Physics Labs 2022-2023

Done by: Alex

Grade: 11
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Lab Title Skills Page

# OR MM AI P
R D

1 Simple Pendulum ✔ 1
2 Density ✔ 5
3 Centre of Gravity ✔ 8
4 Moments of a Force ✔ 10

5 Moments of a Force ✔ 13
6 Pendulum/Acceleration due to gravity ✔ 16
(Proposal)

7 Power ✔ 18
8 Hooke’s Law ✔ 22
9 Energy Conservation ✔ 25
10 Upthrust ✔ 28

11 Specific Heat Capacity ✔ 30

12 Specific Heat Capacity ✔ 33

13 Thermal Physics ✔ 36
14 Heat Transfer ✔ 38

15 IV Relationship ✔ ✔ 40
16 Series and Parallel ✔ ✔ 43
17 Radioactive Decay/Half Life ✔ 45
18 Refraction ✔ 49
19 Implementation (Project) ✔ 52

Lab # 1
Date: September 26, 2019

Title: Simple Pendulum

Aim: To determine the factors affecting a pendulum:

(a) Mass

(b) Angle

(c) Length

Apparatus: masses, meter rule, string, clamp stand, protractor, stopwatch

Diagram:

Procedure 1:

1. A string was attached to the clamp stand.

2. A 50g mass was attached to the other end of the string.

3. The string was released from about a 30° displacement and allowed to swing through the

air.

4. A stopwatch was used to time 25 oscillations.

5. The time taken was recorded in a table.

6. Steps 1-5 were repeated using 100g, 150g, 200g, 250g and 300g masses.

7. A graph of T2 vs mass was plotted.

Procedure 2:

1. A string was attached to the clamp stand.

2. A 50g mass was attached to the other end of the string.

3. The string was released from about a 20° displacement and allowed to swing through the

air.

4. A stopwatch was used to time 25 oscillations.

5. The time taken was recorded in a table.

6. Steps 1-5 were repeated using the same mass from angles 250, 300, 350, 400 and 450.

7. A graph of T2 vs angle was plotted.

Procedure 3:

1. A string of length 100cm with a mass of 50g was attached to the clamp stand.

2. The string was released from about a 300 displacement and allowed to swing through the

air.

3. The stopwatch was used to time 25 oscillations.

4. The time taken was recorded in a table

5. Steps 1-5 were repeated using pendulum lengths of 85cm, 70cm, 55cm, 40cm and 25cm.

6. A graph of T2 vs length.

Results and Calculations:

TABLE SHOWING MASS AGAINST PERIOD FOR A SIMPLE PENDULUM

Trial Mass (g) 25 oscillations (s) Time for 1

 oscillation (s)
1 2 Avg.
1 50 26.21 26.24 26.23 1.05
2 100 26.51 26.45 26.48 1.06
3 150 26.71 26.78 26.75 1.07
4 200 26.50 25.91 26.21 1.05
5 250 26.57 26.63 26.60 1.06
6 300 26.91 27.01 26.96 1.08

TABLE SHOWING ANGLES AGAINST PERIOD FOR A SIMPLE PENDULUM

Trial Angle (0) 25 oscillations (s) Time for 1

1 2 Avg. oscillation (s)
1 20 27.26 27.94 27.60 1.10
2 25 29.10 28.01 28.56 1.14
3 30 28.53 27.72 28.13 1.13
4 35 28.03 28.02 28.03 1.12
5 40 27.99 27.90 27.95 1.12
6 45 28.61 28.56 28.59 1.14

TABLE SHOWING LENGTH AGAINST PERIOD FOR A SIMPLE PENDULUM

Trial Length 25 oscillations (s) Time for 1 T2 (s2)

(cm) 1 2 Avg. oscillation
(s)
1 100 50.52 50.84 50.68 2.03 4.12
2 85 46.67 46.77 46.72 1.87 3.50
3 70 42.26 42.23 42.25 1.69 2.86
4 55 37.73 37.79 37.76 1.51 2.28
5 40 32.51 33.00 32.76 1.31 1.72
6 25 26.51 26.45 26.48 1.06 1.12

Sample Calculation:
Avg. time = T1 + T2/2

50.52 + 50.84 / 2 = 50.68s

Time for 1 swing = avg. time/# of oscillations

50.68 / 25 = 2.03s

Discussion:

A simple pendulum is a weight suspended from a pivot so the mass ca swing freely making
complete oscillations. According to the experiment done on mass, angle and length, length was
the only factor that affected the period of the pendulum because the longer the string got the
more time was used to complete an oscillation. If more than one variable changed at a time the
factor which affected the period of the pendulum will not be known. During the oscillations, the
pendulum slowed do because of external forces such as wind.

Precaution: 1) Close all windows and doors.

Sources of Error: 1) Environmental Error - Wind affecting the pendulum.

2) Parallax Error - Not reading at Eye level

Limitation: 1) Experimental Error - Reaction time

2) Air resistance

Conclusion: Based on the experiment, length of the string is the only factor that affects the
pendulum. As the string lengthens, the time of the oscillation increases.

Lab # 2

Date: October 24, 2019

Title: Density
Aim: To determine the density of an irregular object (stone).

Apparatus: electronic balance, stones, water, eureka can, string, measuring cylinder.

Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Apparatus for the experiment was obtained.

2. The electronic balance was zeroed.
3. One of the stones was placed on the electronic balance and its mass was recorded.
4. A piece of string was attached to a stone.
5. The eureka can was placed on a flat surface and the eureka can was filled with water until it
overflowed through the sprout.
6. After the water stopped dripping from the sprout, an empty measuring cylinder was placed
under the sprout
7. The stone was gently lowered into the eureka can and the displaced water was allowed to
flow in the cylinder until it stopped dripping from the sprout.
8. The measuring cylinder was placed on a flat surface and its volume was recorded.
9. The density of the stone was determined.
10. Steps 2-9 were repeated for the other stones.

11. A graph of mass against volume was plotted based on the results in the table and the gradient
was found.

Results:

TABLE SHOWING MASS, VOLUME AND DENSITY OF VARIOUS STONES

Stone Mass (g) Volume (ml) Density (gcm-3)

 A 212.73 98 2.17
B 89.54 38 2.36
C 88.60 40 2.22
D 164.27 88 2.87
E 145.90 72 2.03
F 110.45 54 2.05

Calculation:

Density (P) = mass (m)/volume (v)

P = m/v

P = 89.54 / 38

= 2.36 gcm-3

Discussion:

Density is mass per unit volume, and it is also how compact the particles in an object are.
This is how close they are to each other. Mass is directly proportional to density which
means if one number increases or decreases so does the other. Volume is indirectly
proportional to density. This means if one number increases or decreases, the other does the
opposite. Based on the experiment, neither the mass nor the volume affected the density. This
is because the mass and volume do not affect the compactness of the particles in the object.

Precaution: 1) Gently lower the stone.

2) Ensure air bubbles are removed from the body of the liquid before taking measurements.

Sources of Error: 1) Parallax Error - Not reading the measuring cylinder at eye level.

2) Instrumental Error - Electronic Balance

Limitation (If applicable): 1) String affecting volume by absorbing water.

2) Dirt and debris on stone affected mass and volume.

Conclusion: In conclusion, the mass and volume of an irregular object were found and the
density was calculated. The density was found to be 2.10 gcm -3.

Lab # 3

Date: January 28, 2020

Title: Centre of Gravity

Aim: To determine the centre of gravity of an irregular shaped lamina

Apparatus: pendulum, irregular shaped lamina, pencil, nail, retort stand

Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Three holes were punched equidistance from each other close to the edge of the lamina.
2. A nail was inserted in a steady overhead support.
3. The lamina was placed over the nail and the loose end of the pendulum was tied before
the lamina on the nail.
4. The system was allowed to settle before the pencil was used to mark the line the
pendulum falls on the lamina.
5. Steps 3-4 were repeated for the other two holes.
6. The lamina was balanced on a small area object(nail) where the lines intersected.

Result: The system achieved complete balance.

Discussion:

The centre of gravity of a body is the point through which the resultant gravitational force on the
body acts. The centre of gravity acts in the geometric centre on a regular object. The lamina was
unbalanced at any other point. The lamina was balanced at the centre of the acquired triangle.
The law of translational equilibrium, the sum of the forces in the upward direction is equal to the
sum of the forces in the opposite/ downward direction.

Precaution: 1) Ensure the system is settled.

2) Ensure windows and doors are closed.

Sources of Error: 1) Environmental Error - Wind

2) Parallax Error

Limitation: Flatness of lamina

Conclusion: The centre of gravity of an irregular shaped lamina was determined in the centre of
the acquired triangle formed by the 3 lines intersecting.

Lab#4

Date: Jan 31, 2020

Problem Statement: Kimone and Abby are, they live in the same house and both like the
same things. There is a see-saw in the backyard; however, they have difficulties riding the
see-saw together because Kimone is bigger and weighs almost twice as much as Abby. Their
mother suggests that Kimone moves closer to the pivot so that they both can enjoy the see-
saw. Plan and design an experiment to prove if the mother is correct.

Title: Moments of a Force

Hypothesis: Moving a heavier load closer to a pivot will enable a system of balance.

Aim: To determine if moving a heavier load closer to a pivot will enable a system of balance.

Apparatus: 25g mass, 50g mass, ruler, triple beam balance, ply board, triangular prism

Diagram (if necessary):

Procedure:

1. Obtain apparatus.
2. Place the triangular prism on a flat surface.
3. Place a 50cm x 25cm ply board on the triangular prism. Ensure it is centered.
4. Measure cm from the center on both sides and place the 25g on one side and the 5og on
the other side.
5. Record observations.
6. Move the 50g weight nearer to the centre and record observations.
7. Continue moving the 50g mass nearer to the center until there is a system of balance.
8. If you did not achieve balance repeat the process moving the lighter weight.
 Data collection:

TABLE SHOWING BALANCE BETWEEN 50G AND 25G MASSES

Weight Position from the Center Did it balance? (will be

ticked

50g 40cm

25g 40cm

50g 30cm

25g 40cm

50g 20cm

25g 40cm

50g 10cm

25g 40cm

Variables:

Controlled - Position of the pivot

- Position of lighter weight

- Value of the weights

Manipulated - Distance of the heavier weight from the pivot

Responding - Change in moment or balance

Expected results:
Σcwm = Σacwm

Moving the heavier weight closer should achieve a system of balance due to the principle of a
rotational equilibrium, where the sum of the clockwise moments about any point is equal to the
sum of the anti-clockwise moments about the same point.

Precaution/Limitation/sources of error:

1) Ensure the pivot point never moves throughout the experiment.

2) Ensure that all windows and doors are closed.

Source of Error: Environmental – Wind

Lab #5

Date: March 10, 2020

Title: Moment of a Force

Aim: To prove the principles of moments

Apparatus: weights, metre rule, pivot (clamp stand), string

Diagram:

Procedure:

1. The metre rule was placed on the pivot and balanced with nothing attached.

2. Two weights of 1.0N and 0.5N were placed on either sides of the pivot.

3. The 1.0N mass was adjusted 10cm from the pivot and the other weight was adjusted to
get the metre rule balanced.

4. The distance of the other weight was recorded in the table.

5. The experiment was repeated using different weights and distances from the pivot.

Results:
 TABLE SHOWING CLOCKWISE AND ANTICLOCKWISE MOMENTS OF
DIFFERENT WIEGHTS

Anticlockwise Moments Clockwise Moments

Weight (N) Distance (cm) Moment Weight (N) Distance (cm) Moment
(Ncm) (Ncm)

1.0 5.0 5.0 0.5 10.0 5

1.5 15.0 22.5 2.0 10.9 21.8

2.0 20.0 40.0 1.0 39.3 39.3

2.5 20.0 50 2.0 25.2 50.4

3.0 5.0 15 0.5 30 15.0

3.5 15 52.5 1.5 35.3 53

Sample Calculation:

Sum of Clockwise Moments = Sum of Anticlockwise Moments

F1 x d1 = F2 x d2

1.0N x 5.0cm = 0.5N x 10cm

Discussion:

The principle of moments states that the moment of a force about a point is the product of
the force and the perpendicular distance of its line of action from the point. When one
force is greater and at the same distance, the beam will fall on that side of the greater
force. If a force is greater, it moves closer in distance to the pivot and the other remains
unchanged in order to achieve balance. The size of the force and the distance from the
pivot required are the foundations of moments of a force. This is because the moment of
a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance. When the beam was
balanced, the product of the force (moment) did not differ on either side of the pivot. This
 is due to the law of rotational equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments of any point is
equal to the sum of anti-clockwise moments about that same point.

Precaution: 1. Ensure the pivot point never moves throughout the experiment.

2. Ensure that all windows and doors are closed.

Sources of Error: 1. Environmental Error – Wind

2. Parallax Error

Limitation (if necessary):

The ruler was assumed to be perfectly balanced

Conclusion: It can be concluded that the principles of moments, which states that the
moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance
of its line of action from the point, was proved.

Lab#6
 Date: March 19, 2020

Problem Statement: Ackeem decided that he was going to conduct an experiment to

determine the value of the acceleration due to gravity by means of a simple pendulum.
Copper wire, nylon string and an elastic band were used as the plumbline, but he was fearful
that the nature of the material would affect his data. Plan and design an experiment to see if it
is so.

Title: Simple Pendulum

Hypothesis: Nylon string is the best string to be used in the plumbline to determine
acceleration due to gravity, compared to copper wire and an elastic band.

Aim: To determine if nylon string is the best string to be used in the plumbline to determine
acceleration due to gravity, compared to copper wire and an elastic band.

Apparatus: Nylon string, 50g bob, clamp stand, scissors, timer, copper wire, elastic band,
timer

Diagram (if necessary):

Procedure:1. Gather Apparatus.

2. Using scissors, cut a 40cm piece of Nylon string.
3. Attach string to clamp stand and tie 50g bob to it.
4. Set bob at an angle and release. Allow to swing for 20 oscillations and record the
time taken.
5. Repeat steps 2-4 with copper wire and elastic band.
6. Use results obtained to determine the value of acceleration due to gravity.

Data collection:
 String 25 oscillations (s) Time for 1 Acceleration
oscillation (s) due to gravity
(ms-2)
1 2 Avg.

Nylon String

Copper Wire

Elastic Band

Variables: Controlled – Length of Strings, Mass of bob

Manipulated - Type of String

Responding – Value of acceleration due to gravity

Expected results: Nylon would have the least resistance as a result it will move more freely

when compound to the other materials. This will show that the nylon string will be the best string

to use in the plumb line.

Precaution: 1. Ensure all windows and doors are closed.

Limitation: 1. Environmental Error – Wind

Lab # 7
Date: November 17, 2020
Title: Power
Aim: To determine the power developed when climbing a flight of stairs
Apparatus: kg Scale, stopwatch, metre rule, flight of stairs
Diagram:

Procedure:
1. The subject’s mass was determined using the kg scale.
2. The subject’s weight was calculated using W = mg.
3. The total vertical height (h) of the stairs was calculated, in metres, by measuring one and
counting the total number to be climbed.
4. Another subject was used to determine the time taken to run up the flight of stairs by
using a stopwatch.
5. The work done was calculated and thus the power used to do this job.
Results/Calculations:
TABLE SHOWING MASS, WORK DONE AND POWER OF A SUBJECT WITHOUT LOAD

Subject Mass (kg) Time (s) Work done (J) Power (W)

Without Load Walking Running Walking Running Walking Running

A 66 8.14 2.0 792 97.3 396

TABLE SHOWING MASS, WORK DONE AND POWER OF A SUBJECT WITH LOAD

Subject Mass (kg) Time (s) Work done (J) Power (W)

With Load Walking Running Walking Running Walking Running

A 127 9.12 3.5 1524 167.11 435.43

Height of Stairs = Number of steps x height of one step

= 4 x 5.25
=47.25 inches
Inch to cm
= 47.25 inch x 2.54
= 120.015cm
Cm to m
= 120.015cm / 100
= 1.2m
Work done walking without load= mgh or Fd
= 66 x 10 x 1.2
= 792J
Work done walking with load= mgh or Fd\
= 127 x 10 x 1.2
= 1524J

Power while walking without load = mgh/t

= 792 / 8.14
=97.3W
Power while running without load = mgh/t
= 792 / 2
= 396W

Power while walking with load = mgh/t

= 1524 / 9.12
= 167.11W
Power while running with load = mgh/t
= 1524 / 3.5
= 435.43W

Discussion:
Power is the rate at which energy is transferred from one form to another. Mass is directly
proportional to power as a result the large the mass the large the power. Time on the other hand
is inversely proportional to power, so the more take it takes there will be less power. As the mass
increased so did the time. It is evident that mass and time are directly proportional. The formula
for weight is mass by gravity and weight is a force because it has direction. As a result it is
proven that work is the same as gravitational energy because they are the same.
P = W/t = Fd/t

W = Fd

Ep = mgh

Mass x gravity is weight and weight is a force.

Precaution:1. Ensure timing is synchronized with motion.

2. Alignment measurement tool properly.

Sources of Error:1. Experimenter Error – Reaction Time

2. Environmental Error - Wind

Limitation (If applicable):1. It is assumed that all stairs are the same height.

Conclusion: The power developed when climbing a flight of stairs was successfully determined.
The power for subject A without load while walking was 97.3W and while running it was 396W.
The Power for subject A with load while walking was 167.11 W and while running it was 435.43
W.
Lab # 8
Date: May 19, 2020
Title: Hooke’s Law
Aim: To determine the effect of weight on the extension of a spring
Apparatus: Fixed support, spring balance, weight holder, 10g masses, ruler

Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Apparatus was set up as shown in the diagram.
2. The extension with nothing attached was used as the zero mark.
3. The mass holder was placed on spring balance and the weight and extension was
recorded.
4. 10g masses were added consecutively to the spring balance and the corresponding weight
and extension were recorded.
5. A graph of extension vs load was plotted.
Results:
TABLE SHOWING LOAD VERSUS EXTENSION OF DIFFERENT MASSES

Mass Load (N) Extension (cm)

(g)

0 0 0.0

10 10 0.1

20 20 0.2

30 30 0.3

40 40 0.4

50 50 0.5

60 60 0.6

70 70 0.7

80 80 0.8

90 90 0.9

100 100 1.0

Calculations:
W=mg
= 10g x 10N
= 100N

Gradient of graph = rise / run

= y2 – y1 / x2 – x1
= 0.95 – 0.35 / 95-35
= 0.6 / 60
= 0.01 mN-1
Discussion:
Hooke’s Law states that the force applied to a spring is proportional to its extension provided the
spring does not exceeded its elastic limit. There is a limit for the extension of a spring, it is
called the elastic limit. The limit of proportionality affects the extension of any force added as
the spring would have been deformed and it would not return to its original state. The extension
that would be produced on the string if a force of 0.75N was added is 0.17cm. The slope or
gradient of the graph is 0.01 mN-1. The inverse of the slope represents the spring’s constant. The
mass required to give an extension of 3.8cm is 380 grams.

Precaution:1. Spring is in good condition.

2. Ensure measurement is read at eye level.

Sources of Error:1. Environmental Error – Wind

2. Parallax Error

Limitation: 1. Spring may be damaged or deformed.

Conclusion: It can be concluded that the effect weight has on a spring is proportional to the
spring’s extension.
Lab # 9
Date: December 10, 2020
Title: Energy Conservation
Aim: To determine if energy is conserved as a mass falls from a height
Apparatus: mass, tape measuring, stopwatch, electronic scale

Diagram:

Procedure:
1. The electronic scale was used to determine the mass of the object.

2. A tape measure was used to find the height of the 2nd floor of a building.

3. The mass was released from the measured height while the stopwatch was started
simultaneously.

4. The time was recorded in a table.

5. Steps 3-4 were repeated for the same mass.

6. The gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy were calculated.

Results:
TABLE SHOWING TIME TAKEN FOR A MASS TO FALL FROM A HEIGHT
Mass (kg) Height (cm) Times (s)
1 2 3 Avg.
0.20 4.24 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.92

Calculations:
P.E. = mgh
= 0.20 x 10 x 4.24
= 8.48 J

V = u + at
V = 0 + at
V = at
= 10ms-2 x 0.92s
=9.2ms-1

K.E. = ½ mv2
= ½ x 0.20 x (9.2)2
=8.46J

Discussion:
Energy is simply the ability to do work. The principle of conservation of energy states that
energy cannot be created or destroyed only converted. As the mass falls, potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy as the mass begins its descent. Potential energy is the energy a still,
high object possesses whereas kinetic energy is the energy an object possesses when it is in
motion. The two energy values were extremely similar, this proved the law of energy
conservation. The factors which affected the flight of the mass were wind and friction due to air
resistance. Had the experiment been conducted in a vacuum, the mass would have fallen faster,
and results would be more accurate. The time for the mass to fall would not be different if
another mass were used. This is because mass does not affect the fall, only height does.

Ek max = Ep max
½ mv2 / m = mgh / m
½ v2 = gh
V2 = 2gh
V = √ 2gh
Precaution: 1. Ensure mass is released from rest.
2. Read the tape measure at eye level.

Sources of Error:1. Parallax Error – Tape measure

2.Experimenter Error – Reaction time
3. Environmental Error - Wind

Limitation: 1. Air resistance would have affected results.

Conclusion: Based on the results obtained, it can be concluded that energy is conserved as mass
falls from a height. It was found that the maximum kinetic energy was equal to the maximum
potential energy, 8.48J = 8.46J.
 Lab #10
Date: November 5, 2020
Problem Statement: A student proposed the idea that up thrust is the same for varying masses
in the same fluid because up thrust is only dependent on the fluid. How would you investigate
the proposal?

Title: Upthrust
Hypothesis: Upthrust is the same for varying masses in the same fluid.

Aim: To determine if up thrust is the same for varying masses in the same fluid.

Apparatus: beaker, water, spring balance, measuring cylinder, 4 stones of different sizes

Diagram (if necessary):

Procedure: 1. Gather materials and apparatus.

2. Label the 4 stones of different sizes: A, B, C and D.
3. Weigh each stone using the spring balance and record their weights in the table.
4. Pour 50cm3 of water in a beaker.
5. Gently lower stone A into the beaker using the spring balance and record the
weight in a fluid.
6. Repeat steps 4-5 with stones B, C and D.
7. Calculate the up thrust with the results obtained.
Data collection:
Stone Masses Weight in Air Weight in Fluid Up thrust

Variables: Control - Volume of fluid

- Type of fluid (water)
Manipulated – Mass of each stone.
Responding – Up thrust

Expected results: Up thrust will be the same for each stone as they are all in water. This will
indicate that up thrust is the same for varying masses and they are in the same fluid.

Precaution/Limitation/sources of error:
1. Parallax Error – Not reading spring balance or measuring cylinder at eye level.
2. Ensure the stones do not touch the bottom of the beaker, taking pressure off the spring
balance which would result in a wrong reading.
Lab #11
Date: November 12, 2020
Problem Statement: A driver on his way from Ocho Rios to Priory encountered engine
troubles just before reaching Dunn's River. He realized that his coolant was finished so he
decided to get some of the river water to act as a coolant; however, a local from the area told
him that the sea water was a better coolant. As a Physicist how would you conduct an
experiment to determine which is the better coolant?
Hypothesis: Sea water will be a better coolant than river water

Aim: To Determine if sea water will be a better coolant than river water

Apparatus: beakers, Bunsen burner, stopwatch, thermometer, tripod, sea water, river
water, measuring cylinder

Diagram (if necessary)

 Procedure:
1. Gather apparatus
2. Label the 2 beakers A and B, A for the river water and B for the sea water.
3. Place the gauze on top of the tripod stand and place the bunsen burner below the tripod
stand.
4. Place the beaker on top of the gauze.
5. Using a measuring cylinder measure 5m of river water and place it in the beaker.
6. Measure and record the temperature of the water.
7. Light the bunsen burner and start the stopwatch simultaneously.
8. Allow the water to heat for 10 minutes.
9. After the 10 minutes are over, stop the stopwatch and turn off the bunsen burner.
10. Record the temperature.
11. Subtract the final temperature from the initial temperature to get the change in
temperature.
12. Repeat steps 5-11 with the sea water and compare the results to the river water.

Data collection: TABLE SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE OF TWO DIFFERENT

COOLANTS AFTER HEATING

Coolant Temperature after 10 minutes

River Water

Sea Water

Variables: Manipulated: Type of water

Responding: Temperature, Heat Capacity
Controlled: Time of Heat Exposure, Mass of the Coolants, Heat Supplied
Expected results: The sea water should have the higher heat capacity as it would take much
more heat energy to change the temperature of sea water than the river water because salt has a
high melting point. This will prove that the sea water is a better coolant than the river water. If
these findings are true, then the hypothesis is valid. If not, then the hypothesis is invvlid

Precaution/Limitation/sources of error
Sources of Error:
1. Evaporation from the warm mixture will absorb latent heat of vaporisation from it.
2. Thermal energy is transferred by conduction to the beaker and to the bench top.
Limitations:
1. Heat loss to the atmosphere.
2. Residue may be found in the engine from the sea water.
Precautions:
1. Ensure that the apparatus are on a flat surface.
2. Ensure to read all measurements at eye level.

Lab # 12
 Date: December 10, 2020
Title: Heat Capacity
Aim: To determine the specific heat capacity of a metal block by the method of mixture
Apparatus: Calorimeter/polystyrene cup, metal block, thermometer, electronic balance,
stirrer, beaker, stopwatch, Bunsen burner, water, paper towel.
Diagram:

Procedure:
1. The mass of the metal was determined using a triple beam balance and it was recorded in
the table.
2. Some water was poured in a beaker then the mass of the empty beaker was found then the
mass and temperature of the water inside the beaker.
3. The mass and temperature, ᴓ1, of the water were recorded in the table.
4. The metal was placed in the boiling water and the temperature was noted after 5 minutes.
5. The temperature of the metal was recorded as ᴓ1.
6. The metal block was transferred quickly to the water in the calorimeter/ polystyrene cup.
7. The mixture was stirred gently until the maximum temperature is reached, it was then
recorded as ᴓ of the mixture.

Results:
(Title)

Mass of Mass of Temperature (0C) Specific heat Specific heat

metal water capacity of capacity of
(kg) (kg) water (Jkg-1 0C-1) metal (Jkg-1 0C-1)
Metal water ᴓ of
mixture
ᴓ1 Δᴓ ᴓ1 Δᴓ

0.2 0.125 102 70 2 9 32 4200 337.5

3

Calculations:
Δᴓ of metal = ᴓ1 of metal - ᴓ of mixture

Δᴓ of water = ᴓ of mixture - ᴓ1 of water

Heat loss by metal = heat gained by water

m1 c1 Δᴓ1 = m2 c2 Δᴓ2

Discussion:
Heat capacity is the heat needed to change a body by unit temperature whereas the specific heat
capacity is the heat needed to change unit mass of a substance by unit temperature. The heat
capacity is the property of a body while the specific heat capacity of a substance. The metal was
transferred quickly to the polystyrene cup to reduce the amount of heat lost to the environment.
The assumption, that all the heat lost be the metal is gained by the water, is made. The specific
heat capacity of the metal is 337.5Jkg -1 degrees Celsius -1. This is a low specific heat capacity.
Due to its specific heat capacity, this metal could be used to make pots, utensils and clothes
irons. An advantage of knowing the specific heat capacity of an object is you will know how
suitable an object is for a situation.
Precaution: 1. Put in metal gently, to ensure no water is spilt.

2. Ensure that the transfer is quick.

3. Wait until the thermometer is steady before reading.

Sources of Error: 1. Environmental Error – Wind affected flame\

2. Parallax Error – Thermometer may not have been read at eye level.

Limitation: 1. Some heat was lost to the environment.

Conclusion: The specific heat capacity of a metal block by method of mixture was successfully
determined and the value was found to be 337.5Jkg-1 degree Celsius -1.
 Lab # 13
Date: January 10, 2021
Title: Thermal Physics
Aim: To determine the freezing point of naphthalene from its cooling curve
Apparatus: Naphthalene, water, water bath, test tube, thermometer, retort stand, heat source,
stopwatch
Diagram:

Procedure:
1. A test tube was half filled with naphthalene and was placed in a beaker of water.
2. The water was heated until the naphthalene melted.
3. The test tube was removed and arranged with a thermometer as shown in the diagram.
4. The temperature was recorded every minute (60 seconds) up until the point of
solidification.
5. A graph (cooling curve) of temperature against time was plotted.
Results: TABLE SHOWING THE TIME TAKEN FOR NAPHTHALENE TO COOL
OVER A PERIOD OF TIME

Time (s) 0 60 120 180 24 300 360 42 480 540 600 660
0 0

Temp. (0C) 100 88 84 84 84 82 81 79 78 77 76 74

Discussion:
Based on the shape of the curve of the graph, the relationship between time and temperature
when the naphthalene is cooling is indirectly proportional. As temperature decreases, time
increases. The range of temperatures when naphthalene is in the liquid state is 100 degrees
Celsius to 81 degrees Celsius. The range of temperatures of naphthalene when it exists in both
solid and liquid state is 79 degrees Celsius to 74 degrees Celsius. Temperature will remain
constant when naphthalene completely solidifies. As cooling takes place, the particles of
naphthalene move closer together due to the forces of attraction which are not being affected by
heat. Based on the graph, the freezing point of naphthalene is

Precaution: Ensure naphthalene is stirred with thermometer during process.

Sources of Error: Parallax Error – Thermometer may not be read at eye level.

Limitation: Naphthalene did not completely solidify in experiment due to lack of agitation
(stirring).
Conclusion: The freezing point of naphthalene was determined successfully using the
cooling curve, it was found to be
 Lab #14
Date: January 17, 2021
Problem Statement: A boy claims that when he wears darker coloured clothes he feels
hotter. He further claims he can arrange five of his shirts in order of hottest to coolest. He
then makes an arrangement of black, red, orange, green and white. Plan and design an
experiment to determine if the boy’s order of arrangement is correct for the absorption of
heat.
Hypothesis: Black, red, orange, green and white is the correct order of arrangement to show
the absorption of heat as darker coloured clothes absorb more heat.

Aim: To determine if black, red, orange, green and white is the correct order of arrangement
to show the absorption of heat as darker coloured clothes absorb more heat.

Apparatus: 5 metal pans (black, red, orange, green and white), 0.5 litre water and thermometer.

Diagram (if necessary)

Procedure

1. Gather apparatus

2. Place all 5 pans on a table in direct sunlight.

3. Pour 0.5 litre of water in all the pans.

4. Record the temperature of the water in the different pans after 15 minutes.
Data collection

TABLE SHOWING THE TEMPRETURE OF WATER IN DIFFERENT COLOURED PANS

Colour of Pan Temperature of Temperature of Change in

Water before going Water after 15 Temperature

into Pan (^.C) minutes in Pan (^.C)

Black

Red

Orange

Green

White

Variables: Manipulated- Color of pans.

Responding- Temperature of water after 15 minutes.

Control: Volume of Pan

Temperature of Water before

Expected Results: The black pan would have the highest temperature after 15 minutes while the

white pan would have the lowest temperature after 15 minutes. This will show that the darker the

clothes are the more heat they absorb while the lighter the clothes are the less heat they absorb.
Lab # 15
Date: January 28, 2021
Title: Electricity
Aim: To investigate the I-V relationship for a diode, a filament lamp and a resistor
Apparatus: Rheostat, power supply, voltmeter, ammeter, diode, resistor, filament lamp,
connecting wires.
Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Apparatus was set up as shown in the diagrams.

2. The rheostat was manipulated to obtain multiple readings on the voltmeter and ammeter.

3. Corresponding readings were recorded in the table.

4. Graphs of current against voltage were plotted.

Results: RELATIONSHIP FOR A FILAMENT
TABLE SHOWING VOLTAGE – LAMP
CURRENT
RELATIONSHIP FOR A RESISTOR Voltage(V) Current (I)
0.14 0.02mA
Voltage(V) Current (I)
0.27 0.03mA
0.65 0.03 mA 0.66 0.04mA
0.82 0.04mA 1.16 0.05mA

1.00 0.05mA 1.49 0.06mA

2.17 0.07mA
1.19 0.06mA
3.16 0.08mA
1.48 0.07mA

1.63 0.08mA
TABLE SHOWING VOLTAGE –
1.80 0.09mA CURRENT
RELATIONSHIP FOR A DIODE

TABLE SHOWING VOLTAGE –

CURRENT
 Voltage(V) Current (I)
0.62 0.00 µA
0.63 0.00 µA
0.64 0.01 µA
0.85 0.02 µA
0.67 0.04 µA
0.68 0.07 µA
0.23 0.16 µA

Discussion:
If the currents were reversed in the circuits, fixed and filament would work but the diode would
not work due to depletion zone and reverse bias.
The relationships for the graphs plotted of current vs voltage are as follows:
In Fixed, it was directly proportional or ohmic and in filament and diode it was inversely
proportional or non – ohmic.

Precaution: 1. Ensure connections are secure and tight.

2.Ensure the diode is connected in the forward bias direction.
3.Ensure connections are at the correct polarity.

Sources of Error: 1. Experimental Error – Faulty Connections

2. Instrumental Error – Components may be faulty.

Limitation: 1. Heat being developed in the circuit. Heat affects resistance.

Conclusion: The Voltage – Current relationship for a resistor, a filament lamp and diode were
successfully determined. Based on results and graphs obtained, it can be concluded that the fixed
resistor is ohmic and both the filament lamp and diode are non-ohmic.
Lab #: 16

Date: Feb 8, 2021

Topic: Series and Parallel

Aim: To determine the effect on resistance and current when resistors are connected in series and
parallel.

Apparatus: two identical filament bulbs, 9V battery, connecting wires, switch, ammeter

Diagram:

Procedure: 1. Circuits were set up as shown in the diagram above.

 2.The switch was closed, and the readings recorded on the ammeter.

3.The voltage and current were used to determine the combined resistances in the
circuits.

Results: TABLE SHOWING VOLTAGE, CURRENT AND RESISTANCE IN SERIES AND

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Orientation Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (Ω)

Series 9 0.45 20

Parallel 9 1.80 5

Calculation:

Total Resistance in Series = Voltage total/ Current total

= 9V / 0.45A
= 20Ω

Total Resistance in Parallel = Voltage total/ Current total

= 9V / 1.80A
= 5Ω

Discussion:
In parallel, differences in brightness would be caused by more or less resistance in one bulb. If
one bulb had more resistance than the other, it would be dimmer because the same amount of
current would not be available in that bulb. In series, differences in brightness would be caused
by the number of bulbs in the circuit, bulbs would become dimmer as more are added.

Sources of Error:
1. Instrumental Error - Equipment could be faulty
 2. Experimenter Error - Faulty Connection

Precautions:
1. Ensure connections are secure and tight.
2. Ensure connections are at correct polarity.

Limitation:
1. Heat being developed in the circuit affecting resistance.

Conclusion:
The effect on resistance and current when resistors are connected in series and parallel was
successfully determined.

Lab #: 17

Date: March 11, 2021

Aim: To conduct an experiment to determine the half-life decay curve.

Apparatus: Stopwatch, coins

Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Each student obtained a coin and determined which side of the coin would be used as

decay against undecayed.

2. Using stopwatch, coins were flipped every 20 seconds for 2 minutes.

 3. All the sides that were decayed and undecayed were recorded in a table.

4. Decayed coins were removed from the experiment and timing was continued with the

undecayed.

5. Graphs of undecayed against time were plotted.

Results: TABLE SHOWING DECAYED AND UNDECAYED COINS OVER 2 MINUTES

Time (s) Decayed Undecayed

0 0 100

20 55 45

40 26 19

60 10 9

80 3 6

100 1 5

120 3 2
Discussion:

The half-life is the time taken for half of a mass of a given radioactive substance to undergo

radioactive decay. Radioactive decay is random. There is a definite period for half of a given

sample to decay, this is the half-life. The half-life determined by the curve graph and by the

decay constant of the linear graph was found to be 17 seconds.`If the half-life could be

determined more accurately by finding multiple half-lives and averaging them.

Ts1/2 = 18 + 16 / 2

= 34/2

Ts1/2= 17s

It was impossible to determine which coins or how many would be decayed as this is a random

process which couldn’t be controlled. It will take 6 half-lives to reach 1/64 of its initial activity.

Ts1/2 = 17 x 6

= 102
Some advantages of knowing the half-life of a radioactive substance is: You will be able to date

fossils, you’ll know how to store and use the substance and how long to store it. When used in

the medicinal field, you’ll know when to take/ use a medicinal product and when it will wear off.

Some disadvantages/ dangers of handling radioactive samples are the circumstance in which you

are going to be exposed to radiation which can poison and kill and radiation can also cause

cancer and mutate cells.

Precaution:

1. Ensure coins are tossed simultaneously.

Limitation:

1. Time delay via internet connectivity

Sources of Error:

1. Experimenter Error – Counting error

2. Experimenter Error – Reaction time error

Conclusion:

Based on the results obtained and graphs plotted, it can be concluded that the half-life decay

curve was successfully determined, and the half-life was found to be 17s.
Lab # 18

Date: March 19, 2021

Title: Refraction

Aim: To determine if the ratio sini/sinr is a constant.

Apparatus: glass block, protractor, pins, plain paper, 30cm rule

Diagram:

Procedure:
 1. The glass block was placed on a piece of paper and was outlined on the paper

2. A normal line and angles of incidence 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350 and 400 were drawn.

3. Two pins were placed on the 100 incident line and was observed on the other side of the

glass block until the two pins appeared as one.

4. Two other pins were placed on the other side of the glass block, where the pins were

observed as one.

5. The pins were removed and lines were drawn to show incidence and refraction.

6. Steps 3-5 were repeated for other angles.

7. A graph of sin I against sin r was plotted and the gradient was found.

Result:

TABLE SHOWING ANGLES OF INCIDENCE AND REFRACTION FOR A GLASS BLOCK.

Angle of Incidence (0) Angle of Refraction (0) Sin I Sin R

10 6 0.17 0.10

15 11 0.26 0.19

20 16 0.34 0.28

25 18 0.42 0.30

30 20 0.5 0.34

35 23 0.57 0.39

40 29 0.64 0.49
Discussion:

There are 2 laws of refraction. First law states that the incident ray, the refracted ray and the

normal are on the same plane at the point of incidence. The other law states that ratio sinI/sinR is

a constant for a given pair of media. When the ray reached the boundary PQ the ray refracted

(bend) towards the normal. Unlike PQ, when ray reached the boundary RS the ray refracted

away from the normal. It can be seen that rays approaching PQ and the rays leaving RS were

parallel. They both have equal angles and are both travelling in the same direction making them

parallel.

Precaution:

● Ensure the glass block stays the same place throughout the experiment.

● Ensure the pins are placed directly inline with the previous pins.

Sources of Error:

● Parallax error

● Instrumental Error

Limitation:
 ● Eye defects.

Conclusion:

Based on the result obtained and graph plotted, it can be concluded that the ratio sinI/sinR is a

constant (refractive index of glass). It gave a value of 1.41 which is comparable to the accepted

value 1.5.

Implementation Lab

Lab: 19

Date: March 19, 2021

Title: Simple Pendulum

Aim: To investigate if different materials as the value of acceleration due to gravity of a simple

pendulum

Apparatus: Copper wire, Nylon String, Elastic band, Clamp Stand, 500 gram mass

Diagram (if necessary):

Procedure

1. The apparatus was gathered.

2. The clamp stand was placed on a steady and level surface.

3. Copper wire, Nylon String and elastic were cut to equal length (40cm).

4. The copper wire was tied to the clamp stand.

5. A 500g mass was attached to the copper wire

6. The mass was allowed to swing freely.

7. The time taken to complete 25 oscillation was recorded.

8. Steps 2-7 were repeated for Nylon string and Elastic.

Data collection

FINDING THE MOST SUITABLE PUMBINE TO DETERMINE THE VALUE OF

ACCERATION DUE TO GRAVITY.

Material 25 Oscillation(s) Time for 1 Acceleration

 oscillation due to gravity

(ms^-2)

Copper Wire 31.00 31.08 31.04 1.54 10.25

Elastic 31.20 31.40 31.30 1.57 10.06

Nylon String 32.53 32.69 32.61 1.70 9.29

Discussion:

After the completion of the oscillations the period of the nylon string was the greatest. It took an

average of 32.61s to complete 25 oscillations, copper wire 31.04s and elastic band 31.30s. Using

the formula ms^-2 the acceleration due to gravity was found and it was seen that the elastic band

which gave the value 10.06ms^-2 came the closest to the accepted value which is 10ms^-2.

While the copper wire gave the value 10.25 which was higher than the accepted value and the

nylon string that gave the value 9.29 which was less than the accepted value. Based on the

experiment the elastic band which was only off by 0.6ms^-2 was the best material that could be

used to find the acceleration due to gravity. When compared to the copper wire and nylon string

the elastic band seemed to be less affect by errors. Seeing that the elastic band was fully

stretched making it even, it was less affect by wind that posed a problem to the nylon string seen

that it was lighter making it off by 0.71ms^-2. The rigidness of the copper wire was an error that

caused it not to oscillate freely consequently it was of by 0.25ms^-2.

Variables:

Manipulated- Switch between different materials.

Responding- Acceleration due to gravity for different materials.

Control-The length of the string and mass.

Precaution

● Close windows and doors

● Do not disturb pendulum

● Ensure the pendulum is swing only in one plain.

Limitation

● The value of gravity changes depending where you are on the earth.

● Air resistance.

Sources of error

● Environmental Error-

● Parallax Error

● Reaction time

Reflection
After completing this lab, the researcher learnt a lot of new things. The researcher learnt that the

material used in the pendulum are imperative. Doing this experiment, it solidified pervious

knowledge the researcher had. It proved to the researcher that the acceleration due to gravity is

actually 10ms^-2. Having this knowledge, one will be able to explain how different equipment

work. Pendulums are used on cranes which are used to knock down buildings. Pendulums can be

used as time pieces which are found in antique clocks. In addition, they are also used to line

building seeing that pendulum always act straight down. Original the length of all different

materials was 100cm, but it was reduced to 40cm seen the nature of the elastic band. The more

elastic band there was the weaker it would have been making it easy to snap.

Conclusion

After completing this experiment and result obtain it can be concluded that the most suitable

material to be used for the acceleration due to gravity is the elastic band which gave a value of

10.06 ms^-2. Making it the closest value to 10ms^-2 when compared to copper wire which gave

a value of 10.25ms^-2 and nylon string that gave a value of 9.29ms^-2.