ARCHIVES OF ACOUSTICS

Vol. 46, No. 1, pp. 3–15 (2021)

DOI: 10.24425/aoa.2021.136555

Review Paper

An Educational Overview of Ultrasound Probe Types

and Their Fields of Application

Ramona DE LUCA(1)∗ , Leonardo FORZONI(1) , Francesca GELLI (1)

, Jeffrey BAMBER(2)
(1)
Esaote S.p.A.
Florence, 50127, Italy
∗
Corresponding Author e-mail: [email protected]
(2)
Institute of Cancer Research and Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust
London, SM2 5NG, United Kingdom

(received May 29, 2020; accepted November 25, 2020)

The ultrasound (US) imaging market is fast-changing in terms of needs, trends and tendencies as it
undergoes rapid innovations. Due to technological improvements, a variety of US probe types is available
to cover a wide range of clinical applications. The aim of this paper is to provide information to healthcare
professionals to select the appropriate probe for the intended use and the desired performance/price
ratio. This work describes the majority of conventional, special and unique US probe types currently
available on the market, together with technological insights that are responsible for image quality and
a list of some of their clinical applications. The description of the inner transducer technologies allows
to understand what contributes to different prices, features, quality level and breadth of applications.
The comparison of current US probes and the analysis of advanced performances arising from the latest
innovations, may help physicians, biomedical and clinical engineers, sonographers and other stakeholders
with purchasing and maintenance commitments, enabling them to select the appropriate probe according
to their clinical and economical needs.
Keywords: ultrasound probes typology; technologies; clinical applications.

1. Introduction US systems consist of two main parts which are the

console (including the keyboards, the mouse/trackball,
Being sufficiently non-hazardous, portable, com- the monitor and often a touch screen) and the probe
pact, low-cost and real time, ultrasound (US) is the that is optimized for specific clinical imaging applica-
most widely used non-invasive diagnostic imaging tions. Classification of US machines is typically based
modality worldwide (Azhari, 2012). Along with its on whether they are cart-based or portable, and on
ability to provide images of internal body anatomy, their position in the price/performance range (Pre-
detect the dynamic movement of organs, and reveal de- mium, High-End, Mid-End, Low-End). US imaging
tails of blood flow in real time (Szabó, 2004), it offers systems undergo rapid technology progress, and this
a variety of imaging approaches, each providing a dif- leads a quick rotation of products available on the
ferent type of clinical information. These techniques in- market and rapid change of price/performance ratio.
clude contrast enhanced ultrasound, elastography, ul- In this complex scenario, US probes have a significant
trasound computed tomography and molecular imag- impact upon both image quality and ergonomics. Ul-
ing (Azhari, 2012). Diagnostic US imaging is used trasonic probes are specialized to each intended use
for many parts of the body (e.g. abdomen, vascular, (i.e., region of interest, access window, and maximum
heart, musculoskeletal, women’s health) (Andreoni scan depth) and recent designs enable more significant
et al., 2015), on fetal, neonatal, pediatric, adult, human and consistent diagnostic information, faster and eas-
and animal patients, and by different users (e.g. sono- ier scanning and increased reliability, due to important
graphers, physicians, radiologists, surgeons, anesthe- technology improvements. The purpose of this paper
siologists, midwives, paramedics, and veterinarians). is to provide an analysis of the types of US probes
4 Archives of Acoustics – Volume 46, Number 1, 2021

that are currently on the market, giving insights into The piezoelectric layer is the active material that
the latest technologies as well as clinical applications. converts the electrical signal into an US wave and vice-
The description of how the latest innovations influ- versa (Yu et al., 2009). The backing block, consisting
ence both probe type and advanced performance may of a heavy metal-based material (Kochański et al.,
help in understanding of what contributes to different 2015) bonded on the back face of the piezoelectric ele-
prices, features, quality level and breadth of applica- ments, has acoustic impedance and absorption opti-
tions. Therefore, this overview aims to help users and mized to reduce reflections from the back face of the
other stakeholders with purchasing and maintenance piezoelectric, in order to produce a pulse with less
commitments, to select the appropriate probe accord- ringing. As a result, higher image resolution is pro-
ing to their clinical and economic needs. vided. A matching layer, a typically loaded epoxy resin
bonded on the front face of the piezo-elements, im-
proves the transfer of energy to the tissues by compen-
2. Ultrasonics
sating for the acoustic impedance mismatch between
Ultrasonic transducers are devices that generate the stiff piezo-elements and soft biological tissues. This
and receive US waves; they convert the electric energy results in enhanced sensitivity. It also reduces reflec-
into ultrasonic energy, and vice-versa. When either de- tions at the front face of the piezoelectric element of
signing or selecting an US probe, technical parameters the ultrasonic waves that travel in the forward direc-
(such as central frequency, bandwidth, front matching tion, acting like the backing layer to shorten the pulse,
layer, and backing material) and performance para- increasing the bandwidth and therefore to further im-
meters (among others, field of view, spatial and con- prove image resolution. Significant contributions to the
trast resolution) must be considered if the probe is to performance of modern probes arise from the applica-
meet the intended use. tion of multiple adaptive matching layers and back-
ing layers that use the dematching layers (Chen, Wu,
2.1. Basic principles of ultrasonic transducer design 2002). Multiple adaptive matching layers consist of dif-
and construction ferent thin layers made of materials whose acoustic
impedance changes gradually from layer to layer, from
The ultrasonic transducer converts electrical pulses the impedance of the piezoelectric material to that of
to ultrasonic waves that are sent to the body and human tissues (Table 1). The tapered reduction of the
are reflected or backscattered by internal anatomic impedance mismatch allows the transfer of as much en-
structures. The transducer then detects the consequent ergy as possible to the body and this results in deeper
echoes and converts them to electrical signals that penetration. Enhanced resolution arises from shorter
the system processes and transforms into an image. pulses, and improved harmonic-imaging performance
Generally, it is made of an acoustic stack composed from increased bandwidth and sensitivity.
of a piezoelectric ceramic layer, a backing block, an
acoustic matching layer and a lens (Szabó, 2004). In- Table 1. Example of acoustic impedance (Z) matching pro-
novation on these materials is crucial for developing vided by multiple matching layers (Spicci, 2013), between
high-performance probes that will provide increasingly the Z of the piezoelectric ceramic lead zirconate titanate
(PZT) and that of soft biological tissues.
accurate and reliable images. Modern US transducers
consist of an array of multiple small piezoelectric ele- Z (MRayl)
ments, each part of the acoustic stack (Fig. 1). PZT 30
1st ML 14
2nd ML 8
3rd ML 3
4th ML 2
Soft biological tissues 1.5

Dematching layers, sandwiched between the back-

ing block and the piezo-elements, reflect the energy
transmitted backwards by the element and retransmit
it forwards. This reuse of acoustic energy that would
otherwise be dispersed, increases sensitivity and makes
for less heat dissipation, preserving probe performance
Fig. 1. Sketch of a typical medical ultrasound transducer in terms of sensitivity and penetration. Manufacturers
based on an array with multiple small piezoelectric ele- recognize the importance of the thermal management
ments (1) attached to a matching layer (3), a backing layer of US probes and show strong interest in developing
(2) and an acoustic lens (4). new technologies to dissipate heat within the probe.
 R. De Luca et al. – An Educational Overview of Ultrasound Probe Types. . . 5

Fig. 2. Examples of beam pattern profile (dB relative to the last axial maximum, z is the propagation direction and y is the
elevation direction). Depending on the region of interest, different elevation aperture size (element length) and focusing of
the ultrasonic transducer are required to reach the desired scan depth and resolution.

Two examples of an efficient cooling system are: a heat tanate). PZT ceramic is made of a dense polycrystal-
transfer device made of a graphene-based material, ei- line structure of random grains, while single crystal ce-
ther pure graphene or a graphene-loaded resin, which is ramic is grown in monocrystalline form. The behaviour
placed on the front of the transducer assembly to work of single crystal in an electric field is different from that
also as part of the matching layer into the body (Spicci of PZT ceramic: a single crystal shows dipoles almost
et al., 2017); a cooling system embedded at the rear of aligned, while dipoles are more randomly arranged in
the transducer, composed of a heat spreader, which PZT ceramic (Fig. 3).
transfers heat away from the heat source, and a heat
sink, which dissipates the heat (Cho et al., 2012).
An acoustic lens is used to focus the US beam in the
plane perpendicular to the imaging plane (Kochański
et al., 2015; Maione et al., 1999) (Fig. 2). The lens
layer typically consists of a material with acoustic
impedance close to that of human tissues, low ab-
sorption, and high mechanical strength. In conjunc-
tion with specifically designed geometry, it provides an
appropriate slice thickness that enables uniform sensi-
tivity and good signal-to-noise ratio across the whole
field of view (i.e. minimizing artefacts such as reverbe-
rations, increasing contrast resolution and improving
border definition of anatomical structures) and high
reliability. Fig. 3. The process of poling is applied to a piezoelectric
To ensure electrical safety, further increase the material (i.e. it is exposed to a strong electric field) be-
robustness of US transducers and guarantee longer fore using it. As a single crystal is grown in a monocrys-
product life, an electrically-insulating and chemically- talline form, while PZT ceramic is made of a dense poly-
resistant layer (such as parylene (Zhou et al., 2014)) crystalline structure of random grains, it exhibits an in-
is placed underneath the lens. creased efficiency of poling: single crystal shows almost all
dipoles aligned, while dipoles are more randomly arranged
2.2. Piezoelectric materials for ultrasonic transducers in a PZT ceramic. As a result, a single crystal has enhanced
electro-mechanical properties compared to PZT, leading to
In the last decades, lead zirconate titanate (PZT) improved imaging performance.
ceramic was the predominant piezoelectric material for
building US transducers, due to its excellent piezoelec- Therefore, single crystals exhibit an electromecha-
tric properties, chemical inertness, physical strength, nical coupling factor (k33 ) and a piezoelectric coeffi-
and easy and inexpensive manufacturing (Yue et al., cient (d33 ) up to 90% and three times higher than
2014). However, PZT has some drawbacks, such as PZT, respectively. Typically, lead-based single crys-
a high acoustic impedance (20 times higher than hu- tals have d33 ∼ 2000 pC/N and k33 ∼ 0.9 (Ming Lu,
man soft tissues) and power loss from low electro- Proulx, 2005). As a consequence, compared to PZT,
mechanical conversion efficiency, which have led the single crystals provide up to 20–25% wider bandwidth
need to the investigation of a new generation of piezo- (Fig. 4), greater sensitivity, therefore lower loss and
electric materials, such as single crystal PMN-PT (lead deeper penetration than PZT, enabling more detailed
magnesium niobate-lead titanate) and PIN-PMN-PT diagnostic information even for difficult-to-image pa-
(lead indium niobate-lead magnesium niobate-lead ti- tients (Yu et al., 2009).
6 Archives of Acoustics – Volume 46, Number 1, 2021

Piezoceramic/polymer composites have many ad-

vantages compared to monolithic ceramic: better
acoustic impedance matching to the human body than
PZT and single crystal (Table 2), low dielectric con-
stant resulting in a high piezoelectric voltage constant,
high coupling in the thickness mode for broad band-
width, and ease of handling during transducer manu-
Fig. 4. Single crystal (SC) provides up to 20–25% wider facture (Kwon et al., 2003).
bandwidth than PZT, with greater sensitivity and hence
stronger penetration, allowing enhanced imaging quality in Table 2. Properties of PMN-PT single crystal, PZT and
a wide variety of patients. PZT-based 1-3 composite published by Kim et al. (2010).
PMN-PT PZT-based
Properties PZT-5A
Ultrasonic transducers made with a single crystal single crystal 1-3 composite
offer noticeably better performance than those made d33 [pC/N] 1780 374 593
from PZT, in terms of contrast and spatial resolu- k33 0.92 0.71 0.75
tion, uniformity from near field to far field (i.e., high Z [MRayl] 28.8 33.7 13.4
signal-to-noise ratio), diagnostic confidence and accu-
racy; standard imaging, Doppler, colour flow and har-
monic imaging performances are all enhanced. With If two linear arrays at the same central frequency
these advantages, single crystals are highly desired for made with 2-2 CMP and PZT, respectively, are tested,
developing miniature transducers of superior perfor- the former one is expected to exhibit wider bandwidth
mance (Zhou et al., 2014). but lower peak-to-peak amplitude of the pulse. The ap-
On the negative side, single crystal transducers propriate design solution depends on the given applica-
show higher electrical impedance, therefore difficult tion. Ultrasonic arrays made with PZT-polymer com-
electrical matching with the system, and thinner piezo- posites are limited to frequencies < 30 MHz because
electric layers than PZT. It is challenging to process of the difficulties in machining (sub-dicing) PZT cera-
single crystals designed for frequencies higher than mics to the tiny sizes necessary to create the PZT rods
8 MHz because their thickness (< 200 µm) makes them (Kwon et al., 2003), although in a research context
fragile in this range. A major drawback in the produc- it has been shown that CMP manufacture by micro-
tion of single crystal transducers is the high cost due to moulding is able to increase this limit to at least
lower yield and longer manufacturing time (Kim et al., 100 MHz (Demore et al., 2009a). Micro-moulding also
2010; Ming Lu, Proulx, 2005). Another obstacle to allows the use of pillars that are neither cylindrical
the use of thin single crystals for high frequency trans- (rod-shaped) nor distributed in a regular pattern, both
ducers is the depoling phenomenon: if loss of polar- of which reduce the unwanted vibration modes that
ization and sensitivity are to be avoided, a PMN-PT exist when there are few pillars per element (as is the
transducer must be driven by a voltage significantly case at high frequencies) (Demore et al., 2009b).
lower than the typical system driving voltages (100 V A further increase in signal transmission efficiency
or higher) (Ming Lu, Proulx, 2005). is obtained using multi-layered crystal technology. The
Piezoelectric 1-3 and 2-2 composites are also com- core of this architecture is a piezoelectric element com-
monly used in transducer technology. A piezoelectric posed of several layers (Hossack, Auld, 1993), which
1-3 composite consists of piezoelectric rod-shaped pil- are mounted in the acoustic stack to improve electri-
lars embedded in a passive epoxy matrix (Zhou et al., cal matching with the cable and reduce the energy
2014), whereas a composite 2-2 is made of alternating and sensitivity loss due to the typical mismatch be-
piezoelectric layer (such as PZT) and polymer layer tween the output impedance of the transducer and load
(Fig. 5). impedance of the cable. As a result, image quality is
enhanced. This technology encounters significant fab-
rication challenges as the layers must be electrically
connected. Moreover, the bond thickness between the
layers must be much smaller than the ultrasound wave-
length, making the multi-layer crystal more suitable
for mid-low frequency transducers. This technology re-
quires a significantly complicated manufacturing pro-
Fig. 5. Microscopic cross-sectional view of 2-2 composite
cess that increases the cost of good (Mills, Smith,
(left) and 1-3 composite (right) ceramics. Note that the 1999).
repeated structures shown here are smaller than a typical Another advance in ultrasound imaging consists of
element within a transducer array of the type described high-density arrays. They are characterized by finer-
below. sized elements allowing enhanced compound, high frac-
 R. De Luca et al. – An Educational Overview of Ultrasound Probe Types. . . 7

tional bandwidth and reduced grating lobes, achieving 2.4. Multirow ultrasonic transducers
increased contrast resolution, detailed resolution and
high frame rate (Felix et al., 2001; Hasegawa, de Most medical probes are 1D arrays consisting of
Korte, 1999). However, small elements can result in a single row of transducer elements. The 1D arrays use
reduced manufacturing yield. electronic beamforming for beam steering and range-
adjustable focusing in azimuth (Wildes, Smith,
2.3. Micromachined ultrasonic transducers 2012), but rely on a fixed-range mechanical focus in
the elevation direction. This means that the image
Micromachined ultrasound transducers (MUTs) are slice thickness is non-uniform throughout the depth
a subset of MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems) of the image and this affects the contrast resolution
structures that may substitute piezoelectric bulk ce- (Barthe, Slayton, 1996; Wildes, Smith, 2012).
ramics for the design of transducers. A capacitive MUT For instance, blood vessels or cysts are visible if
(cMUT) consists of a membrane several tens of microns the image slice thickness is comparable to or smaller
in diameter that is suspended a few tenths of micron than the vessel diameter, whereas they are averaged
above a silicon substrate (Savoia et al., 2012; Dausch with the surrounding tissues and obscured if the slice
et al., 2008; Khuri-Yakub, Oralkan, 2011). Connec- thickness is much greater than the vessel size (Wildes,
tion electrodes are positioned on the membrane and Smith, 2012). In other words, conventional 1D trans-
substrate. In the presence of a bias voltage, the mem- ducer arrays have good lateral and axial resolution,
brane is attracted to the substrate by the Coulomb but elevation resolution is limited by the fixed-focus
force and restrained by elasticity of the membrane. lens. Multi-row transducer arrays (Fig. 6) are used to
If the electrostatic force exceeds the restoring force, provide a thin image slice over an extended depth of
the membrane collapses to the substrate; however, for field, enhancing spatial and contrast resolution.
an applied voltage just below collapse, the membrane
is very sensitive to small changes in either applied
voltage or displacement (i.e. transmitting or receiving
US) (Wildes, Smith, 2012). Transducer elements are
made by electrically connecting several cMUT mem-
branes together. The main advantages of cMUTs are
high spatial resolution from wide bandwidth (excess
of 100%) and narrow elevational beam width due to
easier manufacturability of multiple rows of elements
(Dausch et al., 2008) (see mention of 1.5D and 2D
matrix arrays below), that are desired for visualising Fig. 6. Sketch of a multirow transducer: in this example,
small structures, especially at high frequencies. On the the array consists of 5 rows.
negative side, electrical impedances tend to be higher
than those for comparable piezoelectric devices. This 1.5D arrays have electronic multiplexing (switch-
leads to more complex circuitry to interface with the ing) of elements and beamforming (relative delay ad-
transmitter and receiver (Wildes, Smith, 2012). Ano- justment between elements) in both azimuth and ele-
ther practical issue about cMUTs is that different de- vation, allowing dynamic control of the (still limited)
signs are needed, depending on whether transmission elevation aperture and focus, while 1.25D arrays have
or reception needs to be emphasised as the trans- only multiplexing (i.e., no relative delay adjustment
mit transfer and receive transfer functions are differ- between elements) allowing dynamic control of the el-
ent, whereas the transmitted and received responses of evation aperture but requiring static elevation focus-
PZT based transducers are almost identical (Akasheh ing determined by a mechanical lens with a fixed focus
et al., 2004; Warshavski et al., 2016). cMUTs already (or foci) (Wildes, Smith, 2012). 2D matrix arrays,
form the basis of some commercial medical ultrasound consisting of many thousands of transducer elements
probes. distributed in multiple rows, enable full electronic ele-
Piezoelectric MUTs (pMUTs) are another ap- vation apodization, focusing and steering. Such probes
proach, which work by taking advantage of the flexural provide good resolution in the elevation direction due
motion of a thin membrane driven by a thin piezoelec- to their capability to focus US beams in two direc-
tric film (Abels et al., 2017; Mastronardi et al., tions (elevation and azimuth) (Diarra et al., 2012).
2014). Arrays of pMUTs are already exploited in fin- Moreover they provide volumetric imaging in real time
gerprint sensors and gesture detection and they are ex- (Barthe, Slayton, 1996). The main disadvantage
pected to be an ideal solution in the future for 3D/4D of the 2D array is the technological difficulty of con-
catheter-based imaging of the cardiovascular system. necting thousands of elements to the transmit and re-
As yet, there are no pMUT-based commercial ultra- ceive beamforming electronics, and the limited num-
sound probes as far as we know. ber of channels (typically a maximum of 256) availa-
8 Archives of Acoustics – Volume 46, Number 1, 2021

ble in ultrasound systems due to the current high cost type, scan depth and patient characteristics. Probes
per channel of the electronics. These factors cause se- may be classified into two main categories: conven-
rious problems to the realization. Although the cur- tional probes (linear, convex and phased arrays) and
rent solution in commercial scanners is to incorporate speciality probes that are dedicated to specific clini-
microbeamformers into the probe housing (Matrone cal applications (for instance, intraoperative and trans-
et al., 2014), multiplexing the beamformed signals back esophageal probes) (De Luca et al., 2018).
down so that such probes to be connected to a lim-
ited number (e.g., 256) of channels, this means that 3.1. Conventional probes
scanning of the sound beam still has to be employed
for volumetric data acquisition, limiting the volume The most prevalent US probe types are linear, con-
rate that can be achieved. For rapid real-time volu- vex and phased arrays (Fig. 7, Table 3).
metric imaging, all probe elements must be connected
simultaneously to scan the whole volume in the same
beamforming operation (Diarra et al., 2012) which is
currently uneconomic. Many solutions are under inves-
tigation to provide a wide total aperture with high vol-
ume frame rate using a manageable number of active
elements. For instance, this is the case of sparse 2D ar-
rays that aim to limit the complexity for real-time 3D
US applications, while optimizing the performance to
ensure high quality volume images (Austeng, Holm,
2002; Diarra et al., 2013; Lockwood, Foster, 1996;
Ramalli et al., 2015; Roux et al., 2016; 2017). Fig. 7. Examples of conventional probes and their relative
image formats (bottom): from left to right, linear, convex
and phased arrays, showing carotid artery, liver and kidney,
3. US probe models and applications and heart respectively.
US probes are available in a wide range of sizes,
footprints, shapes and frequencies, specifically de- Linear Arrays (LAs) are flat and provide rect-
signed for particular clinical imaging applications and angular or trapezoidal image format with a depth-
corresponding image format. The appropriate choice independent field of view that is roughly equal to the
of probe depends on several factors, such as exam probe length (Wildes, Smith, 2012). They operate

Table 3. List of conventional probes including their operating range of frequency and intended use.
Typical
Probe type Probe subtype frequency range Main clinical application sites
[MHz]
neonatal 4–13
cardiac, transcranial, abdomen
Phased pediatric 2–9
adult 1–5 cardiac, transcranial, abdomen, obstetrics (cardio-fetal)
1–8 abdomen (including vascular), gynecology, obstetrics
Convex small adult and pediatric abdomen (including vascular),
2–9 obstetrics (1st and 2nd trimesters of pregnancy)
3–11 vascular, neonatal, pediatrics, transcranial
Microconvex
1–7 abdomen, interventional
vascular, pediatrics, superficial/small organs (e.g. breast,
MF 3–11 thyroid, testis), obstetrics
vascular, superficial/small organs, abdomen, musculoske-
HF 4–18 letal
Linear
peripheral vascular, musculoskeletal, rheumatology, der-
VHF 8–24 matology
UHF 30–70 dermatology, pre-clinical research
Endocavity end-fire 3–12 gynecology, obstetrics, urology
dual array linear/convex 4–13/3–13
Transrectal urology
dual array convex/convex 2–12/2–12
 R. De Luca et al. – An Educational Overview of Ultrasound Probe Types. . . 9

over many frequency ranges, the choice of which de- tient age, which affects depth of the heart: 4–13 MHz
pends on the tissue depth of interest (the higher the for neonatal, 2–9 MHz for pediatric, and 1–5 MHz for
frequency, the better the resolution, but the poorer adult (Wildes, Smith, 2012). Pediatric probes also
the depth of tissue penetration). LAs are typically used have smaller footprint than those used for adults, to
for superficial imaging of carotids, leg veins, thyroid, cope with the smaller rib spacing. Transcranial probes
testicles, breast, musculoskeletal and vascular imaging are usually lower frequency (1–5 MHz) PAs, to im-
(Szabó, Lewin, 2013). Breast imaging typically em- age blood vessels within the skull using the temples
ploys high frequency (HF) LAs that represent an in- as the US beam window (Szabó, Lewin, 2013). PAs
valuable diagnostic tool for measuring the size of tu- may also be used for abdominal imaging, due to their
mors and inflammatory processes (Zhou et al., 2014). small footprint and wide sector image format (Szabó,
Vasculature imaging remains at mid frequency (MF), Lewin, 2013).
in the range 3–11 MHz, due to the need to assess Convex linear arrays (CAs) are curved with a ra-
deeper leg veins and perform good Doppler exami- dius of curvature (ROC) in the range 40–60 mm. With
nations (Szabó, Lewin, 2013; Tortoli et al., 1997; a central frequency of roughly 3.5 MHz, they are typi-
Wildes, Smith, 2012). In this frequency domain, the cally used for 2D abdominal imaging applications, gy-
possibility of the array to add trapezoidal imaging for- necology and obstetrics (Wildes, Smith, 2012). In
mat (extended field of view) is considered an advantage recent years, CAs at higher frequency (1–9 MHz) have
in obstetrics. Very high frequency (VHF) LAs, ranging been used for obstetrics scanning during the first and
between 8 MHz and 24 MHz, are typically dedicated part of the second trimester, and for the abdomen in
to superficial musculoskeletal, rheumatology, derma- so-called “easy” patients (body weight around 65 kg).
tology and superficial vascular applications (Fig. 8). CAs with smaller ROC (13–20 mm), namely mi-
Ultra-high frequency (UHF, 30–70 MHz) LAs also ex- croconvex arrays, typically operate in the frequency
ist for dermatology, for high resolution and noninvasive range 3–11 MHz and are used for pediatrics, vascu-
imaging of skin morphology and pathology. The infor- lar and veterinary uses. Microconvex arrays specially
mation provided by these devices allows preoperative designed for interventional use, mainly liver biopsy,
planning of margins for excision of skin tumours; in have lower frequency (2–7 MHz). Endo-cavity arrays
addition, skin thickness, skin echogenicity, burn scars, are also curved (ROC is typically 10–15 mm) and
wound healing, skin aging and the nature of skin tu- are placed at the end of the probe (end-fire arrays).
mors can also be evaluated (Dinnes et al., 2018; Zhou They are designed to use the vagina for access in
et al., 2014). UHF US has also a significant potential obstetrics and gynecology and the anus for imag-
for impact upon clinical imaging of eye diseases (Zhou ing of prostate. More complex, are bi-plane transrec-
et al., 2014), even if in this case particular ophthalmic tal probes that have dual arrays providing images in
safety protection guidelines (ter Haar, 2011) have to two orthogonal planes (Szabó, Lewin, 2013): linear
be guaranteed by the scanner/probe, system. + convex (4–13 MHz/3–13 MHz) or convex + convex
(2–12 MHz/2–12 MHz) (Fig. 9).

Fig. 8. VHF (22 MHz) linear array with small footprint,

dedicated to rheumatology, dermatology, anaesthesiology,
vascular, neonatal. As an example, a very superficial lipoma
is shown: field of view 13 mm, depth of penetration 15 mm, Fig. 9. From left to right, examples of bi-plane (linear +
focus at 2 mm. convex) transrectal, endocavity and microconvex probes.

Phased arrays (PAs) are also flat, but have smaller Table 4 shows some ultrasonic probes specifically
footprint to fit between ribs, being primarily used for designed for dedicated applications, that are commonly
cardiac imaging. The probe array size is on the or- used in the clinical routine.
der of 20 × 15 mm depending on manufacturer (Szabó, Some ultrasonic transducers are specialized for
Lewin, 2013). To achieve a field of view sufficient to imaging of internal organs from inside the body in
image the entire heart, the beam is steered to create a way that is more invasive than with endocavi-
a sector scan that has increasing field of view as a func- ty probes. Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE)
tion of depth. The operating frequency depends on pa- probes enable imaging of the heart from inside the
10 Archives of Acoustics – Volume 46, Number 1, 2021

Table 4. Ultrasonic probes specifically designed for dedicated clinical applications, commonly used in the clinics.
Probe type Features
Adult and pediatric trans-esophageal The transducer is attached to a thin tube that passes through the mouth,
ecocardiography (TEE) down the throat and into the esophagus, facilitating very clear imaging of the
upper chambers and valves of the heart, being very close to these structures
Pencil Doppler Non-imaging PW and CW Doppler for vascular, cardiac and transcranial
Doppler evaluations
Hockey stick Mainly dedicated to musculoskeletal and intraoperative imaging
Electro-mechanical 3D (LA, CA, endo- Mechanically-swept arrays for 3D and 4D imaging
cavity, microconvex, LA with parallel
acquisition)
Matrix probe (LA, CA, PA, TEE) Electronic 2D arrays for real-time volumetric acquisitions

esophagus (Fig. 10). As the esophagus is very close tology, breast, small parts and vascular applications.
to the upper chambers and valves of the heart, TEE Electronic 2D arrays are designed for real-time volu-
probes use higher frequency (≥ 5 MHz) and are im- metric imaging in cardiology, women’s health and vas-
plemented as phased arrays with manipulators and cular. Volumetric endoscopic probes also exist; they are
motors to adjust the orientation of the transducer particularly useful for differentiating adjacent tissues
(Szabó, Lewin, 2013). TEE 2D arrays enable elec- that have similar echogenicity, such as occurs when
tronic scanning for volumetric acquisition in real-time. trying to discriminate ovaries, uterus and intestine ad-
To measure blood flow velocity, non-imaging US trans- hesion in the presence of severe endometriosis.
ducers, so-called CW and PW pencil transducers, may
be used. 3.2. Speciality probes

In intracardiac ecography (ICE), miniaturized

phased arrays on the tip of a catheter have direct access
to the inner chambers of the heart from within a vessel
(Szabó, Lewin, 2013), while in intravascular ultra-
sound (IVUS) a catheter-tip VHF transducer allows
imaging assessment of the morphological properties of
the blood vessel wall (Szabó, 2004; Zhou et al., 2014).
Surgical speciality probes include laparoscopic ar-
Fig. 10. Adult TEE phased arrays (left); Doppler colour
flow mapping aids the diagnosis of a mitral valve insuffi-
rays, which are inserted through small incisions to
ciency (right). image and aid in laparoscopic surgery, and intraope-
rative arrays specially designed to be used on ves-
sels, organs and regions accessible during open surgery
For volumetric image acquisition in real time, also (Figs 12–14) (Szabó, Lewin, 2013).
known as 4D (3D acquisitions recorded over time)
imaging (Fenster et al., 2001; Nelson, Preto-
rius, 1998; Prager et al., 2010; Provost et al.,
2014), either mechanically-swept 1D, 1.25D or 1.5D
arrays, or electronic 2D arrays (Savord, Solomon,
2003), may be employed. Typically, mechanically-
swept CAs are dedicated to abdominal, obstetrics
(Fig. 11), gynaecology and contrast agent procedures,
while mechanically-swept LAs are used in rheuma-

Fig. 12. T-shape linear array with ergonomic grip for intra-
operative, abdominal, small parts, paediatric and vascular
use, and an example of contrast enhanced ultrasound image
of the liver (intraoperative view).

A more extensive (but still not exhaustive) list of

speciality US probes currently available on the market,
Fig. 11. Mechanical-swept CA 3D probe and an example of with a description of some of their features, is provided
volumetric acquisition in obstetrics. in Table 5.
 R. De Luca et al. – An Educational Overview of Ultrasound Probe Types. . . 11

Fig. 13. Dedicated convex array for 0○ , 5○ , 15○ biopsy Fig. 14. Intraoperative hockey stick shaped linear array.
guidance for fine needle aspiration, biopsy or in- As it works at high frequency (typically, in the range
terventional procedures in abdominal, lung, urology. 6–18 MHz), it is also suitable for small parts, muscu-
Liver biopsy example: the needle guidance overlaps the loskeletal, rheumatology, peripheral vascular. An exam-
B-mode image. ple of finger US imaging is shown (right).

Table 5. List of speciality US transducers with a description of their notable features.

Speciality probe type Features
TEE for long-term monitoring Hemodynamic US for use in the intensive care unit
Transnasal micro-multiplane TEE Micro TEE probe introduced trans-nasally to image, for example, the pituitary
gland
Intracardiac echocardiography (ICE) Imaging the heart from within the heart
Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) Imaging of blood vessel wall from within the vessel
Intraoperative bi-plane Simultaneous biplane imaging with two orthogonal planes, providing greater
control of needle placement
Laparoscopic Imaging to guide and evaluate laparoscopic surgery
Fingertip probe MC affixed on the sonographer’s finger to maximize control for intraoperative,
biopsy and vascular studies
Hockey stick with motorized tip Intraoperative procedures
LA array manoeuvred by robotic sur- Imaging to guide and evaluate laparoscopic surgery
gery arm
3D Transrectal Anorectal 3D imaging with 360°imaging field
Prostate Triplane Images in 3 planes (transverse, sagittal, end-fire), plus 3D image reconstruction
Single probe with double transducer Dual-headed probe integrating both LA and PA that allows for cardiac, vas-
cular and abdominal applications. It is used in Emergency, POC, ICU.
Intraoral probe Intra-oral structures imaging (sublingual gland, submandibular duct, tongue,
lips, tonsils, soft palate)
Endoscopic US probe It combines endoscopy and US to provide images of the organs inside the body
such as stomach, esophagus, duodenum, lung and pancreas
USB probe PA, LA and CA transducers with a simple USB connection
Wireless probe Cable-free technology (CA, LA, PA)
Photoacoustic transducer Photoacoustic imaging exploits the physical effect of the generation of acoustic
waves by the absorption of optical energy. The probe includes optical elements
for pulsed illumination of the tissue.
Veterinary probes Dedicated probes for large animals, for example for imaging of the reproductive
organs
Automated breast volume scanning Mechanically-swept LA for user-independent and automated 3D near-whole
(ABVS) breast imaging
3D whole breast US tomography Circular, hemispherical or rotating linear array immersed in water for prone-
patient and user-independent scanning with the use of sound that is transmit-
ted through the organ as well as reflected by tissue structures within it.
Probes (CA, LA, PA) with program- Dedicated probes specifically designed for easier single-operator biopsy and
mable button on the handle percutaneous procedures
12 Archives of Acoustics – Volume 46, Number 1, 2021

3.3. Ergonomics

The percentage of sonographers reporting conse-

quences of pain and discomfort is close to 80% within
the first five years of entering the profession and 20%
experience career-ending injuries (Andreoni et al.,
2015; Genovese, 2016; Gregory, 1998; Mazzola
et al., 2014b; 2017; Murphy, Russo, 2000). Manu-
facturers are constantly searching for housings de-
signed to reduce work-related musculoskeletal disor-
ders (WRMSDs) for sonographers. They are being
made easy to handle and manipulate, lighter in weight,
with rounded edges and smooth surfaces. Transducer
cables are also becoming lighter in weight. A new probe
design concept has been developed in recent years in Fig. 17. 2D Navigation of the breast: on the left the elas-
order to reduce scanning fatigue and WRMSDs: trans- togram is overlaid on the B-mode image, while on the right
ducers (appleprobe™ design) with a dual-possibility the relative mammogram is shown in real time for a more
hand grip (pinch grip and palmar grip) are available accurate diagnosis and localisation of the lesion. The green
in order to provide a neutral wrist position, reduced circle in the right image represents the US probe position
fatigue and easy handling (Fig. 15) (Mazzola et al., that is placed in correspondence of the lesion.
2014a; 2014b; 2017; Vannetti et al., 2018).

through a highly ergonomic mounting bracket on the

probe, enable sufficient spatial accuracy and precision
for the task and ensure a comfortable workflow which
does not need probe-grip changes and does not gen-
erate a major probe-weight change (Andreoni et al.,
2015).

4. Conclusion
Fig. 15. The palmar grip allowed by the appleprobe™ design
(Esaote○ R
), which enables a more neutral wrist position The majority of ultrasonic probes currently avail-
than that of the pinch grip. able on the market has been described, together with
technological insights that are responsible for image
quality and a list of some of their clinical applications.
3.4. Biopsy and virtual navigation Our aim was to provide information to healthcare pro-
fessionals (including sonographers, physicians, biomed-
Biopsy kits for US probes are available for different
ical/clinical engineers and other stakeholders involved
uses and body areas, and for guidance of fine needle
in purchasing and maintaining medical devices) to se-
aspiration (FNA), percutaneous interventions and core
lect the appropriate probe for the intended use, tak-
biopsies (Fig. 16). Another accessory that can be at-
ing account of the desired performance/price ratio. An
tached to an US probe is a location and orientation
overview of conventional and speciality probe types
sensor (usually electromagnetic or optical) for free-
has been presented to summarize technical and clin-
hand 3D imaging and for virtual navigation (VN) sys-
ical features, with the intention to satisfy information
tems that provide real-time fusion imaging (Fig. 17).
needed by the customer who uses ultrasound, which
In the most advanced solutions, either the biopsy kit or
is a healthcare market segment that undergoes rapid
a single electromagnetic/optical sensor for VN, secured
innovations.

Acknowledgments

We thank Giovanni Altobelli, Michele Bassani,

Guillaume Gauthier, Valentina Iorio, Marco Maglione
(Esaote S.p.A.) for their kind and useful support in
collecting all data summarized in this paper. JB ac-
knowledges support from the EPSRC and Cancer Re-
Fig. 16. Example of biopsy kit. search UK.
 R. De Luca et al. – An Educational Overview of Ultrasound Probe Types. . . 13

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