to apply quantitative tools to infer the operation of a sys-
tem whose properties are known, in many cases, only within broad limits. We respect uncertainties by considering a

ix
x Preface

range of values for each such property. We then do not restrict ourselves to one set of data, one interpretation, or one
model. We must be cognizant of the assumptions that go into any interpretation or model, and be open to the pos-
sibility that new observations and new ideas may well replace long-accepted ones. It is this combination of imagination
guided by rigorous science and sound judgment that gives the exploration of the core its special character.
A number of problems, additional resources, and links to engage the student are available at the following website:
https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals/book-companion/9780128114001. The instructor site will be avail-
able by February 2022. The problems concern fundamental seismology, materials science, and fluid mechanics,
and others pertain to the core in particular. They are ranked in order of difficulty by asterisks from one to three, with
the most difficult being suitable for discussions leading to research investigations.
This book has been enriched by generous contributions of figures as well as by conversations and debates with
research collaborators, students, and colleagues from seismology, mineral physics, and geodynamics. Vernon espe-
cially thanks Paul Richards for early collaborations on seismic wave propagation and core structure, and Donald
Helmberger for demonstrating the equal importance of source and structure to the interpretation of seismograms.
Michael thanks Thierry Alboussiere, Jeremy Bloxham, Dave Cole, Renaud Deguen, David Fearn, Ludovic Huguet,
Eric Kramer, Dan Lewis, Ted Madden, Sebastian Merkel, Peggy Shannon, Quentin Williams, and James Yu for their
advice, assistance, and encouragement with the book and over the years. Vivian Shi provided much-needed assistance
with line figures. Peter acknowledges the contributions to the book by the many graduate students and postdoctoral
researchers who worked with him on the core and the deep Earth.
We each thank our families for the thoughtful support that made our book project possible. Vernon thanks his wife
Leslie for the early idea of writing this book and his son Kiat for shared sports breaks. Michael thanks Sarah and Ben for
forgoing more than a few excursions to kayak through swamps, and his wider family for their general support. Peter is
and will forever be grateful for the support of his family, Claudia, David, and Nicholas.

Confectioner’s view of Earth (originally published in The New Yorker, September 26, 1999).
 C H A P T E R

1
Radial structure of Earth’s core

1.1 Geophysical evidence

Earth’s core, as we know it today, extends to about half of Earth’s radius. It consists of a liquid outer core of iron
alloyed with nickel and other unknown light elements and a predominantly Fe-Ni solid inner core with lesser amounts
of lighter elements. In most parts of this book, we examine Earth’s core as a snapshot in time, when it has been possible
for humans to measure or estimate its internal properties from its magnetic and gravitational fields, its elastic structure
from seismic wavefields, its variations in rotation, and its chemistry from rocks brought to its surface by its internal
dynamics or deposited as meteorites. Its current chemistry, state, and dynamics have evolved over a much deeper
period of time, starting from the origin of the solar system. We save a glimpse of that deeper time period for Chapter 8.
In this chapter, we briefly review gravity, magnetic, and seismic evidence of gross core structure. We emphasize
seismic observations because they are capable of imaging its deep interior in three dimensions at spatial scales
approaching 10 km or less. These small scales are those of elastic velocity variations. Elastic velocities, which are com-
bined functions of elastic moduli and density, are only weakly sensitive to viscosity and can have complex and often
unknown correlations with chemistry and other physical properties important to the geodynamo such as electrical and
thermal conductivity. Nonetheless, many useful relations exist for predicting how seismic velocities change due to
variations in rheology, composition, temperature, and pressure (see Appendices 1.4–1.9).

1.1.1 Moment of inertia and gravity

Even chemically homogeneous planets can be expected to exhibit some density stratification, with density increas-
ing with depth due to volumetric compression from the effects of increasing pressure toward their centers. The uncom-
pressed bulk density of Earth (4050 kg/m3), however, is much higher than that predicted for the uncompressed density
of mantle silicates (3000 kg/m3). This inescapably leads to the conclusion that the existence of the density stratification
must be also accompanied by a compositional stratification.
A first-order representation of a planet’s stratification in density is given by its measured moments of inertia. Two
moments of inertia of Earth can be measured from the spatial variation of its gravitational potential, determined from
observations of the path of Earth-orbiting satellites, and from the measured precessional period of its axis of rotation
about a normal to its orbital plane about the sun (Appendix 1.1). These two measurements are substituted into two
equations and for two unknowns, the moment of inertia about Earth’s axis of rotation and that for an axis lying in its
equatorial plane. The equatorial moment of inertia is slightly larger than the polar, representing the effects of flattening
from Earth’s rotation. Within two significant digits both moments of inertia are 0.32MR2, where M and R are the mass
and average radius of the Earth, respectively. Since the moment of inertia of a homogeneous sphere is 0.4MR2, it is clear
that denser material must exist nearer its center. Since the compression of silicate minerals with increasing pressure at
depth is not sufficient to explain this low moment of inertia, this provides evidence for iron concentrated in a core
beginning at a depth approximately halfway to its center.

1.1.2 Magnetic field: Spatial spectrum and time variation

The spatial and temporal behavior of Earth’s magnetic field provides additional, indirect evidence, for the location,
state, and physical properties of Earth’s outer core. Downward extrapolation (Chapter 3) of the spatial spectrum of

Earth’s Core 1 Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811400-1.00005-7
2 1. Radial structure of Earth’s core

Earth’s magnetic field predicts a whitened spatial spectrum of low-order spatial harmonics about halfway to Earth’s
center. This agrees with the behavior expected for a dynamo consisting of an electrically conducting fluid in convective
motion, driven by vigorous flows over a wide range of scales. From the time variations of Earth’s magnetic field, the
magnitudes of the convective velocities of this fluid are inferred to be on the order of 10–20 km/year, more than 5
orders of magnitude larger than the convective velocities of Earth’s mantle and observed plate motions at its surface
(cm/year). From the observations of Earth’s gravity, rotational motion, and magnetic field alone, we can thus conclude
that it has a dense, electrically conducting, low viscosity fluid, outer core, with a radius about half of Earth’s. That it is
enriched in iron can be inferred from the known chemistry and density of surface igneous rocks and iron meteorites, in
combination with measured solar abundances, stripped of hydrogen and helium.

1.1.3 Seismology: Body waves and normal modes

Solutions to the seismic equation of motion (Appendix 1.2) can establish strong constraints on composition from the
elastic moduli and densities of Earth’s core from the measurement of elastic vibrations observed as body waves above
0.01 Hz in frequency and normal modes in the millihertz band. Solutions in the high-frequency band propagate as
body waves (compressional P and shear S) outward from an earthquake, explosion, or impact in quasi-spherically
shaped wavefronts, sampling the elastic wave speed of the Earth along ray paths normal to the wavefront. Solutions
in the low-frequency band are described by the elastic normal modes of Earth. Mode spectra are identified and mea-
sured in the frequency domain, whereas body wave velocities are inferred from the travel times of waves observed in
seismograms recorded in the time domain.
Emil Wiechert in 1896 was the first physicist and seismologist to quantify the existence of a metallic core. Timing of
seismic body waves beginning in the early 20th century with the work of Oldham and Lehmann provided estimates of
its internal elastic properties and state with depth, adding constraints to its density structure, and more precisely locat-
ing the radii of the boundaries of the liquid outer and solid inner cores (Fig. 1.1). By the 1930s, global seismometer
coverage was sufficient to reveal the existence of the inner core. With current coverage, the signatures of the sharp
discontinuities of the outer and inner cores can be easily observed (Fig. 1.2). Evidence of the outer core came from
the observation of a shadow zone, in which no direct P and S waves are observed beginning around a great circle range
of 95°. This is consistent with a strong sharp decrease in P wave velocity and the absence of direct S waves beneath a
radius of 3480 km, due to the fluidity of the outer core. Evidence for an inner core originated from the identification of a
P wave multipath, associated with a travel time triplication of P waves (different core waves arrive at the same distance
from different angles as explained in Section 1.3.1) arriving in the great circle range of 120–155°. This is predicted by a
sharp increase in P wave velocity at radius 1215–1220 km.
FIG. 1.1 The pioneering seismologists who
determined the basic structure of the core. Left
to right, with date of seminal publications on
Earth’s core: Emil Wiechert (1896), Richard
Oldham (1906), and Inge Lehmann (1936).

Knowledge of the state (liquid or solid) of the core has been obtained from seismology in both the body wave and
free-oscillation frequency bands. The lack of S waves propagating through the outer core is inferred from the travel
time and polarization of SKS waves, which propagate as S waves in the mantle and compressional waves in the liquid
outer core (Fig. 1.3). Direct observation of shear waves propagating in the solid inner core (PKJKP) has been difficult
because the amplitude of this wave is quite weak. Weak PKJKP amplitude is due to the small coefficient of conversion
of P to S waves at the inner core boundary for possible angles of incidence on the inner core boundary. Further weak-
ening of PKJKP is also possible due to the possibility of shear wave splitting from the elastic anisotropy of the inner core,
which will widen a single pulse into two interfering PKJKP pulses on both vertical and radial components of motion.
Free oscillation eigenfrequencies are consistent with a liquid outer core and a solid inner core with a bulk averaged shear
velocity of 3.5 km/s. Using correlation wavefields, Tkal
cic and Pham (2018) reported a value of 3.42 km/s at the ICB
 1.2 Reference models 3
rising to 3.58 km/s at Earth’s center. These values have been problematic to reconcile with estimates from likely inner
core compositions, which are predicted to approach 5 km/s for nearly pure iron at the temperatures and pressures of
the inner core (see Chapter 6).

1800
PKJKP window

Time (sec) 1600

1400

PKP

1200
PKIKP

1000 ow
shad
core

800
100 120 140 160 180
Range (deg)

FIG. 1.2 Body wave travel time curves created by stacking 90,673 seismograms from 3648 shallow earthquakes (<50 km depth) from Shearer et al.
(2011). (Nomenclature of labeled waves is associated with their ray paths in Earth and is explained in Appendix 1.3.) A signature of the outer core is
the P wave shadow, where the direct P wave fades into a wave diffracted (Pdiff ) around the core-mantle boundary. A signature of the inner core is
the bifurcated PKP curve evident between 150° and 180°, consisting of a faster PKIKP wave, having a near horizontal slope, transmitted through the
inner core and a slower PKP wave, having a steeper slope, transmitted through only the outer core. The shear wave traveling through the solid inner
core (PKJKP) cannot be easily detected.

FIG. 1.3 P and S wave polarization sensitivities to the solid/liquid states of the inner/outer cores. Left: the shear wave transmitted through the
inner core wave is predicted to exist as only an SV polarized S wave within a solid, isotropic inner core. Right: the liquid state of the outer core can be
confirmed by the polarization of the SKS wave, in which only the SV polarized component of the S wave incident on the core-mantle boundary can be
converted to a P polarized wave in the liquid outer core (K) and then converted to an SV polarized wave on exit.

1.2 Reference models

When determining the detailed structure of Earth’s interior, it is useful to seek deviations from reference Earth
models, which assume an average, radially symmetric, elastic, and density structure. Two such models are PREM
(Dziewonski and Anderson, 1981) and AK135-F (Kennett et al., 1995) as shown in Fig. 1.4. These and other reference
models are available as comma-separated (CSV) spreadsheet files from web pages of the Data Management Center of
the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS DMC, 2011). The core model of PREM assumes a
4 1. Radial structure of Earth’s core

chemically homogeneous and neutrally buoyant outer and inner core. PREM is designed to fit a suite of elastic-free
oscillations and a catalog of travel times of body waves. Since body waves interacting with the boundaries of Earth’s
inner and outer core have a relatively complex structure (Figs. 1.5 and 1.6), PREM ignores fitting cataloged travel times
in distance ranges where the travel time curves of body waves exhibit this complexity. Hence, body wave studies fre-
quently choose AK135-F rather than PREM as the best reference model for core structure. AK135-F adds details in the
form of changes in gradients to elastic velocity and density above the core-mantle boundary and on either side of the
inner core boundary. In later chapters, we will see that changes in velocity and density gradient have important con-
sequences for chemistry and stable stratification of the outer core. It is thus not surprising that their existence and lat-
eral variation is still one of the more active areas of core research.
Readers of seismological literature will encounter references to a historical scheme of lettered regions of the Earth A–
F developed by K. Bullen to classify depth regions differing in elastic velocity and/or its gradient in depth. Extensions
of Bullen’s classification scheme have led to identifying a region D00 (the region 200–300 km above the core-mantle
boundary) and regions E0 and F of similar thicknesses in the liquid outer core just below the core-mantle boundary
and just above the inner core boundary, respectively. Modern research concentrates on interpreting the seismic
observations that best constrain smaller scale structures of Bullen’s D00 , E0 , and F regions. Changes in composition
and the velocity gradients near the boundaries of the outer and inner cores (CMB and ICB), too small to be represented
in Fig. 1.4, and the existence of scatterers in D00 and the uppermost inner core are important for understanding the
dynamics and evolution of the inner and outer cores. Evidence for and models of small perturbations near the
CMB and ICB are treated in Chapter 5.

FIG. 1.4 Plotted starting 120 km above the core-mantle boundary (CMB) at radius 3480 km are reference models PREM (solid) and AK135-F
(dashed) for P wave velocity (blue, black in print version), density (red, dark gray in print version), and S wave velocity (green, light gray in print
version) from the lowermost mantle to the center of Earth’s inner core. The inner core boundary (ICB) at radius 1220 km separates the liquid outer core
from the solid inner core. The location of Bullen’s ( Jeffreys and Bullen, 1940) depth regions D00 (lowermost mantle), E0 (uppermost outer core), and
F (lowermost outer core) are marked.

1.3 Analysis of the seismic wavefield

Observable elastic vibrations of Earth sensitive to core structure occur over a broad spectrum of frequencies, from
less than 1 mHz to greater than 10 Hz. The solution of the equation of motion of these vibrations and their observations
are commonly divided into either a representation as body waves or normal modes. Body waves propagate outward
from an earthquake, explosion, or impact source as quasi-spherical wavefronts whose normals are called rays. For a
normal mode of oscillation, the whole Earth vibrates at a discrete frequency, with an amplitude that exponentially
decays with time from its initial excitation. The vibrations form a quilted pattern of a small number of nodes of zero
amplitude at its surface, similar to the spatial pattern of the modes of a drum head in 2D or a stringed instrument in 1D.
 1.3 Analysis of the seismic wavefield 5
The representation either as traveling body waves or normal modes of vibration begins with the treatment of the elastic
equation of motion (Appendix 1.2). A body wave representation is accurate when gravity and the pseudo-forces of
rotation can be neglected in the equation of motion at sufficiently high frequency. At lower frequencies, a normal mode
representation is required because the magnitude of the forces of gravity and rotational pseudo-forces (centrifugal and
Coriolis) can be close to the magnitude of the elastic contact forces.

1.3.1 Body waves

Body wave constraints on densities are relatively weak, being only sensitive to the sharp changes in the product of
velocity and density or seismic impedance at steep angles of incidence to material discontinuities. The bulk modulus or
incompressibility obtained from joint P and S wave velocities constrains the density gradient through the Adams-
Williamson equation (Appendix 1.4). In the free-oscillation band, however, gravity becomes a restoring force in the
equation of motion, and mode eigenfrequencies can establish additional constraints on core density. Density profiles
of the core have been determined from combined inversions of body wave velocities, mode eigenfrequencies, and mass
and moment of inertia of Earth, together with the assumption of neutrally buoyant stratification.
The body waves commonly used to study core structure are subject to two discontinuous changes in elastic wave
velocities and densities, one at the core-mantle boundary and one at the inner core boundary. Any rapid or discon-
tinuous decrease in elastic velocity produces a caustic and two paths in a lit zone, each having opposite sign of cur-
vature in their associated travel time curves. A caustic is a surface, line, or point in space where body waves are
strongly focused and frequency-independent ray theory breaks down. Any rapid or discontinuous velocity increase
produces a triplication of the travel time curve. A triplication is a region of distances in which three body waves having
different ray paths (multipaths) can arrive at the same seismic station, for example, the travel time curves for P waves
interacting with the inner core boundary at distances greater than 145° in Fig. 1.5. The points where the curvature of
travel time curves changes sign are the distances at which the caustics intersect the Earth’s surface.
The interaction with the core boundaries of P waves, whose polarization direction is coincident with the direction of
their rays, provide an example of the waveform complexity induced by a discontinuous velocity decrease at the core-
mantle boundary, followed by a discontinuous velocity increase at the inner core-mantle boundary. It is the existence
of this complexity in travel time curves that enables an estimate of the depths of both Earth’s outer and inner cores to
within 10 km or less. A shadow zone and caustic are induced in P waves by a discontinuous P velocity decrease at the
core-mantle boundary, and a triplication is induced by a discontinuous P velocity increase at the inner core boundary.

FIG. 1.5 P wave seismograms (left) observed from a deep focus earthquake at 140° emphasize several complex interactions with both the inner
core (PKIKP + PKiKP) and the outer core and the core-mantle boundary (PKP, diffraction from the B caustic and C cusp, and CMB scattering). A high-
pass filter emphasizes a precursor to PKIKP + PKiKP scattered from the CMB region, while in the broadband recording the low-frequency diffraction
from the B caustic becomes visible. The travel time curve (right) shows ray-theoretical waves as black lines, low-frequency diffracted waves as dashed
red lines, and high-frequency scattered waves from the CMB as dotted blue lines.
6 1. Radial structure of Earth’s core

FIG. 1.6 Left: ray paths and travel time curves

of core P waves, identifying key distance ranges
sensitive to inner core structure: a precritical
reflection, where PKiKP amplitudes are small,
and a postcritical reflection PKiKP, where
P waves are totally reflected. Right: synthetic
record section of P wave displacement from an
explosive source illustrating how the complexity
of the travel time curve is expressed by complex-
ity in the P body waves. Two frequency-
dependent waves, not predicted by ray theory,
are visible in the wavefield: a diffraction from
the inner core boundary (PKP-Cdiff ) and the dif-
fraction from the outer core caustic (PKP-Bdiff ).
The change in shape of PKP-AB wave visible as
the latest arriving pulse after 152° is due to a
π/2, phase shift relative to the PKIKP wave.

The triplication is denoted by lines connecting points A, B, and C in the travel time curves shown in Figs. 1.5 and 1.6.
The P waves transmitted through the outer core are sometimes denoted as either PKP-AB or PKP-BC according to the
branch of their travel time curve.
The velocity decrease at the core-mantle boundary generates a reversal of the travel time-distance curve plotted for a
series of increasing vertical takeoff angles. A strong focusing of PKP waves occurs at the caustic distance B. In standard
reference Earth models, the core shadow zone starts at 95° and the caustic distance at point B is close to 145°. The dis-
continuous increase in velocity at the outer-inner core boundary generates the triplication C-D-F. Frequency-dependent
diffraction occurs along the extension of BC to longer distances. A lower amplitude partial reflection along the dashed
segment extends from D to shorter distances. In addition to the effects induced by radially symmetric structure, lateral
heterogeneity near the core-mantle boundary can scatter higher frequency body waves in all directions, detectable by a
high-frequency (>1 Hz) coda that arrives before PKIKP at distances that precede the B caustic, riding on top of a low-
frequency signal diffracted from the caustic. Scattering at the core-mantle boundary can also induce a high-frequency
arrival, less-frequently observed, between PKIKP (PKP-DF) and PKP (PKP-AB) at ranges beyond cusp C. The curved
dashed line extended to shorter distances from point B in Fig. 1.5 represents the minimum arrival time of these high-
frequency PKIKP precursors scattered from either heterogeneity near or topography on the core-mantle boundary. The
combined effects of the P wave scattered by heterogeneities near the CMB and the B caustic diffraction are best seen in
broadband seismograms spanning a distance range of P wave core interaction between 130° and 145° (Figs. 1.5 and 1.6).
The amplitude of the PKiKP wave varies from small values at short distances and near vertical incidence to a total
reflection as it approaches grazing incidence on the inner core. PKiKP corresponding to the range of total (critical)
reflection is the travel time branch labeled PKP-CD in Figs. 1.5 and 1.6. The transition in amplitude of PKiKP from
precritical to postcritical reflection is a gradual, frequency-dependent transition surrounding the distance of point D.
Unlike the motion of P waves polarized parallel to the direction of their rays, the motion of S waves is polarized
perpendicular to the direction of their rays, similar to the polarization of electromagnetic waves. Assuming elastic
isotropy, the orientation of the transverse polarization of an S wave is fixed by the orientation of the slip vectors along
an earthquake fault plane. This polarization is commonly decomposed into an SV component in the plane containing
the source, receiver, and center of Earth, and an SH component perpendicular to that plane. The SH component of
S polarization cannot be converted to a compressional wave in Earth’s liquid outer core because SH particle motion
has no component in the propagation direction of the converted P wave. Hence, its interaction with the outer core
produces only a pure SH polarized ScS and a diffracted S. SV polarized waves can convert to P waves and vice versa
at the core-mantle boundary. Since compressional waves in the core are faster than the S waves on the mantle side of
 1.3 Analysis of the seismic wavefield 7
FIG. 1.7 SV interactions with the core-mantle
boundary region in which an SPdiffKS wave is
excited (Rondenay et al., 2010).

Δ (sec)
Pd

K
Pd S

mantle OC IC CMB

1020 1040 1060 1080

T - 3.4 Δ (sec)

the core-mantle boundary, the travel time curves of SV polarized S, ScS, and SKS waves are examples of a triplication
equivalent to a discontinuous velocity increase. The SKS wave should be a purely SV polarized wave (Fig. 1.3). This is
indeed the case, except for cases in which significant anisotropy occurs in the mantle along the path exiting the outer
core to the receiver. Fig. 1.7 shows an example observation of SV polarized S waves interacting with both the outer and
inner core boundaries. It illustrates another important S interaction with the CMB in which at some angles the SV
polarized SKS wave can excite a P wave diffracted along the CMB before it converts to a compressional K wave at
the outer core. This can happen at either the receiver end, source end, or both ends of a path, and has been useful
in research on the structure and lateral variation of structure in the D00 region at the base of the mantle.
Similar to the sequence of underside reflections that are excited by the velocity increase at the inner core boundary
(PKIIKP, PKIIIKP +..) shown in Fig. 1.7 travel time curves, there is a sequence of underside reflections of the outer core
boundary (SKKS + SKKKS +…) excited by the equivalent increase of S velocity on the mantle side of the CMB to the
higher compressional (K) velocity on the outer core side of the CMB. These collections of underside multiples are exam-
ples of interference head waves or whispering gallery waves. The amplitudes and travel times of the SmKS multiples
are especially sensitive to the compressional wave velocity and its gradient in Bullen’s E0 region of the uppermost inner
core, and have been used to determine if there exists a stably stratified layer at the top of the outer core that does not
participate in the primary convection driving the geodynamo (Chapter 5).
For a given frequency content the sensitivity of body wave travel times and amplitudes to elastic velocity structure
can be represented by a banana-shaped volume surrounding their ray paths, the lower the frequency, the wider the
waist of the banana (Fig. 1.8). Midway along the ray connecting a source and receiver, the diameter of the zone of

FIG. 1.8 3D sensitivity kernels for an SH wave in a homo-

geneous sphere at an epicentral distance of 120° calculated in
narrow frequency bands centered at 25 mHz (top) and 50 mHz
(bottom). In these examples, the sensitivity kernels are calcu-
lated using an approximate ray-theoretical approach
described in Zhao et al. (2000).

-5 0 5
(x 10-7 s/km3)
8 1. Radial structure of Earth’s core

highest sensitivity is roughly the size of the square root of the length of the ray path times wavelength (Nolet and
Dahlen, 2000). This zone of sensitivity can more accurately be estimated from the volume of the first Fresnel zone
surrounding a ray path. The first Fresnel zone contains all Snell rays connecting a source location, a point scatterer
location, and a receiver location, such that the difference between that path and the least-time Snell ray path is less
than a half period. More precise measures of a zone of sensitivity can be determined from a superposition of the normal
mode eigenfunctions that correspond to a representation of specific body waves. Calculated either from rays or normal
modes, the sensitivity

 kernel K is a function of both frequency and space. It is defined by integrating over volume a 3-D
δVP, S
perturbation VP, S to seismic velocity that is needed to model the observed difference in travel time δtP,S between
that predicted from a reference and true velocity structure:
ððð
 δV 
! P, S
δtP,S ¼ KP,S ω, x d3 x (1.1)
VP, S
Body waves, whose ray paths turn from downward to upward propagation, are especially sensitive to structure near
their turning points. Areas of this enhanced sensitivity are of special interest for structures near the core-mantle bound-
ary and inner core boundary, where phase and chemistry change either discontinuously or over a depth transition
whose width is much less than the dominant wavelength of the body wave. Examples include core grazing P and
S waves observed before the shadow of the core-mantle boundary and beyond the shadow as frequency-dependent
diffractions, Pdiff and Sdiff. Another important core-grazing wave is PKP-AB observed at distances far from the PKP-B
caustic.
SKS and SKnKS are strongly sensitive to structure on both sides of the core-mantle boundary. The collection of SKS,
SKKS, S3KS, … at distances greater than 110° has been used as a test for the existence of a chemically distinct region of
stable stratification at the top of the outer core. Inner core boundary grazing PKiKP at postcritical incidence at ranges
between D and C, together with PKIKP in the same distance range, has been used to infer structure in the uppermost
inner core. The distance of the PKP-C cusp, together with the amplitude, travel time, and pulse dispersion of PKP-Cdiff
diffracted around the inner core has been important in constraining structure at the bottom of the outer core (Bullen’s
F region) as well as determining bounds on inner core topography.
Differential travel times measured by cross-correlating the waveforms of two body waves that have nearly identical
ray paths in shallower regions have proved to be a powerful approach in removing the effects of shallower hetero-
geneous structure where the sensitivity kernels of the two waves overlap. Fig. 1.9 shows the effective sensitivity of

FIG. 1.9 Sensitivity kernel for PKP-DF—Pdiff differential times at low frequency. S and R denote source and receiver locations, respectively. From
Karason, H., van der Hilst, R., 2001. Tomographic imaging of the lowermost mantle with differential travel times of refracted and diffracted core phases. J. Geophys.
Res. 106, 6559–6588.
 1.3 Analysis of the seismic wavefield 9
the difference between the travel time of a P wave transmitted through the inner core and the travel time of a P wave
diffracted around the outer core. The effect of the near identical ray paths through the upper mantle is minimized, and
the resultant sensitivity is focused on D00 structure near the core-mantle boundary. A similar approach can be used to
image structure of the E0 region of the uppermost outer core using the difference between the travel time SKKS
and SKS.
With increased density of digitally recorded and telemetered seismic networks, it has become possible to extract
weaker body waves sensitive to core structure using techniques of stacking and cross-correlation. Among these are
PcP, PKiKP, and PKIIKP at near vertical angles of incidence on the core-mantle and inner core boundaries. At near
vertical angles, these P waves are sensitive to only to the P velocity and density changes at discontinuities. Frequency
dependence and complexity of their waveforms may reveal the nature of any transition zone structures in the bound-
ary region. The most elusive of these weak waves is the PKJKP wave, which is a compressional wave that converts to
an S wave in Earth’s solid inner core, and converts back to a compressional wave in the outer core. The conversion
coefficient of the compressional K wave in the outer core into the SV polarized wave in the solid inner core is very
small for all possible angles of incidence. Making the observation of PKJKP even more difficult is that for some inci-
dence angles and types of elastic anisotropy (Appendix 1.8) the energy of the inner core S wave may be split into two
interfering S waves, differing in polarization from either SH or SV, and arriving at slightly different times.
P waves can be observed from reflections by the outer core boundary (PcP) or inner core boundary from either
above (PKiKP) or below (PKIIKP). At more grazing angles of incidence (precritical PKiKP) and PKIIKP at ranges less
than 180°, their amplitudes are affected by both P and S velocity discontinuities and density discontinuities. For
P waves at near vertical angles incidence, the amplitudes of reflected and transmitted P waves depend only on the
P velocity and density discontinuities and are nearly independent of the shear velocity jumps at the outer and inner
core boundaries. At near vertical incidence, all of the CMB and ICB reflected waves are at a precritical angle of inci-
dence and are partially reflected and hence are weak and relatively difficult to detect in the presence of ambient noise
and other scattered waves. When these partial reflections are observable, their amplitudes in combination with
P velocity estimates from waveform and travel time modeling can potentially provide better estimates of the density
jump at the inner core boundary. This density jump is important to driving a core dynamo powered by compositional
convection.

1.3.2 Free oscillations

An earthquake, explosion, or an impact source can excite the free oscillations (normal modes) of Earth. They are best
observed in the frequency domain, Fourier transforming a seismogram recorded in the time domain. Structure near the
boundaries of the outer and inner cores, where chemical heterogeneity and phase changes are most likely, is an impor-
tant goal of current research. Structure near these boundaries can ideally be inverted from Stoneley type modes, whose
energy is concentrated near either the core-mantle boundary or inner the core boundary. Unlike body waves, which
provide relatively weak constraints on density gradients and density jumps near discontinuities, normal mode oscil-
lations are measurably affected by a gravitational restoring force. Thus, they can provide constraints on the average
density throughout a depth region.
The eigenfrequencies of free oscillations are classified as either spheroidal (nSm m
l ) or toroidal (nTl ) modes. The motions
of spheroidal modes are perpendicular to Earth’s surface; those of torroidal modes are tangent to Earth’s surface.
Superpositions of spheroidal modes correspond to P-SV body waves and Rayleigh surface waves; those of toroidal
modes correspond to SH body waves and Love waves. The subscript l in nSl and nTl is termed as the angular order
number and its value is related to the wavelength λ between peaks in displacement of the mode at the Earth’s surface at
radius R by the relation l ¼ 2πR
λ . The subscript n is termed as the radial order number and also the overtone number. The
radial order number n corresponds to the number of nodes with depth in the Earth where the displacement of the mode
is zero and undergoes a reversal in the sign of its motion. Each angular order number l can have 2 l + 1 possible azi-
muthal order number m of modes having slightly different eigenfrequencies clustered about a center frequency. Modes
having low radial order number n and small angular order number l are most sensitive to upper mantle structure.
These modes largely comprise the elastic energy making up Love and Rayleigh surface waves. Modes having large
radial order number n and small angular order number l are most sensitive to deep mantle and core structure, com-
prising energy that makes up deeply penetrating body waves. Mode nomenclature, the senses of motion, and sub-
scripts n and l and superscript m are described in detail in Appendix 1.3.
The 2 l + 1 eigenfrequencies possible for different azimuthal order numbers m would all be equal (degenerate) in a
spherically symmetric, nonrotating, elastic, isotropic Earth. Degeneracy is removed, making each m have slightly
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from
the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in
the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name
associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of
this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its
attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without
charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms
of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or
with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
 This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of
this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that
s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
 copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and
discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project
Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except

for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph
1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner
of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party
distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this
agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and
expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO
REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF
WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE
FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY
DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE
TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL,
PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE
NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it,
you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity
that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a
replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in
paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the
Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability,
costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or
indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur:
(a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b)
alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project
Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small
donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax
exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project

Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed

editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.