Platform Chemical Biorefinery.

Future
Green Industry - eBook PDF
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/platform-chemical-biorefinery-future-green-industr
y-ebook-pdf/
 PLATFORM
CHEMICAL
BIOREFINERY
FUTURE GREEN CHEMISTRY

Edited by

Satinder Kaur Brar

Institut national de la recherche scientifique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement (INRS-ETE), Quebec, Canada

Saurabh Jyoti Sarma

Institut national de la recherche scientifique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement (INRS-ETE), Quebec, Canada

Kannan Pakshirajan
Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD

PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA

Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, e­ lectronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval s­ ystem,
without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further
­information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such
as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:
www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
­Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in e­ valuating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including
parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN: 978-0-12-802980-0

For information on all Elsevier publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/

Publisher: John Fedor

Acquisition Editor: Kostas Marinakis
Editorial Project Manager: Christine McElvenny
Production Project Manager: Paul Prasad Chandramohan
Designer: Mark Rogers
Typeset by TNQ Books and Journals
 Contributors

S. Ahmed Savitribai Phule Pune University, K. Dutta National Institute of Technology

Pune, Maharashtra, India Rourkela, Rourkela, Orissa, India
F.C.T. Allnutt BrioBiotech LLC, Glenelg, MD, A. Ghosh Indian Institute of Technology Guwa-
United States hati, Guwahati, Assam, India
N. Arul Manikandan Department of Chemical K.P. Gopinath SSN College of Engineering,
Engineering, Indian Institute Technology Chennai, India
­Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India R. Goswami Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowl-
M. Ayadi National Engineering School of Tunis, edge Technologies, Nuzvid, Andhra Pradesh,
Tunis, Tunisia India
B. Bharathiraja Vel Tech High Tech Dr. R
­ angarajan B.Z. Haznedaroglu Yale University, New Haven,
Dr. Sakunthala Engineering College, Chennai, CT, United States; Bogazici University, Istanbul,
Tamil Nadu, India Turkey
J.F. Blais Institut national de la recherche scienti- K. Hegde Department of Biosciences and Bioen-
fique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement (INRS- gineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwa-
ETE), Quebec, Canada hati, Guwahati, Assam, India; Institut national
S.K. Brar Institut national de la recherche scienti- de la recherche scientifique Centre - Eau Terre
fique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement (INRS- Environnement (INRS-ETE), Quebec, Canada
ETE), Quebec, Canada J. Jayamuthunagai Anna University, Chennai,
E. Chaabouni Institut national de la recherche Tamil Nadu, India
scientifique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement P. Kalita The Energy and Resources Institute,
(INRS-ETE), Quebec, Canada New Delhi, India
M. Chakrabortty Assam Engineering College, A. Kumar National Institute of Technology
Guwahati, Assam, India Raipur, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India
M. Chakravarthy Vel Tech High Tech Dr. Rangara- R. Kumar VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu,
jan Dr. Sakunthala Engineering College, India
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India L. Lonappan Institut national de la recherche
R. Chidambaram VIT University, Vellore, Tamil scientifique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement
Nadu, India (INRS-ETE), Quebec, Canada
B.K. Das Gauhati University, Guwahati, Assam, B. Mahanty INHA University, Incheon, Korea
India D.C. Maiti Vidyasagar University, West Bengal,
N. Dasgupta VIT University, Vellore, Tamil India
Nadu, India S. Maiti Institut national de la recherche scienti-
R.K. Das Institut national de la recherche scienti- fique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement (INRS-
fique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement (INRS- ETE), Quebec, Canada
ETE), Quebec, Canada C. Marques Institut national de la recherche sci-
A. Daverey Doon University, Dehradun, Utta- entifique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement
rakhand, India (INRS-ETE), Quebec, Canada; Ponta Grossa
State University, Ponta Grossa/PR, Brazil

xi
xii CONTRIBUTORS

N. Meyyappan Sri Venkateswara College of T.S. Saai Anugraha Sri Venkateswara College of
Engineering, Sriperumbudur, Chennai, Tamil Engineering, Sriperumbudur, Chennai, Tamil
Nadu, India Nadu, India
V.K. Mishra Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowl- A.R. Sankaranarayanan SSN College of Engi-
edge Technologies, Nuzvid, Andhra Pradesh, neering, Chennai, India
India M. Sara Institut national de la recherche scienti-
N. Mohan Indian Institute of Technology Guwa- fique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement (INRS-
hati, Guwahati, Assam, India ETE), Quebec, Canada
L. Nivedhitha SSN College of Engineering, S.J. Sarma Institut national de la recherche
Chennai, India ­scientifique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement
V.L. Pachapur Institut national de la recherche (INRS-ETE), Quebec, Canada
scientifique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement S. Sen VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
(INRS-ETE), Quebec, Canada S. Sivaprakasam Indian Institute of Technology
K. Pakshirajan Department of Biosciences and Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India
Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology C.R. Soccol Federal University of Paraná, Curi-
Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India tiba, Brazil
R. Parthiban Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar S. Sulochana Sri Venkateswara College of Engi-
College of Engineering, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, neering, Sriperumbudur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu,
India India
J. Peccia Yale University, New Haven, CT, United I.S. Sundari VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu,
States India
A. Prabhu Department of Biosciences and Bio- D. Swaminathan Sri Venkateswara College of
engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Engineering, Sriperumbudur, Chennai, Tamil
Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India Nadu, India
R. Praveen Kumar Arunai Engineering College, T. Swaminathan Sri Venkateswara College of
Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, India Engineering, Sriperumbudur, Chennai, Tamil
G. Pugazhenthi Department of Chemical Engi- Nadu, India
neering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwa- R. Tarek Institut national de la recherche scienti-
hati, Guwahati, Assam, India fique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement (INRS-
R. Pulicharla Institut national de la recherche ETE), Quebec, Canada
scientifique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement J.M.R. Tingirikari Federal University of Ceara-
(INRS-ETE), Quebec, Canada Fortaleza, Benfica, Fortaleza-CE, Brazil
R. Ranjith Kumar Vel Tech High Tech Dr. Ran- V. Venkata Dasu Department of Biosciences and
garajan Dr. Sakunthala Engineering College, Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India
D. Reeves Weill Cornell Graduate School of M. Verma CO2 Solutions Inc., Quebec City, QC,
Medical Sciences, New York, NY, United States Canada
H. Rismani-Yazdi Yale University, New Haven, R. Vinoth Kumar Department of Chemical Engi-
CT, United States; Novozymes North America neering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwa-
Inc., Franklinton, NC, United States hati, Guwahati, Assam, India
T. Rouissi Institut national de la recherche scien- V.K. Yata Dr. B.R. Ambedkar National Institute
tifique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement (INRS- of Technology Jalandhar, Jalandhar, Punjab,
ETE), Quebec, Canada India
 Preface

Platform chemicals are a diverse group (4) underrepresented statistics on the present
of chemicals that can be used as the build- and potential market of renewable platform
ing blocks/structurally close starting materi- chemicals, and (5) complete packaging of the
als for the production of different valuable approach in a streamlined manner. At this
chemicals, including fuel, pharmaceutically crux of few knowns and large unknowns,
important compounds, or industrial chemi- the purposes of this book are to gather con-
cals. At present, the platform chemical mar- temporary knowledge on the subject, make
ket is mostly dominated by petroleum-based a critical evaluation, and present it to the sci-
platform chemicals. However, owing to the entific community in a systematic manner.
depletion of petroleum-based raw materi- The book has three distinct features. First,
als as well as environmental pollution due it completely covers all aspects of the subject
to the extensive use of such materials, the and a basic introduction to the industry. It
concept of renewable feedstock-based plat- will be sufficient for a beginner to have an
form chemical refinery is gaining attention. up-to-date overview of the concept. Further,
Although the concept has been indepen- biorefinery professionals will be introduced
dently discussed by various researchers, a to recent advances of the technology. Like-
repository of detailed technical know-how wise, possible bottlenecks of the technol-
and possible environmental and market- ogy have been brought to the focus of the
related concerns is rare. research community involved in fundamen-
Biorefinery is a concept where more than tal research for potential solutions. Second,
one product can be produced by maximum the book presents a critical review of the
utilization of the same feedstock. The actual platform chemical biorefinery concept. A
picture at present encompasses the use of critical analysis of the renewable platform
renewable feedstock for the production of chemical production processes has high-
only one or two major products. The prod- lighted their benefits and, at the same time,
ucts simultaneously produced in lower their possible adverse effects on the environ-
quantities or the waste generated during the ment and food security. Finally, in addition
process, which could potentially be used as to discussing the engineering advancement
raw materials for the production of certain in the field of renewable platform chemical
other valuable products, are largely ignored. production technology, there is an overview
The biorefinery approach is still marred by of the present and potential global market
many bottlenecks: (1) nonexistent technol- for the most common renewable platform
ogy for the simultaneous production and chemicals. Thus the book will equip renew-
recovery of more than one product, (2) scant able chemical industries to explore new mar-
information regarding the type and quan- ket opportunities.
tity of all by-products produced during a The book will also be suitable as a ref-
process, (3) limited association between erence book for different universities that
chemical engineering and biotechnology, have courses/research facilities on varied

xiii
xiv Preface

subjects, such as chemical/biochemical engi- new in large developing nations, such as

neering, industrial biotechnology, biochem- India, Brazil, South Africa, and China; how-
istry, industrial microbiology, environmental ever, they have a vast potential for develop-
biotechnology, environmental engineering, ing platform chemical biorefineries in the
and fermentation technology. In addition coming years. This book can also serve as
to university students and scientists doing a technical guide worldwide to potential
regular academic research, the book reader- entrepreneurs keen to develop biorefinery.
ship includes professional researchers and
technical staff working in the industries deal- Satinder Kaur Brar
ing with industrial chemical manufacturing Saurabh Jyoti Sarma
or industrial biotechnology. The concept of Kannan Pakshirajan
renewable platform chemicals is relatively (Editors)
 C H A P T E R

1
Platform Chemicals: Significance
and Need
V.L. Pachapur, S.J. Sarma, S.K. Brar, E. Chaabouni
Institut national de la recherche scientifique Centre - Eau Terre Environnement (INRS-ETE),
Quebec, Canada

O U T L I N E

1.1 Introduction 2 1.4.3 Fumaric Acid 12

1.4.4 Butyric Acid 13
1.2 Commercially Important Platform
1.4.5 Xylitol 14
Chemicals: Organic Acids 8
1.4.6 Butanol 15
1.2.1 3-Hydroxy-propionic Acid 8
1.2.2 Lactic Acid 8 1.5 Challenges and Future of the
1.2.3 Fumaric Acid 9 Industry16
1.2.4 Butyric Acid 9 1.5.1 3-Hydroxy-propionic 16
1.5.2 Lactic Acid 16
1.3 Commercially Important Platform
1.5.3 Fumaric Acid 16
Chemicals: Alcohols 9
1.5.4 Butyric Acid 16
1.3.1 Xylitol 9
1.5.5 Xylitol 17
1.3.2 Butanol 10
1.5.6 Butanol 17
1.4 Advances in Platform Chemical
1.6 Conclusion 17
Process Engineering: Natural
Microbial Synthesis 10 Acknowledgments18
1.4.1 3-Hydroxy-propionic Acid 10
References18
1.4.2 Lactic Acid 11

Abbreviations
FBB Fibrous bed bioreactor
SSF Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation

Platform Chemical Biorefinery

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802980-0.00001-8 1 © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. PLATFORM CHEMICALS: SIGNIFICANCE AND NEED

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Global petrochemical production of platform chemicals derived from fossil-based feed-

stocks (oil, coal, gas) is estimated to be around 330 million tons. The initial output is dominated
by building blocks and converted into a staggering number of different fine and specialty
chemicals with specific functions (Jong et al., 2012). The US Department of Energy listed out
chemicals such as 3-Hydroxy-propionic (3-HP) acid and xylitol, to name just two, which are
the potential building blocks for the future (Jong et al., 2012).
The chemical way of synthesizing these chemicals amplifies concerns over global
warming, the depletion of fossil fuels, increased environmental pollution, and higher
energy inputs (Wee et al., 2004) in the presence of toxic catalysts and several treatment
steps during production (Pérez-Bibbins et al., 2013). Due to increases in oil prices, the
population, and consumer demand for environmentally friendly products and the
scarcity of nonrenewable resources (Jong et al., 2012), the focus of interest has been
on the microbial-based generation of chemical commodities from waste resources
(Cooksley et al., 2012).
The production of platform chemicals through biotechnological fermentation has gained
significant attention because it is a better alternative to chemical synthesis, avoids deple-
tion of petrochemical resources, and decreases environmental pollution by utilizing renew-
able biomass wastes (Wee et al., 2004). Under favorable market conditions, the production of
chemicals from renewable resources can reach 113 million tons by 2050, which is 38% of the
total organic chemical production. With biorenewable chemicals such as lactic acid and glyc-
erin accounting for 79.2% of the market in 2010, the projected biorenewable chemicals market
will be around 6.8 billion in 2015 (Jong et al., 2012).
The best method of biorenewable synthesis of chemicals is the fermentation process,
which requires milder conditions of pressure and temperature, utilizing low-cost renewable
resources such as industrial wastes, municipal waste, or sludge from treatment processes.
Another benefit is the low costs of downstream with the production of lower amounts of by-
products (Pérez-Bibbins et al., 2013). A very important advantage of microbial fermentation
is the production of optically pure compounds in comparison to chemical synthesis, resulting
in racemic mixtures (Wang et al., 2010a).
The production of bio-based chemicals has focused on the use of pure or easily fermentable
substrates to decrease the process economics; low-cost organic waste materials are consid-
ered to enhance productivity (Wang et al., 2010a,b). A further increase in production can be
achieved by using engineered microorganisms, minimizing (Jiang et al., 2009b) the produc-
tion of undesired by-products (Ye et al., 2013) and the use of neutralizing agents (Roa Engel
et al., 2011) while improving the product recovery step (Wu et al., 2010) and increasing prod-
uct purity (Misra et al., 2011). With these advantages the production of bio-based chemicals
through fermentation is a cost-effective, efficient, less time-consuming, and environmental
friendly procedure.
Thus the purpose of this chapter is to summarize the advances and future commercial
importance of biomass-derived platform chemicals, including different organic acids and
alcohols are presented across (Tables 1.1–1.4).
TABLE 1.1 Conversion Pathways, Derivatives, and Potential Applications of Bio-based Organic Acids
Platform Derivatives or Derivative
Chemical Other Names Pathways Family Potential Applications References

1 3-Hydroxy- 3-Hydroxypropanoic acid (IUPAC) Aerobic 1,3 Propanediol Sorona fiber Werpy et al.
propionic 3-Hydroxypropionic acid fermentation Acrylate family Contact lenses, diapers (2004)
acid Hydracrylic acid
Ethylene lactic acid

2 Lactic acid IUPAC 2-Hydroxypropanoic acid Aerobic Lactate ester Hygroscopic and emulsifying Gao et al.
Milk acid fermentation Polylactic acid (PLA) properties, solvents (2012)

1.1 Introduction
Anaerobic Acrylic acid Biodegradable plastic
fermentation 1,2-Propanediol Acrylate polymers, biochemical
Pyruvic acid intermediate
Commodity chemical

3 Fumaric IUPAC (E)-Butenedioic acid Aerobic THF, BDO, GBL family Solvents, fibers Werpy et al.
acid trans-1,2-Ethylenedicarboxylic acid fermentation Pyrrolidinone family Green solvents, water-soluble (2004)
2-Butenedioic acid Chemical process Straight chain polymers polymers
trans-butenedioic acid Branched polymers Fibers
Allomaleic acid 1,5,7-triazabicyclo[4.4.0]
Boletic acid dec-5-ene (TBD)
Donitic acid
Lichenic acid

4 Butyric acid IUPAC Butanoic acid Anaerobic R)-3-(Boc-amino)-4-(4- Cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, Zhang et al.
Butyric acid; 1-Propanecarboxylic fermentation bromophenyl)butyric and as a “natural preservative” (2009)
acid; acid in the food industry
Propanecarboxylic acid

3
 4
TABLE 1.2 Conversion Pathways, Derivatives, and Potential Applications of Bio-based Alcohols
Platform Derivatives or Derivative Potential

1. PLATFORM CHEMICALS: SIGNIFICANCE AND NEED

Chemical Other Names Pathways Family Applications References

1 Xylitol IUPAC (2R,4S)-Pentane- Aerobic fermentation Xylaric and xylonic acids Antifreeze, Werpy et al.
1,2,3,4,5-pentol Anaerobic fermentation Polyols (propylene and unsaturated (2004)
1,2,3,4,5-Pentahydro- Enzymatic ethylene glycols), lactic acid polyester
xypentane; transformation Xylitol, xylaric, xylonic resins (UPRs)
Xylite polyesters and nylons New polymer
opportunities

2 Butanol Butan-1-ol[1] Anaerobic 2-Methyl-2-butanol, 2-butanol As alternative fuel Cooksley et al.

Butalcohol fermentation (2012)
Butanol
1-Butanol
Butyl alcohol
Butyl hydrate
Butylic alcohol
Butyralcohol
Butyric alcohol
Butyryl alcohol
Hydroxybutane
Propylcarbinol
TABLE 1.3 Microbial Production of Organic Acids
Platform Concentration
Chemical Microorganisms Substrate Fermentation (g/L) Yield Productivity References

1 3-Hydroxy- Recombinant strain Glycerol Batch fermentation 0.58 0.48 mol/ 6.6 mmol/ Raj et al. (2008)
propionic Escherichia coli SH254 mol glycerol g cdw/h
acid
Recombinant Klebsiella Glycerol Microaerobic 16.8 0.51 mol/ – Ashok et al. (2011)
pneumoniae conditions mol glycerol

Recombinant Glycerol Batch fermentation 24.4 0.18 mol/ – Huang et al. (2012)
K. pneumoniae mol glycerol

2 Lactic acid Endogenous bacteria Sewage sludge Batch fermentation 8.45 – – Maeda et al. (2009)

Bacillus sp. strain Corncob, Fed-batch 74.7 0.50 0.38 Wang et al. (2010b)
XZL9 molasses fermentation

Lactobacillus rhamnosus Cassava Simultaneous 175.4 0.71 1.8 Wang et al. (2010a)

1.1 Introduction
strain CASL powder saccharification
and fermentation

Rhizopus oryzae TS-61 Chicken Batch fermentation 38.5 7.7 g/g – Taskin et al. (2012)
feather protein in 250 mL shake
hydrolysate flask

3 Fumaric acid R. oryzae Corn straw Batch fermentation 27.79 0.35 0.33 Xu et al. (2010)
hydrolysis in 250 mL shake
flask

Mutated R. oryzae Starchy Simultaneous 39.80 0.49 g/g 0.44 Deng et al. (2012)
ME-F12 materials saccharification
and fermentation

Mutated R. oryzae Glucose Batch fermentation 49.4 0.56 g/g 0.29 Yu et al. (2012)

Immobilized Glucose Batch fermentation 32.03 – 1.33 Gu et al. (2013)

R. arrhizus RH-07-13

(Continued)

5
TABLE 1.3 Microbial Production of Organic Acids—cont’d

6
Platform Concentration
Chemical Microorganisms Substrate Fermentation (g/L) Yield Productivity References

4 Butyric acid Immobilized Cane molasses Fed-batch 55.2 0.47 g/g 1.45 Jiang et al. (2009a)
Clostridium fermentation
tyrobutyricum in fibrous bed
bioreactor

C. tyrobutyricum Glucose Fed-batch 73.77 0.46 g/g 1.41 Song et al. (2010)
fermentation

1. PLATFORM CHEMICALS: SIGNIFICANCE AND NEED

C. tyrobutyricum Jerusalem Repeated-batch 60.4 0.38 1.14 Huang et al. (2011b)
artichoke fermentation
hydrolysate

Immobilized Sugarcane Repeated-batch 20.9 0.45g/g 0.51 Wei et al. (2013)

C. tyrobutyricum bagasse fermentation
hydrolysate
TABLE 1.4 Microbial Production of Alcohols
Platform Concentration Productivity
Chemical Microorganisms Substrate Fermentation (g/L) Yield (g/g) (g/L h) References

1 Xylitol Candida tropicalis Corncobs Batch 68.4 0.7 0.95 Cheng et al.
hydrolysate fermentation (2009)

C. tropicalis Sago bark Batch 19.53 0.78 0.37 Kamal et al.

hydrolysate fermentation (2011)

C. tropicalis JH030 Rice straw Batch 46 0.71 g/g – Huang et al.

hydrolysate fermentation (2011a)

Immobilized Debaryomyces Sugarcane Batch 73.8 0.82 g/g 0.46 Prakash et al.
hansenii bagasse fermentation (2011)

1.1 Introduction
Recombinant Saccharomyces Glucose Fed-batch 91.3 0.92 g/g 1.76 Oh et al. (2013)
cerevisiae fermentation

2 Butanol Clostridium Hemicellulosic Batch 7 0.19 g/g 0.07 Sun and Liu
acetobutylicum ATCC824 Hydrolysate fermentation (2012)

Clostridium sp. Glucose Batch 21.1 0.8 mol/mol 1.25 Cheng et al.
fermentation (2012)

C. beijerinckii ATCC 10132 Glucose Batch 20 – – Isar and

fermentation Rangaswamy
(2012)

C. acetobutylicum Cassava Fibrous-bed 76.4 0.23 g/g 0.32 Lu et al. (2012)

bagasse bioreactor
hydrolysate

C. acetobutylicum Glucose in the Fed-batch 31.44 0.30 g/g 0.29 Yen and Wang
presence of fermentation (2013)
biodiesel as an
extractant

7
8 1. PLATFORM CHEMICALS: SIGNIFICANCE AND NEED

1.2 COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT PLATFORM CHEMICALS:

ORGANIC ACIDS

Organic chemicals such as organic acids can be used to synthesize plastic materials and
other products. To meet the increasing demand for organic chemicals, more efficient, cost-
effective, and environmentally friendly production methods are being developed, which uti-
lize raw materials.

1.2.1 3-Hydroxy-propionic Acid
3-HP acid (also called 3-Hydroxypropanoic acid, hydracrylic acid, and ethylene lactic acid)
is a three-carbon carboxylic acid that has an interesting industrial potential and stands third
on the list of the top 12 platform chemicals in the United States. It contains two functional
groups with different properties that make it a suitable precursor for many applications, rang-
ing from synthesizing optical active substances to acting as a cross-linking agent for polymer,
metal lubricants, and antistatic agents for textiles. It has been included in the top value-added
chemicals among renewable biomass products, as listed by the US Department of Energy
(Gokarn et al., 2007; Raj et al., 2008). In fact, 3-HP can serve as a precursor for a number of com-
modities and specialties, such as acrylamide, 1,3-propanediol, acrylic acid, and methyl acry-
late. Moreover, 3-HP can also be used to synthesize chemical intermediates such as malonic
acid, propiolactone, and alcohol esters of 3-HP (Gokarn et al., 2007). Several chemical synthe-
sis routes have been described to produce 3-HP, including oxidation from either 1,3-propane-
diol or 3-hydroxypropionaldehyde and hydration from acrylic acid. A global market opening
at 3.63 million tons per year has been estimated for 3-HP (Raj et al., 2008). For commercial use
3-HP is produced by organic chemical synthesis, which is relatively expensive, and it is pro-
hibited from being used for the production of monomers (Suthers and Cameron, 2005).

1.2.2 Lactic Acid
Lactic acid (2-hydroxypropionic acid) is a traditional chemical organic acid that is used
as a natural preservative in many food products and widely used for specialized industrial
applications (Maeda et al., 2009; Zhao et al., 2010; Taskin et al., 2012). It’s a raw material
for 2,3-pentanedione, propanoic acid, acrylic acid, acetaldehyde, lactate ester, and as dilac-
tide in chemical industries (Wee et al., 2004). Due to its properties such as optical activity,
hydroxyl and carboxyl moieties are exploited for safe applications in the pharmaceutical,
textile, and cosmetic industries (Wang et al., 2010a,b). For improved human health, many
food products such as yogurt, Yakult, and bread contain lactic acid. Lactic acid is used as
a feedstock for biodegradable polymers, oxygenated chemicals, plant growth regulators,
environmentally friendly green solvents, and specialty commodity–chemical intermedi-
ates (Maeda et al., 2009). The global consumption of lactic acid is estimated to be around
130,000–150,000 metric tons annually and is expected to increase 7% per year until 2013
(Wee and Ryu, 2009; Djukic-Vukovic et al., 2012). The demand for lactic acid production is
increasing continuously due to its extensive application as a precursor of polylactic acid, a
promising biodegradable polymer (Wang et al., 2010a).
 1.3 Commercially Important Platform Chemicals: Alcohols 9

1.2.3 Fumaric Acid
Fumaric acid is a C4 unsaturated dicarboxylic acid that is widely used as a building block
for a variety of chemicals and polymers. It is also used in the food, chemical, and pharmaceuti-
cal industries (Xu et al., 2010; Roa Engel et al., 2011). Fumaric acid is used in ruminal digesta to
decrease methane formation and increase glucogenesis; it also increases milk yield in the agri-
cultural industry (Wood et al., 2009). It serves as an important intermediate for esterification
reactions and is identified as one of the top 12 building block chemicals by the US Department
of Energy (Yu et al., 2012). It is used as an acidulant in foods, beverages, and industrial prod-
ucts, including lubricating oils, inks, and lacquers, and as a carboxylating agent for rubber.
Fumaric acid is primarily produced through the catalytic oxidation of petrochemical hydro-
carbons to maleic anhydride, followed by hydrolysis into maleic acid, and finally isomeriza-
tion into fumaric acid. Due to increasing prices of petroleum oil and depleting fossil reserves,
the bio-based production of fumaric acid has generated attention (Zhang et al., 2012).

1.2.4 Butyric Acid
Butyric acid, a four-chain short chain fatty acid, is an important specialty chemical with
wide industrial applications in the chemical, foodstuff, and pharmaceutical industries. It is also
used in manufacturing plastics, emulsifiers, disinfectants, and esters (Zhang et al., 2009; Song
et al., 2010). It is used in the form of pure acid in food flavors, as additives for increasing fruit
fragrance, and as aromatic compounds in perfumes. Its roles in health care as multiple bioac-
tive and therapeutic compounds are diverse (Wei et al., 2013), and it is used in the treatment
of hemoglobinopatheis, cancer, and gastrointestinal diseases (Huang et al., 2011b). In addition,
butyric acid with direct hydrogenation in the presence of copper-based catalysts can produce
promising fuel 1-butanol (Lim et al., 2013). It is synthesized commercially from petrochemi-
cal routes (Jiang et al., 2009a) by the oxidation of butyraldehyde through an oxoprocess using
propylene and also by a novel synthesis method from maleic anhydride (Song et al., 2010).
Due to the high demand and decreasing supply of world crude oil, the urgency of addressing
the problem of increasing the production of butyric acid is becoming acute (Zhang et al., 2009).

1.3 COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT PLATFORM CHEMICALS:

ALCOHOLS

1.3.1 Xylitol
Xylitol, a five-carbon sugar alcohol, is an expensive polyol sweetener found in food prod-
ucts such as chewing gum, soft drinks, and confectionery (Sakakibara et al., 2009); it also
has specific healthcare applications for oral health and parenteral nutrition (Rao et al., 2006).
Xylitol is low-calorie pentitol. It is used as an anticariogenic and is an ideal sweetener for
diabetics because its metabolism is not regulated by insulin and does not involve glucose
6-phosphate dehydrogenase (Cheng et al., 2009; Sakakibara et al., 2009). The industrial pro-
duction of xylitol is through the chemical reduction of xylose derived from hydrolyzed plant
materials, mainly birchwood chips, sugarcane bagasse (SCB), birch trees, and corn stalks
10 1. PLATFORM CHEMICALS: SIGNIFICANCE AND NEED

(Rao et al., 2006; Sakakibara et al., 2009). Annually around 30,000 tons of xylitol are produced
by the chemical hydrogenation of xylose (Tamburini et al., 2010). The current xylitol market
is around $340 million. The global consumption was 43,000 tons in 2005; the major consumers
accounting, for 30% and 37%, respectively, were the United States and Western Europe. The
chemical process of production is not ecofriendly, which further increases the capital invest-
ment and costs for xylitol production (Prakash et al., 2011).

1.3.2 Butanol
Butanol, an important C4 platform compound, is considered in particular replacements
for liquid transportation fuels, and its properties make it superior to ethanol (Cooksley et al.,
2012). Butanol has low volatility and is less corrosive and less hydroscopic (Cheng et al.,
2012). It can be easily blended with petrol for its high energy content, low vapor pressure, and
tolerance to water contamination. It gives better fuel economy than petrol–ethanol blends,
with no need to make expensive modifications to car engines, and it can be blended into pet-
rol at higher concentrations than ethanol (Cooksley et al., 2012). Butanol contains 22% oxygen
and is an excellent fuel extender. It can be used, directly supplied, and stored through existing
gasoline pipelines (Ni et al., 2013).

1.4 ADVANCES IN PLATFORM CHEMICAL PROCESS ENGINEERING:

NATURAL MICROBIAL SYNTHESIS

1.4.1 3-Hydroxy-propionic Acid
The increasing commercial interests of 3-HP are toward exploring the biological meth-
ods of production using recombinant or fermentation processes over chemical synthesis. The
major advantage of the microbial production of 3-HP is the ability to utilize significantly
low-cost by-products of biodiesel production, which is rather simple and straightforward,
involving two enzymes (Raj et al., 2009). 3-HP is found in several microorganisms, includ-
ing bacteria, fungi, and yeast, as a key intermediate of their metabolism or as a secondary
metabolite. It has been reported to play a role in the pathway for autotrophic carbon dioxide
fixation, known as the 3-HP cycle. This cycle was first described in Chloroflexus aurantiacus, a
facultative aerobic phototrophic bacterium (Holo, 1989). Other bacterial species are stated to
synthesize 3-HP, eg, Rhodococcus erythropolis, Acidianus brierleyi, A. ambivalens, Sulfolobus metal-
lic, and Metallosphaera sedula. 3-HP is also synthesized by recombinant Escherichiacoli strains.
Suthers and Cameron (2005) claimed a patent for producing 3-HP using recombinant E.coli
microorganism-carrying genetic constructs from Klebsiella pneumonia and a gene for aldehyde
dehydrogenase, capable of producing 3-HP from glycerol (Suthers and Cameron, 2005). With
the cloning of two genes, dhaB-encoding glycerol dehydratase and aldH-encoding aldehyde
dehydrogenase, cultivated aerobically on glycerol, a medium-containing yeast extract pro-
duced 3-HP at a maximum concentration of 0.58 g/L (Raj et al., 2008). Studies involving a
recombinant strain of K. pneumonia for the production of 3-HP using glycerol in a 5-l bioreac-
tor under microaerobic conditions produced 16 g/L (Ashok et al., 2011) and under anaerobic
fed-batch culture produced 24.4 g/L (Huang et al., 2012).
 1.4 Advances in Platform Chemical Process Engineering: Natural Microbial Synthesis 11
The production of 3-HP can be increased by using recombinant strains specific to carrying
out a reductive pathway of glucose or glycerol degradation. Once glycerol is degraded via
a reductive pathway, synthesis of 3-HP is carried out easily with the help of two enzymes:
glycerol dehydratase and aldehyde dehydrogenase.

1.4.2 Lactic Acid
Microbial fermentation is a better alternative to chemical synthesis because optically pure lactic
acid is produced, along with the utilization of renewable carbohydrates (Wang et al., 2010b). To
meet the increasing demand, lactic acid is produced from various biomass such as garbage, potato
starch, lignocellulosic biomass, and excess sludge by microbial fermentation (Maeda et al., 2009).
Worldwide microbial fermentation accounts for around 90% of the total lactic acid production
(Wang et al., 2010a). Lactic acid is commercially produced from starchy materials, but to reduce
feedstock costs and avoid competition with the food supply, the use of low-cost, abundant, and
renewable biomass as a carbon source has attracted attention (Ye et al., 2013).
Maeda et al. (2009) have investigated the development of a facile technology for effectively
utilizing and/or reducing excess sewage sludge using endogenous bacteria from the sludge.
When a 50 mM sucrose concentration in sludge was fermented at 50°C using seed inoculum,
it resulted in 8.45 g/L high-lactic acid production and 38.2% sludge reduction with a conver-
sion rate of up to 106.0%. The lactic acid bacteria were actually sludge-lysing bacteria and
were able to produce lactic acid from protein and carbohydrates released from excess sludge
(Maeda et al., 2009). Lignocellulosic biomass-derived sugars, such as low-cost corncob molas-
ses, are considered to be an economically attractive carbohydrate feedstock for large-scale
fermentations of lactic acid (Wang et al., 2010a). A waste by-product from xylitol production
was used for lactic acid production; it was an encouraging process for the economical produc-
tion of lactic acid.
The mixture of sugars, including xylose, arabinose, and glucose, in corncob molasses
can be utilized by Bacillus sp. strain XZL9 at initial total sugars of 91.4 g/L for l-lactic acid
(74.7 g/L) production in fed-batch fermentation. This study provides an economical lactic
acid production process from low-cost lignocellulosic resources such as corncob molasses
(Wang et al., 2010b). In another study by Wang et al. (2010b), a low-cost raw cassava-rich crop
(in terms of carbohydrates) was powdered for the efficient production of lactic acid from Lac-
tobacillus rhamnosus strain CASL. The efficiencies of various fermentation strategies, includ-
ing simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF), two-step fermentation (TSF), and
simultaneous liquefaction, saccharification, and fermentation (SLSF), were investigated. A
high l-lactic acid concentration (175.4 g/L) was obtained in a 5-L fermenter using 275 g/L of
cassava powder concentration (carbon source 275 g/L) along with a yeast extract (5 g/L) in
SSF batch fermentation at 1.8 g/L h productivity. This is the highest l-lactic acid concentra-
tion reported from a cassava source, suggesting SSF to be more economical and convenient in
comparison to TSF and SLSF (Wang et al., 2010a). In a significant study by Taskin et al. (2012),
the replacement of an expensive nitrogen source with a chicken feature containing 90% pro-
tein was used with molasses as a carbon source in the production of l-lactic acid. A chicken
feather protein hydrolysate (CFP) containing 55.8 g/L of protein along with essential amino
acids was sufficient for newly isolated Rhizopus oryzae TS-61 growth to produce 38.5 g/L con-
centrations of l-lactic. In contrast to yeast extract and ammonium sulfate, CFP provided a
12 1. PLATFORM CHEMICALS: SIGNIFICANCE AND NEED

smaller uniform pellet formation, prevented excessive pH changes, was a rich nitrogen sup-
plement, reduced medium costs, and benefited the environmental problem by the utilization
of waste (Taskin et al., 2012). Jawad et al. (2012) have investigated the production of lactic acid
from mango peels under ambient conditions and optimized the production using a factorial
design. A maximum production of 17.48 g/L highlights the potential of mango peels as a low-
cost option, and process optimization will make the production of lactic acid economically
viable and sustainable (Jawad et al., 2012).
The cost-effective production of optically pure lactic acid from lignocellulose sugars is
commercially attractive but challenging. Ca(OH)2 was found to be a better neutralizing agent
than NaOH in terms of its giving higher lactic acid titer and productivity. From a kinetic point
of view, SSF, a two-reactor fermentation system, and a one-reactor repeated batch operation
increased lactic acid production.

1.4.3 Fumaric Acid
Fumaric acid is among the top 12 chemicals produced by industrial fermentation. Due
to a scarcity of petroleum worldwide, fermentation routes for fumaric acid production are
gaining importance (Roa Engel et al., 2011). The fermentative production of these acids from
renewable resources has received extensive attention worldwide and can replace fossil-based
production via maleic acid (Deng et al., 2012).
Xu et al. (2010) have investigated a novel two-stage corn straw utilization strategy by the
well-known producer R. oryzae for fumaric acid production. The pretreatment of corn straw
after acid hydrolysis resulted in a xylose-rich liquid to be used for fungal growth and a resid-
ual glucose-rich liquid to be used for fumaric acid production. This two-stage corn straw uti-
lization strategy resulted in 27.79 g/L fumaric acid production at a productivity of 0.33 g/L h
(Xu et al., 2010).
In order to further increase fumaric acid production, R. oryzae ME-F12 was isolated and
mutated to increase the activity of glucoamylase to develop SSF from starch materials without
commercial glucoamylase supplementation. About 39.80 g/L of fumaric acid were success-
fully obtained using the mutant with 1.28-fold as compared to the parent strain, suggesting a
new avenue for the cost-effective fermentation of fumaric acid (Deng et al., 2012).
Strain improvements for increased fumaric acid production with laser irradiation on R. oryzae
were carried out to induce mutations. Following exposure to the irradiation, the mutant strain
FM19 exhibited a 56.3% increased titer to produce 49.4 g/L of fumaric acid from glucose. The
mutant strain followed carbon and amino acid metabolism and provided new insights into the
metabolic characterization of a high-yielding fumaric acid strain (Yu et al., 2012).
A novel immobilization device using net and wire for filamentous R. arrhizus RH-07-13
for fumaric acid fermentation was developed. Abundant mycelia grew on a large surface of
the net and consumed glucose rapidly with a transit of nutrients across the net, resulting in
rapid fumaric acid production. The result was around 32.03 g/L of fumaric acid production,
in comparison to free-cell fermentation (31.23 g/L), and a further reduction in fermentation
time from 144 to 24 h (Gu et al., 2013).
Fumaric acid production can be increased by using the well-known producer Rhizopus
strain, possessing high glucoamylase activity and maintaining conditions for mycelia growth
for increased fumaric acid production at a reduced fermentation time.
 1.4 Advances in Platform Chemical Process Engineering: Natural Microbial Synthesis 13

1.4.4 Butyric Acid
Due to the use of butyric acid as an ingredient in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical
applications, there is a high demand by consumers for bio-based butyric acid production
(Jiang et al., 2009a). Butyric acid produced by fermentation is favored over chemically syn-
thesized acids, and the food products get labeled as a “natural preservative” (Zhang et al.,
2009). With the catalytic reaction of butyric acid and hydrogen, the most promising biofuels
can be synthesized from microbial fermentation (Song et al., 2010). The dominant platform
for the biological production of butyric acid is by using Clostridium sp., and some studies
have focused on fermentation techniques, which are recombinant techniques to improve the
productivity and titer of butyric acid.
To minimize the high share of carbon sources in the media component cost, the exploitation of
cheap, renewable carbon sources has been stimulated. Cane molasses, a by-product of the sugar
industry containing 45–50% total sugar, using attractive characteristics of immobilization for in
batch, repeated-, and fed-batch fermentation in a fibrous-bed bioreactor (FBB) was carried out by
Jiang et al. (2009a). The feasibility and robustness of the FBB system for producing butyric acid
using low-cost cane molasses pretreated with sulfuric acid resulted in a 55.2 g/L increased pro-
duction in comparison to batch fermentation (34.1 g/L) using C. tyrobutyricum (Jiang et al., 2009b).
Similarly, Song et al. (2010) have proposed empirical kinetic models to determine the optimal
operational condition and develop a proper substrate feeding strategy for fed-batch fermentation
of C. tyrobutyricum. A model-based fed-batch fermentation with semicontinuous glucose feed-
ing resulted in 73.77 g/L of butyric acid production, much higher than batch fermentation. The
predictions of the models reported match with the fermentation data, showed improvement in
production, and may contribute to developing a cost-effective butyric acid fermentation process
(Song et al., 2010). Considering the cost efficiency of fermentation production, Jerusalem arti-
choke (JA), a relatively cheap and widely available nongrain raw material, was acid-hydrolyzed
to generate fructose and glucose for butyric acid production. To compete with the petroleum
route of production, an FBB with immobilized C. tyrobutyricum in a repeated-batch fermentation
was successfully performed. The feasibility and efficiency of the FBB system with a high butyric
acid concentration of 60.4 g/L from acid-pretreated JA hydrolysate could be achieved to compete
with the petroleum route of production (Huang et al., 2011b). In a similar approach, an FBB with
immobilized C. tyrobutyricum in a repeated-batch fermentation using SCB hydrolysate produced
around 20.9 g/L of butyrate concentration (Wei et al., 2013).
These works demonstrate the feasibility of using low-cost feedstock, JA, and SCB for the
efficient production of butyric acid. More studies on butyric acid production have focused on
fed-batch fermentation, including an FBB using immobilized Clostridium. With advancements
in genetic engineering, a redox cofactor regeneration system in E. coli was developed for the
production of butyric acid. With the native redox cofactor regeneration system, butyrate was
the only final electron acceptor. The demand of a cofactor was fulfilled for cellular growth
and enabled the efficient conversion of glucose into butyric acid, reaching 83.4% of the theo-
retical maximum yield (Lim et al., 2013).
The best approach for increased butyric acid production is fed-batch fermentation, which
showed the highest maximum cell density, minimized substrate loss, maximized the final
titer, increased the yield of the target product, and showed pivotal importance for butyric
acid production.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of How music
grew, from prehistoric times to the present
day
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: How music grew, from prehistoric times to the present day

Author: Marion Bauer

Ethel R. Peyser

Release date: November 19, 2023 [eBook #72171]

Language: English

Original publication: New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1925

Credits: Richard Tonsing, Tim Lindell, and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file
was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW MUSIC

GREW, FROM PREHISTORIC TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY ***
Transcriber’s Note:
New original cover art included with this eBook is
granted to the public domain.

From the painting

by Manet—in the
Louvre, Paris.

The Fifer.
 HOW MUSIC GREW

From Prehistoric Times to the Present

Day

BY

MARION BAUER & ETHEL PEYSER

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
WILLIAM J. HENDERSON
With 64 Illustrations

G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
NEW YORK :: LONDON
 Copyright, 1925
by
Marion Bauer and Ethel Peyser

Tenth Impression

All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any
form without permission.

Made in the United States of America

To Our Young Friends

FROM

NINE TO NINETY
THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY OFFERED

“It takes three to make music: one to create, one to perform, one to appreciate.
And who can tell which is the most important?”

Robert Haven Schauffler, from

The Creative Listener (a revision) in
The Musical Amateur.
 THE AUTHORS’ GREETINGS

Dear Young Readers from Nine to Ninety:

In writing this book we have not tried to write a history but rather
have attempted to follow a lane parallel to the road along which
music has marched down to us through the ages.
For this reason you will find what may seem upon first glance
peculiar omissions, but which to us were prayerfully and carefully
relinquished, lest the book become an encyclopedia and lest our kind
publisher look upon us ungraciously and our readers despair.
Among the omissions which may be regarded as serious is a
chapter on the singers, those who have delighted and thrilled the
public through the years, but the nature of this book, in the minds of
its authors, precludes details of the executive side of music, adhering
as closely as possible to the actual creators.
In our experience every history of music, and we have read scores
of them, leaves out many things, so our “lane” touches things in
passing, only, owing to mechanical as well as willful reasons.
On the other hand we have enlarged greatly on many topics. This
we have done when we have considered a subject particularly
picturesque in order to attract and stimulate the novice reading
about music, perhaps, for the first time!
Lastly we have tried to explain as simply as possible, without
becoming infantile, the varying steps in Music’s growth. Therefore,
the book has assumed larger proportions than if we had been able to
use scientific terms and cut the Gordian knot of explanation with one
swiftly aimed blow, rather than three or four.
So, with the sincere hope that our book will help you to love music
better, because you will have seen its struggle with politics, religion
and its critics, we leave you to read it—from cover to cover—we hope!

Marion Bauer and Ethel Peyser.

Paris and
New York City
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Our book has had friends other than its authors. It has, in fact, had
makers as well as authors, so it cannot go out into the world without
proclaiming its “thank-yous.” First it would thank Flora Bernstein,
its indefatigable and patient typist, editor and general adviser, who
worked night and day for many moons; second, it must thank
Dorothy Lawton of the Music Library of the City of New York for her
graceful but poignant criticism, and third it must thank Grace Bliss
Stewart, who did some research and anything needed.

How Music Grew

and the
Authors.
 INTRODUCTION

No one questions the need of histories of music. Few, however,

define the need. It seems to be generally agreed that people ought to
know something about the history of the principal arts. Who
designed St. Peter’s, who painted the Descent from the Cross, who
wrote The Faerie Queen and who composed the Ninth Symphony.
These are things one ought to know. The reasons why one ought to
know them are seldom made clear. But just at this time, when the
word “appreciation” is so active in the world’s conversation, there
should be little difficulty in separating from the mass of unformed
comment at least one reason for acquaintance with the history of
music.
No one can “appreciate” an art work without knowing its period,
the state of the art in that period, the ideals and purposes of
composers, the capacity of their public and the particular gifts and
aims of the writer of the work under consideration. It is extremely
difficult for any person to begin the study of “appreciation” after he is
old enough to have acquired a stock of prejudices and burdened his
mind with a heavy load of misconceptions. It is better to absorb good
art, music or other, in the early years and to grow up with it than to
try at 18 or 20 to put away childish things and understand Bach’s “St.
Matthew Passion.”
Miss Bauer and Miss Peyser have written a history of music for
young people. It is not for the kindergarten class and yet it is not out
of the reach of mere children. It is not for the seniors in a university
and yet they might profit by examining it. The authors have surveyed
the entire field. They have touched ancient music and the music of
nations not usually considered in some more pretentious histories.
They have apparently tried to give a bird’s-eye view of the art as
practiced by all the civilized and some of the uncivilized races of the
earth. With this in mind they have shown how the supreme art forms
and the greatest art works developed among the western European
peoples, who, it is interesting to note, produced also the
metaphysical and philosophical bases of the world’s scientific
thought, the mightiest inventions, and with all regard for Buddhistic
poetry and speculation, the highest achievements in literature.
It seems to me that they have made a history of music singularly
well adapted to young minds. They do not treat their readers as if
they were infants—which might offend them—nor as college
professors, which would certainly bore them. The book will
undoubtedly have a large audience, for teachers of young music
students, of whom there are legions, will surely exclaim: “This is just
what we have needed.”

W. J. Henderson.
CONTENTS
 PAGE
The Authors’ Greetings vii

Acknowledgments ix

Introduction, by W. J. Henderson xi

BABYHOOD OF MUSIC

CHAPTER
I.— Music is Born—How, When and Where 3

II.— The Savage Makes His Music 8

III.— The Ancient Nations Made Their Music—Egyptian,

Assyrian, and Hebrew 20

IV.— The Greeks Lived Their Music—The Romans Used

Greek Patterns 31

V.— The Orientals Make Their Music—Chinese,

Japanese, Siamese, Burmese, and Javanese 46

VI.— The Arab Spreads Culture—The Gods Give Music to

the Hindus 55

CHILDHOOD OF MUSIC

VII.— What Church Music Imported from Greece 67

VIII.— Troubadours and Minnesingers Brought Music to

Kings and People 87

IX.— The People Dance and Sing—Folk Music 107

 X.— National Portraits in Folk Music 128

MUSIC BECOMES A YOUTH

XI.— Makers of Motets and Madrigals—Rise of Schools,

15th and 16th Centuries 146

XII.— Music Gets a Reprimand—Reformation and Rebirth

of Learning—How the Reforms Came to Be 162

XIII.— Birth of Oratorio and Opera—Monteverde and

Heart Music 171

XIV.— Musicke in Merrie England 187

MUSIC COMES OF AGE

XV.— Dance Tunes Grow Up—Suites—Violin Makers of

Cremona 208

XVI.— Opera in France—Lully and Rameau—Clavecin and

Harpsichord Composers 222

XVII.— Germany Enters—Organs, Organists and Organ

Works 235

MUSIC HAS GROWN UP

XVIII.— Bach—The Giant 244

XIX.— Handel and Gluck—Pathmakers 255

XX.— “Papa” Haydn and Mozart—the Genius 275

XXI.— Beethoven the Colossus 293

 XXII.— The Pianoforte Grows Up—The Ancestry of the
Pianoforte 307

XXIII.— Opera Makers of France, Germany and Italy—1741

to Wagner 326

XXIV.— The Poet Music Writers—Romantic School 343

XXV.— Wagner—the Wizard 359

XXVI.— More Opera Makers—Verdi and Meyerbeer to Our

Day 377

XXVII.— Some Tone Poets 397

XXVIII.— Late 19th Century Composers Write New Music on

Old Models 418

XXIX.— Music Appears in National Costumes 441

XXX.— America Enters 456

XXXI.— America Comes of Age 475

XXXII.— Twentieth Century Music 515

Some of the Books we Consulted 547

Some Music Writers According to Forms of Composition 551

Index 587
ILLUSTRATIONS
 FACING PAGE
The Fifer Frontispiece
Some Instruments of the American Indian 20
Hieroglyphics on an Egyptian Tablet 21
Greek Girl Playing a Double Flute (Auloi) 30
Greek Boy Playing the Lyre 31
Chinese Instruments 44
Fiddles from Arabia, Japan, Corea and Siam 45
The Koto-Player 46
The Wandering Samisen-Player 47
Instruments of Burmah and Siam 52
A Burmese Musicale 53
Laura Williams, American Singer of Arab Songs 58
Hindu Instruments 66, 67
St. Cecelia, Patron Saint of Music 72
The Book of Peace 73
Boys with a Lute 128
A Peasant Wedding 129
A Lady at the Clavier (Clavichord) 186
A Lady Playing the Theorbo (Luth) 187
Chevalier Christoph Willibald von Gluck 274
The Boy Mozart 275
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 292
Ludwig van Beethoven 293
Johann Sebastian Bach 306
George Frederick Handel 306
Franz Josef Haydn 306
Carl Maria van Weber 306
The Piano and its Grand-parents 307
Franz Schubert 358
Robert Schumann 358
Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy 358
Frédéric Chopin 358
Richard Wagner, the Wizard 359
Georges Bizet 388
Vincent d’Indy 389
Camille Saint-Saëns 389
Jules Massenet 389
Gustave Charpentier 389
Hector Berlioz 402
Franz Liszt 403
Johannes Brahms at Home 418
César Franck 419
Edward MacDowell 492
Charles Griffes 493
Claude Achille Debussy 516
Maurice Ravel 516
Arnold Schoenberg 517
Igor Stravinsky 517
Arthur Honegger 538
Darius Milhaud 538
Béla Bartók 538
Louis Gruenberg 538
G. Francesco Malipiero 539
Alfredo Casella 539
Arnold Bax 539
Eugene Goossens 539
How Music Grew