Biodiversity Within A Community

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Name:
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Biodiversity within a
community _______________________
Class:
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Date:
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Time: 329 minutes
Marks: 252 marks
Comments:
Page 1 of 85
Q1.
Bees are flying insects that feed on nectar made in flowers. There are many different
species of bee.
Scientists investigated how biodiversity of bees varied in three different habitats during a
year. They collected bees from eight sites of each habitat four times per year for three
years.
The scientists’ results are shown below in the graphs in the form they presented them.
(a) What is meant by ‘species richness’?
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(b) From the data in the graphs, a student made the following conclusions.
1. The natural habitat is most favourable for bees.

2. The town is the least favourable for bees.
Do the data in the graphs support these conclusions? Explain your answer.
1. The natural habitat is most favourable for bees.
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2. The town is the least favourable for bees.
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(4)
(c) The scientists collected bees using a method that was ethical and allowed them to
identify accurately the species to which each belonged.
In each case, suggest one consideration the scientists had taken into account to
make sure their method
1. was ethical.
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2. allowed them to identify accurately the species to which each belonged.
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(d) Suggest and explain two ways in which the scientists could have improved the
method used for data collection in this investigation.
1. _________________________________________________________________
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2. _________________________________________________________________
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(e) Three of the bee species collected in the farmland areas were Peponapis pruinosa,
Andrena chlorogaster and Andrena piperi.
What do these names suggest about the evolutionary relationships between these
bee species? Explain your answer.
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(2)
(Total 11 marks)
Q2.
(a) Define each of the following terms.
Species ____________________________________________________________
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Species richness _____________________________________________________
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(2)
Scientists investigated the species richness of fish caught at various depths in the Pacific
Ocean close to the western coast of Chile.
The graph shows the scientists’ results. 68% of all the fish caught in this investigation
came from sample A.
Page 5 of 85
(b) What is the modal value of species richness?
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(1)
(c) 68% of all the fish caught in this investigation came from sample A.
A student thought this showed that sample A had a greater index of diversity than
any of the other samples.
It is not possible to draw this conclusion from the given data. Give reasons why.
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(3)
(Total 6 marks)
Q3.
Ecologists investigated changes in grassland communities on large islands off the coast of
Scotland between 1975 and 2010. On each island, they used data from a number of sites
to determine the change in mean species richness and the change in mean index of
diversity.
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(a) Table 1 shows plant species recorded at one site, on one island, in 1975.
Table 1
Species Number of individuals
Hydrocotyle vulgaris 3
Plantago maritima 19
Ranunculus acris 3
Hieracium pilosella 3
Calliergon cuspidatum 10
Prunella vulgaris 16
Pseudoscleropodium purum 6
Calculate the index of diversity for this site using the formula:
d = ___________
(2)
(b) Outline a method the ecologists could have used to determine the plant species
richness at one site.
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(3)
(c) Some of the ecologists’ results are shown in Table 2. They carried out a statistical
test to find out whether any differences between the 1975 and 2010 means were
Page 7 of 85
significant. The values for P that they obtained are also shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Change in mean Change in mean

species index of
Island richness Value of P diversity Value of P
between 1975 between 1975
and 2010 and 2010
Islay +8.89 ≤0.001 +0.22 >0.05
Colonsay +14.70 ≤0.001 +2.68 ≤0.01
Harris −5.13 ≤0.001 −2.44 ≤0.01
Do these data show that there were any significant changes in the grassland
communities on these islands? Give reasons for your answer.
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(3)
(Total 8 marks)
Q4.
A student investigated the species richness and index of diversity of insects in three
different habitats, a barley field, a wheat field and a hedge.
Her results are shown in the table below.
Number of individuals of each insect species in

each habitat
Insect species Barley field Wheat field Hedge
a 32 4 34
b 78 0 12
c 0 126 22
d 0 5 12
e 0 0 8
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f 0 0 42
g 0 25 13
h 0 10 12
i 0 0 12
j 42 41 0
Species
richness
Total number of
insects (N)
(a) Complete the table for species richness and the total number of insects of each
habitat.
(2)
(b) Calculate the index of diversity of the wheat field.
Use the following formula:
where N = total number of organisms
and n = total number of organisms of each species.
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(c) The index of diversity of the insects was higher in the hedge than in the barley field.
Suggest why.
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Page 9 of 85
(Total 7 marks)
Q5.
The UK government pays farmers to leave grassy strips around the edges of fields of
crops. These grassy strips contain a variety of plant species. Leaving the strips is an
attempt to encourage biodiversity of animals.
(a) Give two reasons why the grassy strips increase the biodiversity of animals.
1. _________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________
(2)
A group of scientists investigated the effect of grassy strips on the biodiversity of soil
animals.
• They divided a field into plots measuring 25 m × 5 m, with a 5-metre-wide grassy

strip of land between each plot.
• Each year, they planted wheat in each of the plots.
• In the fifth year, they removed samples of soil from each plot where wheat was
growing and from the grassy strips around them.
• They sorted each soil sample by hand for 40 minutes to collect the soil animals
within the sample.
(b) The scientists decided to collect animals from the soil samples for 40 minutes.
Suggest how the scientists decided that 40 minutes was an appropriate time.
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(c) The table below shows how the scientists published their results. They calculated
mean values and two times the standard deviation (SD) of the mean.
Two standard deviations above and below the mean includes 95.4% of the data.
Mean number of animals Mean number of species

per m2 per m2
Group of (± 2 × SD) (± 2 × SD)
animals
Soil under Soil under Soil under Soil under
wheat crop grassy strips wheat crop grassy strips
Beetles 41.2 (± 6.4) 80.1 (± 10.1) 10.0 (± 1.6) 17.3 (± 1.0)
Centipedes 18.4 (± 3.6) 13.5 (± 1.0) 1.8 (± 0.3) 2.1 (± 0.2)
Earthworms 244.5 (± 27.1) 281.2 (± 39.4) 3.8 (± 0.3) 5.1 (± 0.2)
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Millipedes 38.4 (± 12.2) 36.2 (± 2.9) 3.5 (± 0.3) 3.2 (± 0.2)
Woodlice 0.0 73.9 (± 8.5) 0.0 2.8 (± 0.2)
It would not be possible to calculate an index of diversity from the results in the
table.
Explain why.
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(1)
A summary of this research was published in a farming magazine. The journalist

concluded that creating grassy strips around fields had little effect on the diversity of
soil animals.
Do you agree with this conclusion?
Use evidence from the table to justify your answer.
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(4)
(Total 9 marks)
Q6.
Scientists investigated changes in plant biodiversity in different communities after changes
caused by humans. They collected data from many published investigations that recorded
changes in species richness of plants over a large number of years.
The scientists used data from each investigation to calculate the effect size.
The effect size is a measure of change in species diversity with time. A positive value
shows an increase in species richness with time.
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The graph below shows the scientists results in the form in which they were published.
The horizontal bars represent ±2 standard deviations, which includes 95.4% of the data.
(a) What can you conclude from these data about the effects of human activities on
biodiversity?
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(b) Suggest an explanation for the effect size when non-native species were introduced
to communities.
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Page 12 of 85
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(c) Describe how you would investigate the effect of an invasion by a non-native
species of plant (a biotic environmental factor) over many years on the abundance
of a native species of plant in a community.
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(3)
(d) Effect size is calculated in the following way.
1. Divide the species richness in the last year of an investigation (SR2) by

species richness in the first year of the investigation (SR1).
2. Find the natural log (loge) of the result.
3. Divide this by the time (T) between the first and last year in decades (1 decade
= 10 years).
In one community:
• species richness in year 2 (SR2) was 15.3

• species richness in year 1 (SR1) was 18.2
• and the investigation lasted for 29 years.
Use loge, SR2, SR1 and T to write an equation for ‘effect size’ and calculate its value
for this investigation. On a calculator, the key for loge is shown as ln, or loge.
Effect size = ___________________

(2)
(Total 10 marks)
Q7.
A student investigated the distribution of plants in a heathland.
The table below shows the number of plants he found in a sample area of 1 m2.
Species of plant Number counted in
Page 13 of 85
1 m2
Common heather 2
Red fescue 14
Vetch 2
White clover 8
(a) What is the species richness of this sample?
(1)
(b) Calculate the index of diversity of this sample. Show your working.
Use the following formula to calculate the index of diversity.
d=
where N is the total number of organisms of all species

and n is the total number of organisms of each species
Index of diversity = ____________________

(2)
(c) Suggest how this student would obtain data to give a more precise value for the
index of diversity of this habitat.
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(Total 5 marks)
Q8.
Species richness and an index of diversity can be used to measure biodiversity within a
community.
(a) What is the difference between these two measures of biodiversity?
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Scientists investigated the biodiversity of butterflies in a rainforest. Their investigation

lasted several months.
The scientists set one canopy trap and one understorey trap at five sites.
• The canopy traps were set among the leaves of the trees 16–27 m above ground
level.
• The understorey traps were set under trees at 1.0–1.5 m above ground level.
The scientists recorded the number of each species of butterfly caught in the traps. The
table below summarises their results.
Species of Mean number of butterflies P value

butterfly
In canopy In understorey
Prepona laertes 15 0 < 0.001
Archaeoprepona
14 37 < 0.001
demophon
Zaretis itys 25 11 > 0.05
Memphis arachne 89 23 < 0.001
Memphis offa 21 3 < 0.001
Memphis xenocles 32 8 < 0.001
(b) The traps in the canopy were set at 16–27 m above ground level. Suggest why
there was such great variation in the height of the traps.
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(c) By how many times is the species diversity in the canopy greater than in the
understorey? Show your working.
Use the following formula to calculate species diversity.
d=
where N is the total number of organisms of all species and n is the total number of
organisms of each species.
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Answer = ____________________
(3)
(d) The scientists carried out a statistical test to see if the difference in the distribution of
each species between the canopy and understorey was due to chance. The P
values obtained are shown in the table.
Explain what the results of these statistical tests show.
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(3)
(Total 8 marks)
Q9.
Ecologists investigated the size of an insect population on a small island. They used a
mark-release-recapture method. To mark the insects they used a fluorescent powder. This
powder glows bright red when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light.
(a) The ecologists captured insects from a number of sites on the island. Suggest how
they decided where to take their samples.
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(b) Give two assumptions made when using the mark-release-recapture method.
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(c) Suggest the advantage of using the fluorescent powder in this experiment.
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(2)
The ecologists did not release any of the insects they captured 1–5 days after release of
the marked insects.
The table below shows the ecologists’ results.
Days after Number of Number of Number of

release marked insects captured
insects captured insects
remaining that were
in population marked
1 1508 524 78
2 1430 421 30
3 1400 418 18
4 1382 284 2
5 1380 232 9
(d) Calculate the number of insects on this island 1 day after release of the marked
insects.
Show your working.
Answer = ____________________
(2)
(e) The ecologists expected to obtain the same result from their calculations of the
number of insects on this island on each day during the period 1–5 days after
release. In fact, their estimated number increased after day 1.
During the same period, the number of insects they caught decreased.
The method used by the ecologists might have caused these changes.
Use the information provided to suggest one way in which the method used by the
ecologists might have caused the increase in their estimates of the size of the insect
population.
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(Total 10 marks)
Q10.
Scientists investigated the effect of different types of animal farming on the diversity and
number of dung beetles. They determined the number of dung beetle species and their
total number on intensive (I), rough grazing (R) and organic (O) farms.
Figure 1 and Figure 2 show some of their results.
Figure 1 Figure 2
(a) What is the mean species richness for dung beetles on the rough grazing farms?
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(b) In addition to the information provided in Figures 1 and 2, what other measurement
is required to calculate an index of diversity for dung beetles?
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(c) Explain what the standard deviations suggest about the difference in mean total
number of dung beetles between the different types of farm.
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(2)
(d) The scientists placed traps to collect the dung beetles at sites chosen at random.
Explain the importance of the sites being chosen at random.
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(e) On the intensive farms, the farmers had removed hedges to increase land for
grazing. This resulted in a decrease in the diversity of birds on these farms.
Explain why the removal of hedges caused a decrease in the diversity of birds.
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(Total 8 marks)
Q11.
(a) What is meant by species diversity?
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(b) Give two pieces of information needed to calculate an index of diversity for a
community.
1. _________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________
(2)
(c) A scientist investigated the effect sewage entering a river had on the distribution of
organisms living in the river. Where sewage entered the river, he found a high
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density of organisms but a low index of diversity.
Suggest how sewage entering the river could explain the scientist’s findings.
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(2)
(d) A second scientist repeated the investigation of the first scientist at the same place.
The second scientist obtained a high index of diversity.
(i) Explain how the second set of results affects the ability of the scientists to
make any conclusions about the effect of sewage on the index of diversity.
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(ii) Suggest the additional steps that should be taken by the scientists before they
are able to make any conclusions about the effect of sewage entering this
river.
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(Total 8 marks)
Q12.
(a) What two measurements are needed to calculate an index of diversity?
1. _________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________
(2)
Page 20 of 85
(b) A herbicide is a chemical used to kill weeds. Ecologists investigated the effect of a
herbicide on crop yield and the diversity of insects. They sprayed different fields with
the same volume of different concentrations of the herbicide. At harvest, the
ecologists determined the mean crop yield and the mean index of diversity of insects
for fields that had received the same concentration of the herbicide.
The figure below shows their results.
Concentration of herbicide sprayed on field / mg dm−3
(i) Some fields acted as controls. They were sprayed with a solution that did not
contain the herbicide. Explain the purpose of these control fields.
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(ii) Suggest an explanation for the relationship between the concentration of

herbicide and the mean crop yield.
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(iii) Explain the relationship between the concentration of herbicide and the mean
index of diversity of insects.
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(3)
(Total 8 marks)
Q13.
(a) Ecologists measured the body lengths of male and female thorny lizards living in the
same habitat. The ecologists measured the body lengths to the nearest 5 mm.
The graph shows how they presented their results.
Give two differences in the variation in body length of male and female thorny
lizards.
1. _________________________________________________________________
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2. _________________________________________________________________
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(2)
(b) Another group of ecologists investigated biodiversity of lizards in a woodland area.
Their results are shown in the table.
Number of
Lizard species
individuals
Dominican giant anole 5
Hispaniolan green anole 11
Hispaniolan stout anole 22
Bark anole 91
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Hispaniolan grass anole 13
Cope’s galliwasp 5
Cochran’s least gecko 8
Peninsula least gecko 1
The index of diversity can be calculated using the formula
where
d = index of diversity
N = total number of organisms of all species
n = total number of organisms of each species
(i) Use the formula to calculate the index of diversity of lizards in the woodland
area.
Show your working.
Answer = ____________________
(2)
(ii) The ecologists also determined the index of diversity of lizards in an oil palm
plantation next to the woodland area. They found fewer species of plant in the
oil palm plantation. Lizards feed on plants and insects.
Explain why fewer species of plant would lead to fewer species of lizard in the
oil palm plantation.
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(Total 7 marks)
Page 23 of 85
Q14.
Farmland previously used for growing crops was left for 30 years and developed into
woodland. During this period, ecologists recorded an increase in the diversity of birds in
the area.
(a) Name the process that resulted in the development of woodland from farmland.
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(b) Explain the increase in the diversity of birds as the woodland developed.
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(3)
(c) The ecologists also investigated photosynthesis in two species of plant found in the
woodland. One of the species was adapted to growing in bright sunlight (sun plant)
and the other was adapted to growing in the shade (shade plant). The ecologists’
results are shown in the figure below.
(i) Give two factors which could be limiting the rate of photosynthesis in the sun
plant between points A and B on the figure.
1. ____________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________
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(1)
(ii) Explain why CO2 uptake is a measure of net productivity.
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(1)
(iii) Use the information in the figure to explain how the shade plant is better
adapted than the sun plant to growing at low light intensities.
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(Total 8 marks)
Q15.
(a) What is a species?
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(2)
(b) Scientists investigated the diversity of plants in a small area within a forest. The
table shows their results.
Number of
Plant species
individuals
Himalayan raspberry 20
Heartwing sorrel 15
Shala tree 9
Tussock grass 10
Red cedar 4
Asan tree 6
Spanish needle 8
Page 25 of 85
Feverfew 8
The index of diversity can be calculated by the formula
where
(i) Use the formula to calculate the index of diversity of plants in the forest. Show
your working.
Answer = ____________________
(2)
(ii) The forest was cleared to make more land available for agriculture.
After the forest was cleared the species diversity of insects in the area
decreased. Explain why.
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(3)
(Total 7 marks)
Q16.
The Amazonian forest today contains a very high diversity of bird species.
• Over the last 2 000 000 years, long periods of dry climate caused this forest to
separate into a number of smaller forests.
• Different plant communities developed in each of these smaller forests.
• Each time the climate became wetter again, the smaller forests grew in size and
merged to reform the Amazonian forest.
(a) Use the information provided to explain how a very high diversity of bird species has
developed in the Amazonian forest.
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(5)
(b) Speciation is far less frequent in the reformed Amazonian forest. Suggest one
reason for this.
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(1)
(Total 6 marks)
Q17.
(a) There are ethical and economic arguments for maintaining biodiversity.
(i) Suggest one ethical argument for maintaining biodiversity.
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(1)
(ii) Suggest one economic argument for maintaining biodiversity.
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(1)
Ecologists calculated the percentage of bird species that have become extinct on six
islands in the last one hundred years. They also calculated the percentage of original
forest area remaining on each island after the same time period. The graph shows their
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results.
Percentage of original forest area

remaining on each island
(b) Explain the relationship between the percentage of original forest area remaining
and the percentage of bird species that have become extinct.
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(2)
(c) What two measurements would the ecologists have needed to obtain to calculate
the index of diversity of birds on each island?
1. _________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________
(2)
(d) The ecologists noted that the species of birds surviving on the coldest islands had a
larger body size than those surviving on warmer islands.
Explain how a larger body size is an adaptation to a colder climate
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(2)
(Total 8 marks)
Q18.
Scientists investigated the species of insects found in a wood and in a nearby wheat field.
The scientists collected insects by placing traps at sites chosen at random both in the
wood and in the wheat field.
The table shows the data collected in the wood and in the wheat field.
Number of organisms of each species

Species of insect
Wood Wheat field
Bird-cherry oat aphid 0 216
Beech aphid 563 0
Large white butterfly 20 0
Lacewing 12 3
7-spot ladybird 36 0
2-spot ladybird 9 1
Total number of organisms of all

640 220
species
(a) The scientists collected insects at sites chosen at random. Explain the importance of
the sites being chosen at random.
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(1)
(b) (i) Use the formula
to calculate the index of diversity for the insects caught in the wood, where
Page 29 of 85
Show your working.
Answer ____________________
(2)
(ii) Without carrying out any further calculations, estimate whether the index of
diversity for the wheat field would be higher or lower than the index of diversity
for the wood.
Explain how you arrived at your answer.
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(2)
(c) A journalist concluded that this investigation showed that farming reduces species
diversity.
Evaluate this conclusion.
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(d) Farmers were offered grants by the government to plant hedges around their fields.
Explain the effect planting hedges could have on the index of diversity for animals.
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(2)
(Total 9 marks)
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Q19.
(a) A student investigated the diversity of plants at several sites on a golf course. At
each site she took a large number of random samples.
(i) Explain the importance of taking a large number of samples at each site.
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(1)
(ii) Explain the importance of taking samples at random.
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(1)
The student collected data from one part of the golf course and calculated an index of
diversity.
The table shows her data.
Species Number of
plants per m2
Sheep’s fescue 11
Creeping buttercup 6
Clover 5
Dandelion 2
Sheep’s sorrel 1
Lady’s bedstraw 7
Stemless thistle 4
The index of diversity can be calculated from the formula
where
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(b) Use the formula to calculate the index of diversity for the plants on this part of the
golf course. Show your working.
Answer ____________________
(2)
(c) The golf course was surrounded by undeveloped grassland from which it had been
produced.
The golf course had
• some areas of very short grass which was cut frequently
• some areas of longer grass which was cut less frequently
• some areas of long grass and shrubs which were never cut.
The index of diversity for the insects on the golf course was higher than that for the
surrounding undeveloped grassland.
Explain the effect of developing this golf course on the index of diversity of insects.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 7 marks)
Q20.
Costa Rica is a Central American country. It has a high level of species diversity.
(a) There are over 12 000 species of plants in Costa Rica. Explain how this has resulted
in a high species diversity of animals.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Page 32 of 85
(2)
(b) The number of species present is one way to measure biodiversity. Explain why an
index of diversity may be a more useful measure of biodiversity.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(c) Crops grown in Costa Rica are sprayed with pesticides. Pesticides are substances
that kill pests. Scientists think that pollution of water by pesticides has reduced the
number of species of frog.
(i) Frogs lay their eggs in pools of water. These eggs are small. Use this
information to explain why frogs’ eggs are very likely to be affected by
pesticides in the water.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(2)
(ii) An increase in temperature leads to evaporation of water. Suggest how

evaporation may increase the effect of pesticides on frogs’ eggs.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(1)
(Total 7 marks)
Q21.
(a) What information is required to calculate an index of diversity for a particular
community?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
Page 33 of 85
(b) Farmers clear tropical forest and grow crops instead. Explain how this causes the
diversity of insects in the area to decrease.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
Farmers manage the ditches that drain water from their fields. If they do not, the ditches
will become blocked by plants. Biologists investigated the effects of two different ways of
managing ditches on farmland birds.
• Ditch A was cleared of plants on both banks

• Ditch B was cleared of plants on one bank.
The graph shows the number of breeding birds of all species along the two ditches, before
and after management.
(c) (i) The points on the graph have been joined with straight lines rather than with a
smooth curve. Explain why they have been joined with straight lines.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Page 34 of 85
______________________________________________________________
(1)
(ii) It would have been useful to have had a control ditch in this investigation.
Explain why.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(1)
(d) A farmer who wanted to increase the diversity of birds on his land read about this
investigation.
He concluded that clearing the plants from one bank would not decrease diversity as
much as clearing the plants from both banks. Evaluate this conclusion.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 9 marks)
Q22.
(a) Heath is a community of plants and animals. A student investigated the species
diversity of plants in this community. The table shows her results.
Number of
Plant species
plants per m2
Heath rush 1
Bilberry 1
Sheep’s sorrel 5
Ling 2
Bell heather 1
Heath bedstraw 8
Mat-grass 11
Page 35 of 85
(i) The index of diversity can be calculated from the formula
d=
where
n = total number of organisms of each species.

Use this formula to calculate the index of diversity for the plants on the heath.
Show your working.
Answer ____________________
(2)
(ii) Explain why it may be more useful to calculate the index of diversity than to
record only the number of species present.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(2)
(b) The demand for increased food production has led to areas of heath being used to
grow wheat. Explain the effect of this on
(i) the species diversity of plants
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Page 36 of 85
(2)
(ii) the species diversity of animals.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 8 marks)
Q23.
Biologists studied the process of succession in an area of wasteland over a period of ten
years. They calculated the index of diversity of the area every year. After three years, the
index of diversity was 1.6. After ten years, it had risen to 4.3.
(a) What information concerning the organisms present in the area is suggested by the
increase in the index of diversity?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(b) The increase in the index of diversity is one indication that a biological succession is
taking place in the area. Describe those features of a succession that would bring
about an increase in the index of diversity.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 5 marks)
Q24.
Deforestation often involves clearing large areas of forest for use as agricultural land.
Page 37 of 85
(a) Deforestation reduces the diversity index of an area cleared in this way. Explain
why.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(b) Because the forest soil is often nutrient-poor, nitrogen-containing fertilisers may be
applied to ensure good crop yields. Use your knowledge of the nitrogen cycle to
explain the potential benefit of applying a fertiliser containing ammonium nitrate
rather than one containing potassium nitrate.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 5 marks)
Q25.
Mayflies are insects which lay their eggs in streams and rivers. The nymphs which hatch
from the eggs live in the water for several years.
Mayfly nymphs were collected by disturbing the gravel of a stream bed. A net placed
immediately downstream caught any animals which were washed out of the gravel. Eight
samples were collected from shallow, fast-flowing parts of the stream and eight from
deeper, slow-flowing parts. Nymphs from two different families of mayfly were found. The
results are given in the table.
Family Caenidae Family Baetidae
Shallow water Deep water Shallow water Deep water
Mean number of 2.38 12.88 24.50 6.00

nymphs
Standard deviation 1.51 7.92 6.72 1.51
(a) Describe how you would have collected the samples in order to ensure they were
representative of the habitats being investigated and could be compared with each
other.
Page 38 of 85
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(b) Which one of the four samples showed the greatest variation within the sample?
Give evidence from the table for your answer.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
(c) The two families of mayfly nymph occupy different ecological niches.
(i) What is meant by the term ecological niche?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(1)
(ii) Describe the evidence in the table which suggests that the two families of
mayflies occupy different ecological niches.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(1)
(iii) Explain the advantage to these two families of mayflies of occupying different
ecological niches.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 8 marks)
Q26.
Parts of the sea shore form a very hostile environment for living organisms. Twice each
day the incoming and outgoing tides alternately cover the organisms on the sea shore
Page 39 of 85
with water and then leave them exposed. The force of the waves could also dislodge any
organisms that were not firmly attached.
The diagram shows a section through a rocky shore. Two sites were studied: site A was
on the upper shore and site B on the lower shore.
The table shows the seaweeds that were found growing at sites A and B.
Site A: upper shore Mean number Site B: lower shore Mean number
per m2 per m2
Ascophyllum nodosum 2 Corallina officinalis 31

Fucus spiralis 10 Fucus serratus 8
Fucus vesiculosus 4 Laminaria digitata 15
Pelvetia canaliculata 6 Laminaria hyperborea 3
Laminaria saccharina 6
Laurencia pinnatifida 18
Palmaria palmata 6
Index of diversity Index of diversity 4.77
(a) (i) Use the formula
where d = index of diversity

n = total number of organisms of a particular species
to calculate the index of diversity for the seaweeds growing at site A.

Show your working.
Index of diversity at site A = ____________________

(2)
(ii) Give one advantage of calculating the index of diversity rather than just
recording the number of species present.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Page 40 of 85
(1)
(b) Availability of water is one abiotic factor which determines the distribution of
seaweeds. The graph shows loss in mass due to water evaporation for two of the
seaweed species. The two seaweeds belong to the same genus but one was found
only on the upper shore and the other only on the lower shore.
Explain how the results shown in the graph relate to the distribution of these two
seaweeds on the sea shore.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 6 marks)
Q27.
When coal is mined by open-cast mining, the top layer of soil is first scraped off and
stored in a large heap. Once mining has finished, the area can be reclaimed. Soil from this
store is then spread back over the surface.
Some of the bacteria living in the soil store respire aerobically and some respire
anaerobically. Table 1 shows the numbers of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria found at
different depths in a soil store.
Depth / cm Mean number of bacteria per gram of soil (× 107)
Page 41 of 85
Aerobic bacteria Anaerobic bacteria
after 1 month after 6 months after 1 month after 6 months
0 12.0 12.1 0.6 0.8
50 10.4 8.6 0.8 1.3
100 10.1 6.1 0.7 4.1
150 10.0 3.2 0.7 7.9
200 11.6 0.8 0.7 8.4
250 11.9 0.7 0.8 8.8
300 11.0 0.8 0.6 9.1
Table 1
(a) Some of the soil used to determine bacterial numbers was collected from the
surface of the soil store. Describe how you would ensure that this soil was collected
at random.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(b) (i) Describe how the numbers of aerobic bacteria after 6 months change with
depth.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(2)
(ii) Explain the difference in the numbers of aerobic bacteria at a depth of 300 cm
between 1 and 6 months.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(2)
Page 42 of 85
(c) Explain how the changes in bacterial numbers which take place at 150 cm illustrate
the process of succession.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
Dehydrogenase is an enzyme involved in aerobic respiration. Dehydrogenase activity in a

soil sample can be used as a measure of the activity of aerobic bacteria. The graph shows
the mean dehydrogenase activity of soil samples taken from the same depth in a soil store
at different times. The bars on the graph represent two standard errors above and below
the mean.
(d) (i) From what depth in the soil store would you expect these soil samples to have
been taken? Use information from Table 1 to explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(2)
(ii) How would you expect dehydrogenase activity to vary with depth after 6
Page 43 of 85
months?
Use information from Table 1 to explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(3)
(e) What do the error bars tell you about the difference between the mean
dehydrogenase activity at 6 months and 3 years? Explain your answer in terms of
probability and chance.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(f) Table 2 shows the dehydrogenase activity and the number of aerobic bacteria
present in some soil samples.
Dehydrogenase activity / Number of aerobic bacteria

arbitrary units per gram of soil (× 107)
13.1 12.0
9.2 8.7
5.5 6.5
3.0 4.6
2.2 2.7
0.4 0.6
Table 2
A sample of soil was found to have dehydrogenase activity of 8.7 arbitrary units.
Explain how you would use the data in Table 2 to predict the likely number of
Page 44 of 85
aerobic bacteria in 1 g of this soil sample.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 20 marks)
Q28.
The table shows the numbers of adult butterflies in two areas of the same tropical forest.
In the logged area some trees had been cut down for timber. In the virgin forest no trees
had been cut down. The two areas were the same size.
Logged forest Virgin forest
Butterfly species Number n(n–1) Number n(n–1)
Eurema tiluba 72 5112 19 342
Cirrochroa emalea 43 1806 132 17292
Partenos sylvia 58 3306 14 182
Neopithecops zalmora 6 30 79 6162
Jamides para 37 1332 38 1406
Total 216 11586 282 25384
(a) Describe a method for finding the number of one of the species of butterfly in the
virgin forest.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(b) The index of diversity of a forest can be calculated using the equation
Page 45 of 85
Calculate the index of diversity for the virgin forest. Show your working.
Answer ____________________
(2)
(c) What does the table show about the effects of logging on the butterfly populations?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 6 marks)
Q29.
Clover plants have leaves all through the year. Some clover plants have leaves that
produce poisonous hydrogen cyanide gas when damaged. These cyanogenic plants are
less likely to be eaten by snails. However, the leaves of these plants can be damaged by
frost, resulting in the production of enough hydrogen cyanide to kill the plants.
Acyanogenic plants do not produce hydrogen cyanide. This characteristic is genetically
controlled.
The map shows the proportions of the two types of plant in populations of clover from
different areas in Europe. It also shows isotherms, lines joining places with the same
mean January temperature.
Page 46 of 85
(a) Explain how different proportions of cyanogenic plants may have evolved in
populations in different parts of Europe.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(4)
(b) Differences in cyanide production may affect the total number of clover plants
growing in different areas. Describe how you would use quadrats in an investigation
to determine whether or not there is a difference in the number of clover plants in
two large areas of equal size.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Page 47 of 85
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(4)
(Total 8 marks)
Q30.
A hedgerow is a line of shrubs and trees bordering a field, together with the herbaceous
plants at their base. In the last 50 years farmers have removed many hedgerows.
(a) Explain two advantages for a farmer of removing hedgerows.
1. _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(b) In recent years some hedgerows have been replanted. Ground beetles, which are
unable to fly, are predators of crop pests. The beetles overwinter in the shelter of
grasses at the base of the hedgerow. In some large fields, a permanent strip of
grass is left as shown in the diagram.
Suggest and explain the advantage of leaving the strip of grass in the middle of the
field.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Page 48 of 85
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(c) Apart from providing a habitat for predators of crop pests, give two biological
benefits of replanting hedgerows.
1. _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 6 marks)
Q31.
Lacewings are insects that feed on aphids and mites, which are crop pests. The numbers
of six species of lacewings, A to F, were counted on samples of apple and strawberry
crops. The results are shown in the table.
Number of adults of each species of lacewing

Diversity
Crop
A B C D E F index
Strawberry 31 0 3 29 17 1 3.2
Apple 10 1 1 7 0 1
The diversity index (d) is calculated from the formula
where N is the total number of organisms of all species

and n is the total number of organisms of each species.
(i) Calculate the diversity index for lacewing species in the apple crop and write the
figure in the table. Show your working.
(2)
(ii) Suggest a reason why the diversity index for the lacewings is different between the
Page 49 of 85
two crops.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
(Total 3 marks)
Q32.
The vegetation on a large heap of waste from an old mine was investigated. The table
shows the results of the measurements of certain factors in 1m2 frame quadrats placed on
the south-facing slope.
Quadrat Angle of Vegetation Moisture pH of

slope / ° cover / % content of soil
soil / %
1 45 60 17.2 5.6
2 30 70 14.6 4.2
3 25 68 20.3 5.2
4 12 100 23.5 7.1
5 7 85 21.0 5.4
6 1 100 21.2 6.8
(a) Which of the factors measured are abiotic?
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
(b) Describe how the investigators could obtain the value for vegetation cover in each
quadrat.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(c) The correlation between vegetation cover and soil moisture content was tested
statistically. These two factors were found to be positively correlated, and p < 0.05.
Explain what this result means.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Page 50 of 85
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(d) At first the waste heap had no plants growing on it. Some of the first plants to
colonise it were small herbaceous plants. Explain one way in which colonisation by
herbaceous plants could change the physical environment.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 7 marks)
Q33.
The Solomon Islands are situated in the Pacific Ocean. The nearest large land mass is
Australia, which is about 1500 km away. The biggest islands are mountainous, with large
areas of tropical forest and a wide range of habitats. Some islands have a very high
species diversity, and many species are endemic, that is they occur only in the Solomon
Islands.
The table shows the total number of species on the islands in four vertebrate classes and
the percentage which are endemic.
Vertebrate class Total number of Endemic species

species /%
Mammals 53 36
Birds 223 20
Reptiles 61 16
Amphibians 17 53
(a) How many reptile species are endemic?
___________________________________________________________________
(1)
(b) Suggest an explanation for the high proportion of endemic species on the Solomon
Islands.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(3)
Page 51 of 85
(Total 4 marks)
Page 52 of 85
Mark schemes
Q1.
(a) (A measure of) the number of (different) species in a community;
For ‘community’ accept ‘habitat/ecosystem/one
area/environment’
Reject ‘in a population’.
1
(b) Yes, natural best, because
1. Peak of (mean) bee numbers in natural habitat is highest;

For accept description for ‘peak’.
2. The (mean) number of bees was higher in the natural habitat until day 200;
2. For ‘day 200’ accept any day between 190 and 210.
2. For ‘until day 200’ accept ‘for 200 days’.
3. (Mean) species richness in natural habitat higher at all times;
No, natural not best, because
4. Lowest (mean) number of bees after day 220;

4. For ‘day 220’ accept any day between 210 and 230.
Yes, town worst, because
5. Peak of species richness higher in both natural and farmland
OR
Species richness lowest in town from day 125;

For ‘day 125’ accept any day between 115 and 135.
No, town not worst, because
(Mean) species richness is lower in farmland until day 125;

For ‘day 125’ accept any day between 115 and 135.
For ‘until day 125’ accept ‘for 125 days’.
7. Similar (mean) number of bees to farmland;
OR
(Mean) number of bees lower in farmland until day 140;

For ‘day 140’ accept any day between day 130 and 150.
For ‘until day 140’ accept ‘for 140 days’
General, no, because
8. Index of diversity of bees not measured
OR
Page 53 of 85
The number of bees of each species is not known;
4 max
(c) 1. Must not harm the bees

OR
Must allow the bee to be released unchanged;
2. Must allow close examination

OR
Use a key (to identify the species);
Accept method that allows close examination
Ignore references to DNA sequencing
Accept ‘use photographs/specimens (to identify species)'
2
(d) 1. Collect at more times of the year so more points on graph/better line (of best
fit) on graph;
Both suggestion and explanation is required for each mark
point.
The explanation must relate to the graph.
2. Counted number of individuals in each species so that they could calculate

index of diversity;
3. Collected from more sites/more years to increase accuracy of (mean) data;

For ‘accuracy’ accept ‘representative’.
2 max
(e) 1. A. chlorogaster and A. piperi are more closely related (to each other than to P.
pruinosa);
Must be a comparative statement.
Accept A. chlorogaster and A. piperi share a more
recent/closer common ancestor (than they do with P.
pruinosa);
Ignore references to A. chlorogaster and A. piperi not being
related to P. pruinosa or not having a common ancestor with
P. pruinosa.
2. Because they are in the same genus;

2
[11]
Q2.
(a) 1. Species = (A group of) organisms that are able to produce fertile offspring;
2. Species richness = the number of (different) species in a community;
2. Accept in a habitat / ecosystem / area
2. Reject in a population
2. Ignore ‘types’ unqualified
2
(b) 5;
1
(c) 1. Number of individuals of each species not known;
Page 54 of 85
2. Almost all (of sample A / the 68%) could be of the same species;
3. Two / other samples have a higher number of species / higher species
richness but a lower number of individuals / fish;
4. Other samples may have more individuals of each species;
2. If not stated otherwise, assume MP2 relates to sample
A / 68%
3 max
[6]
Q3.
(a) Correct answer of 4.92, 2 marks;
If N(N-1) = 3540, OR ∑n(n-1) = 720, then award 1 mark
Accept 4.916 / 4.917 / 4.9
2
(b) 1. A method of selecting sampling sites at random;

2. Use of quadrat;
3. Identify (plant) species (at site / in each quadrat)
OR
Count number of (different plant) species (at site / in each quadrat);
1. E.g. grid with coordinates selected using random
number table
2. Frame or point
3. Reject refs to % cover, or counting individuals
3
(c) 1. Significant increase in species richness on Islay and Colonsay and

(significant) fall on Harris;
2. Change in diversity on Islay not significant;
3. Greater than 0.05 / 5% probability of getting this change / difference by
chance (on Islay)
OR
(For other differences) less than 0.001 / 0.1% probability of getting this
change / difference by chance (for species richness on Colonsay, Harris,
Islay)
OR
Less than 0.01/1% probability of getting this change/difference by
chance (for diversity index on Colonsay, Harris);
2. Accept converse about significance of differences in
other cases
3. Reject results are due / not due to chance
3. Ignore refs to P unqualified
3
[8]
Q4.
(a)
3 6 9
152 211 167

2
Page 55 of 85
(b) 2.45
Use of the correct denominator = 1 mark
2
(c) 1. More plant species;
2. More food sources / variety of food;
3. More habitats / niches;

Allow converse for barley field
More food = neutral
3
[7]
Q5.
(a) Any two valid reasons;
e.g.
1. Increase in plant diversity leads to more types of food for animals;
2. Increase in variety of animals leads to increase in predator species;
3. Increase in niche / habitat

2 max
(b) 1. Repeat soil sorting for different times and record number of species collected;
2. Find optimum time / time beyond which further sorting does not lead to
increase in animal species found
2
(c) 1. No data on number of individuals in each
species / diversity index

1
(d) Principle:
1. Overlap of 2 × SD shows probability of differences (in means) being due to

chance is greater than 0.95;
Allow converse of MP1
Credit MP1 wherever it appears
Agree:
2. No difference in number of earthworms and millipedes (per m2)
3. No difference in number of species of centipedes or millipedes.
Disagree:
4. More beetles and woodlice in grassy strips;
Page 56 of 85
5. More species of beetles, earthworms, woodlice in grassy strips.
4 max
[9]
Q6.
(a) 1. Only cleared and abandoned and introduction of non-native species make
(significant) difference;
2. Because only (means of) these ± 2 SDs from zero / no change;
3. About same number / 4 to 3 increase or decrease (species) richness /

biodiversity;
Accept converse for others
3
(b) 1. Non-native species out-competes / kills / eats / is a disease of native plants;
2. Some (populations of) native species become extinct (in the community);
2
(c) 1. Set up grid system with coordinates;
2. Place large number of quadrats (at coordinates) selected at random;
3. Count number of / estimate percentage cover of native plant in quadrats;
3. Repeat at same time each year (for many years);

3 max
(d) 1. Correct answer two marks – 0.0599;
1 mark for writing

Award 1 mark for answer of – 5.985 or 0.290
2
[10]
Q7.
(a) 4:
1
(b) 2.68(6).
If answer incorrect:
Σn(n-1) = 242 = 1 mark
N(N-1) = 650 = 1 mark
2
(c) 1. Take more samples and find mean;

2. Method for randomised samples described.
Allow larger area = 1 mark
2
[5]
Q8.
Page 57 of 85
(a) Species richness measures only number of (different) species / does not measure
number of individuals.
1
(b) Trees vary in height.

1
(c) 1. Index for canopy is 3.73;

2. Index for understorey is 3.30;
3. Index in canopy is 1.13 times bigger;
If either or both indices incorrect, allow correct calculation
from student’s values.
3
(d) 1. For Zaretis itys, difference in distribution is probably due to chance /

probability of being due to chance is more than 5%;
2. For all species other than Zaretis itys, difference in distribution is (highly)
unlikely to be due to chance;
3. Because P < 0.001 which is highly significant / is much lower than 5%.
3
[8]
Q9.
(a) 1. Draw grid over (map of) area;
2. Select squares / coordinates at random.
2
(b) 1. No emigration / immigration;

2. No losses to predation;
3. Marking does not affect survival;
4. Birth rate and death rate equal;
5. (In this case) all belong to one population.
2 max
(c) 1. Only glows brightly with UV, so doesn’t make insects more visible;
2. So doesn’t affect / increase predation;
OR
1. Glows brightly with UV marking visible;
2. So makes it easy to pick out labelled insects.
2
(d) 10 130.
Tolerance of ±1
= 1 marks
2
(e) 1. Scientists removed large numbers of insects (which were not returned)
from same area / same population;
2. Affecting ratio of marked to unmarked.
2
[10]
Q10.
(a) 14;
1
Page 58 of 85
(b) Number (of individuals) in each species (of dung beetle);
Accept: population of each species.
1
(c) 1. No overlap in standard deviations;

Accept: no overlap in error bars.
2. (Difference in mean total) significant/is not due to chance/is real;
2
(d) No bias;
Ignore: ‘representative sample’.
1
(e) 1. Removes species/types of plant/insect;

Accept: decrease in plant/insect diversity.
2. Fewer food sources;
Ignore: less food.
Accept: less variety of food.
Accept: removes a food source.
3. Fewer habitats/niches;
Accept: loss/removal/destruction/ of a habitat.
Accept: no habitat.
Ignore: homes/shelters.
3
[8]
Q11.
(a) Number of species in a community;
Accept: number of species in a habitat/area/ecosystem
Accept: species richness
Accept: all the species for number of species
Ignore: variation/diversity
Reject: in a population
1
(b) 1. Number of (organisms of) each species;

Accept: ‘population’ for number and accept individual for
organism.
Accept: ‘species richness’
2. Total number of organisms (of all species) / Total number of
species;
Idea of grand total of all organisms, not just number of
different species
2
(c) 1. Described effect of sewage (eg oxygen depletion/is

toxic/kills);
Accept: increase in BOD
Accept: eutrophication/description of eutrophication
2. Prevents some/many species colonising/
reproducing/remaining;
Accept: only a few species survive
Page 59 of 85
3. Sewage is food source for (individuals of) some/a
few/species;
4. (So) increase only in their numbers;
Max 2
(d) (i) 1. Results are not repeatable / are not

representative / unreliable / conflict / contradict;
Accept: different / don’t agree
Ignore: not valid/not reproducible/inaccurate
2. Can’t make any conclusions;
2
(ii) Do repeats to find a pattern/distribution/mean (of index

of diversity);
Accept: use a different technique to obtain more reliable
evidence;
Need idea of more than one repeat
Accept: calculate an average
Accept: at different times
Accept: statistical test to see if results differ significantly
1
[8]
Q12.
(a) 1. Number of (individuals of) each species;
Accept: ‘population’ for ‘number’
2. Total number of individuals / number of species;

Accept: ‘species richness’
MP2 allows for other types of diversity index
2
(b) (i) (Shows) results are due to the herbicide / are not due to another factor /
(to) compare the effect of using and not using the herbicide / shows the
effect of adding the herbicide;
Neutral: allows a comparison
Neutral: ensures results are due to the independent variable
Reject: ‘insecticide’
Accept: ‘pesticide’
1
(ii) 1. (More) weeds killed so more crops / plants survive / higher yield /
less competition;
2. High concentrations (of herbicide) harm / damage / kill / are toxic to

crops / plants;
Accept: ‘pesticide’
Neutral: ‘insecticide’
Accept: use of figures (eg 400+)
2
(iii) 1. Reduced plant diversity / fewer plant species / fewer varieties of

plant;
Page 60 of 85
Accept: ‘weed’ for ‘plant’
Neutral: fewer plants
Accept: only one crop species remains
2. Fewer habitats / niches;

Q Neutral: fewer homes / shelters
3. Fewer food sources / varieties of food;

Neutral: less food
3
[8]
Q13.
(a) 1. Females are (generally) longer / larger / bigger / up to 115(mm) / males are
(generally) shorter / smaller / up to 100(mm);
Ignore: tall
Accept: females have a larger / 90 modal / peak / most
common value and males have a smaller / 80 modal / peak /
most common value
Accept mean length of females greater / mean length of
males shorter
Reject: use of mean in relation to 80 mm or 90 mm
Reject: Most of the females are 90 mm long / most of the
males are 80 mm long
2. Females show a greater range / variation / males show a narrower range

/ variation.
Accept: correct use of figures from the graph: the range of
males is 50 to 100 and of females is 50 to 115 / the spread is
50 for males and 65 for females
2
(b) (i) 2.6 to 2.7 = 2 marks;

Incorrect answer but evidence of a numerator of 24180 OR 156 × 155 or
denominator of 9014 = 1 mark;
2
(ii) (Fewer plant species) − no mark
1. (So) few(er) habitats / niches;

Ignore habitat size
Q Neutral: fewer homes
2. (So) lower diversity of insects / fewer insect species / fewer insect

types;
Q Neutral: fewer insects
Accept less variety of insects
3. (So) fewer food sources / less variety of food.

Q Neutral: less food
Ignore references to pesticides, farmers’ actions, competition
between lizards and evolution
3
Page 61 of 85
[7]
Q14.
(a) Succession;
Ignore any word in front of succession e.g. secondary /
ecological succession.
Neutral ‘forestation’.
1
(b) 1. Greater variety / diversity of plants / insects / more plant / insect species;
Neutral: more plants.
2. More food sources / more varieties of food;

Neutral: more food / more / greater food source (singular).
3. Greater variety / more habitats / niches;

Accept: more nesting sites.
Q Neutral: more homes / shelters.
3
(c) (i) Temperature and carbon dioxide;

Neutral: water, chlorophyll.
1
(ii) Shows (gross) photosynthesis / productivity minus respiration / more

carbon dioxide used in photosynthesis than produced in respiration;
Correct answers are often shown as: net productivity =
(gross) photosynthesis – (minus) respiration.
1
(iii) 1. (Shade plant) has lower (rate of) respiration / respiratory losses /
less CO2 released at 0 light intensity / in dark;
Accept use of figures.
Accept: lower compensation point.
2. Greater (net) productivity / less sugars / glucose used / more

sugars / glucose available;
Neutral: any references to rate of photosynthesis.
2
[8]
Q15.
(a) 1. Group of similar organisms / organisms with similar features / organisms with
same genes / chromosomes;
1. Accept: same number of chromosomes
1. Accept: smallest taxonomic group
1. Reject: genetically identical. Only allow 1 max if
mentioned
1. Q Neutral: similar genes / chromosomes
2. Reproduce / produce offspring;

2. Accept: breed / mate
Page 62 of 85
3. That are fertile;
3. Neutral: that are ‘viable’
‘Produce fertile offspring’ = 2 marks
2 max
(b) (i) Correct answer of 6.97 to 7 = 2 marks;
One mark for 6320 as numerator or 906 as denominator;

2
(ii) 1. Decrease in variety of plants / fewer plant species;

1. Accept: reference to monoculture or description
1. Neutral: fewer plants
2. Fewer habitats / niches;

2. Neutral: fewer homes / less shelter
3. Decrease in variety of food / fewer food sources;

3. Neutral: less food
3. Accept: less variety of prey
3
[7]
Q16.
(a) 1. No interbreeding / gene pools are separate / geographic(al) isolation;
Accept: all marks if answer written in context of producing
increased diversity of plants
1 Do not award this mark in context of new species being
formed and then not interbreeding
1 Accept reproductive isolation as an alternative to no
interbreeding
2. Mutation;
2 Accept: genetic variation
3. Different selection pressures / different foods / niches / habitats;

3 Accept: different environment / biotic / abiotic conditions or
named condition
3 Neutral: different climates
4. Adapted organisms survive and breed / differential reproductive success;
5. Change / increase in allele frequency / frequencies;

5
(b) Similar / same environmental / abiotic / biotic factors / similar / same selection
pressures / no isolation / gene flow can occur (within a species);
Accept: same environment
1
[6]
Q17.
Page 63 of 85
(a) (i) (We should maintain biodiversity to)
Prevent extinction / loss of populations / reduction in
populations / loss of habitats / save organisms for future
generations (idea of);
Neutral: references to ‘playing God’ / animal rights
1
(ii) A suitable example of how some species may be important financially

e.g.
1. medical / pharmaceutical uses;
2. commercial products / example given;
3. tourism;
4. agriculture;
5. saving local forest communities;

1 max
(b) 1. Fewer plant species / decrease in plant diversity;

Accept: converse arguments for islands with a high
percentage of forest remaining
1. Neutral: fewer plants
2. Fewer habitats nesting sites / niches / food sources / varieties / less

protection from predators / hunters / environment;
2. Neutral: fewer homes
2. Neutral: less food
2
(c) 1. Number of (individuals / birds of) each species;

1. Neutral: number of species
2. Total number of individuals / birds of all species;

2. Accept: ‘total number of birds’ as given context for ‘all
species’ in the investigation
2
(d) 1. (Larger birds have) a low(er) SA:VOL;

Neutral: reference to fat / feathers
2. (So) less heat loss / more heat retained;

MP2 is independent of MP1
2
[8]
Q18.
(a) Removes bias;
1
(b) (i) 1. 1.28 / 1.29 / 1.285 / 1.3

1. Ignore more than 3dp
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2. Answer incorrect but shows clear understanding of Σ
2. Σ = 318250. Allow mark if denominator written out.
Incorrect denominator but evidence of understanding gains
mark
2
(ii) Diversity index would be lower (NO MARK)

Assume wheat field if site unspecified
1. Fewer species / Beech aphid / Large white butterfly / 7-spot

ladybird absent / only three species / species diversity lower /
mostly one species / mostly bird-cherry aphid;
1. Allow species richness in context of few species
2. Fewer plant species;

2. Allow one type of food source if clearly plant
2
(c) For:
1. Data support the claim / evidence supports claim;

1. Ignore reference to correlation / causation
Against:
2. Only wheat field / only comparing with wood / one type of habitat / only
insects considered;
2 max
(d) 1. Greater variety of plants;
2. Another habitat / more habitats / places to live / niches / another food

source / more food types;
2. Answers referring to ‘more food’ should not be credited.
Allow reference to either animal or plant as foods
2
[9]
Q19.
(a) (i) Produces a more reliable mean / average / makes sure sample was
representative / reduce effect of extreme values / identify anomalies;
Ignore references to chance
1
(ii) Removes bias;

1
(b) Two marks for correct answer of 5.8;
One mark for incorrect answer that clearly shows denominator as 216;
2
(c) 1. Increase in variety of plants / shrubs / grass;
2. More habitats / niches;
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3. Greater variety of food sources / more food sources;
Answers only referring to 'more food' should not be credited
3
[7]
Q20.
(a) Greater variety / different foods;
More habitats / niches;

Answers only referring to ‘more food’ should not be credited
but allow ‘more food sources’.
2
(b) Also measures number of individuals in a species / different proportions of

species;
Some species may be present in low / high numbers;

First marking point can only be awarded if there is a
reference to species.
2
(c) (i) Large surface area to volume (ratio) / permeable / thin (outer layer);
Correct reference to diffusion;
Accept (Eggs) cannot move (out of water) for 1 mark
2
(ii) Concentration (of pesticide) is increased;

1
[7]
Q21.
(a) Number of a / each (species);
Accept answers expressed differently providing they convey
this information.
Ignore extra information if it does not contradict answer.
1
(b) 1. Lower diversity of plants / few species of plants / less variety

of plants / few plant layers;
2. Few sources / types of food / feeding sites; / few habitats / niches;
3. Fewer (species of) herbivore so few (species of) carnivores;

3
(c) (i) Cannot predict / do not know intermediate values;

1
(ii) To see what would happen / compare with no management work / to see
if numbers fell anyway / To show that it was not a factor;
Management as a term not required. Allow explanations.
1
(d) 1. Total number of birds along ditch B / ditch with one side cleared greater
than along ditch A / ditch with both sides cleared;
Page 66 of 85
2. But only gives data for all birds / does not give data for species / data not
about diversity;
3. Single ditch / single occasion / not repeated / no control;

Principles:
Correct from evidence
Total number not diversity
Flaws in technique
3
[9]
Q22.
(a) (i) Two marks for correct answer of 4.3;
Q An answer of 4 scores 1 mark
One mark for incorrect answer that clearly shows understanding of ∑n(n
– 1) / 188 as denominator;
2
(ii) Measures number of individuals (of each species) and number of

species;
Q First marking point can only be awarded if there is a
reference to species.
Some species only present in small numbers;

2
(b) (i) Reduced as one crop / species grown / other species removed;
Use of herbicides / weeding / ploughing / wheat (better) competitor for

named factor e.g. light / nutrients;
2
(ii) (Reduced) as less variety of food sources;
(Reduced) as fewer habitats / niches;

Q Answers only referring to ‘less food’ should not be credited
2
[8]
Q23.
(a) Increase in number of species;
Increase in numbers of some species;

2
(b) Initial environment hostile / few organisms adapted;
These organisms change the environment / suitable example;
More niches / more habitats;
Allowing other organisms to become established;

max. 3
Page 67 of 85
[5]
Q24.
(a) deforestation removes many habitats / niches fewer species / fewer types of
organisms;
(do not credit just fewer organisms);
2
(b) 1. nitrate ions in fertiliser available / absorbed immediately;

2. ammonium converted to nitrate by nitrifying bacteria
3. fertiliser would provide only the initial release of nitrate / potassium nitrate;
3
[5]
Q25.
(a) Samples collected at random;
Method for choosing random sites – random
coordinates / position from tables / calculator / other suitable
means;
Other named factor constant e.g.:
Same size of net / same width of opening of net / use of one

quadrat / Quadrats of same size / of stated size / same area
disturbed / collect each
Sample for same time;
3
(b) Caenidae in deep water – because highest standard

deviation / ‘S.D.= 7.92’
1
(c) (i) An organism’s role / in the ecosystem / community;

[ALLOW refs. To trophic levels / named]
(IGNORE refs. To habitat)
1
(ii) Caenidae found mainly in deep water AND Baetidae in

shallow water / one family mainly in deep water AND the
other in shallow water;
1
(iii) Reduces competition for named factor – e.g. food / shelter / O2 ;

To ensure both types survive / otherwise better adapted
type displaces other type;
OR
Ref. to ‘Competitive exclusion principle’ = 2 marks
max 2
[8]
Q26.
(a) (i) EITHER: Correct answer: 3.45 / 3.44 / 3.4 = 2 marks
OR: Understanding of ∑n(n-1) / use of
134 / (2 + 90 + 12 + 30)
Page 68 of 85
+ wrong answer = 1 mark
max 2
(ii) Takes account of number of individuals / abundance /

population size (as well as number of species);
1
(b) The species at A / F.spiralis loses less water /

loses water less rapidly / loses less mass;
The species at A / F.spiralis better adapted to / can survive where

exposed for longer / to drier conditions;
The species at A / F.spiralis avoids competition For named aspect

– e.g. light / substratum / space / CO2;
ACCEPT converse argument re. F. serratus
3
[6]
Q27.
(a) Tapes / string / axes laid out at right angles / grid area;
Method of obtaining random co-ordinates;
Do not allow “Use random number generator”
2
(b) (i) Decrease then remain constant;

From 200 cm / over 150 cm;
2
(ii) Oxygen decreasing because soil becomes more compacted / not

replaced;
Decrease in oxygen leads to fewer aerobes surviving;
2
(c) Anaerobic bacteria replace aerobic as oxygen decreased by aerobic bacteria;

Remove competition;
Aerobic bacteria no longer able to survive in these conditions;
3
(d) (i) Near the surface / in top 50 cm;

Table shows decrease with time at greater depths;
2
(ii) Decrease;
Fewer aerobic bacteria with depth;
Oxygen concentration decreases / less oxygen at depth;
3
(e) Probability greater than 95% / 0.95;

Results are not due to chance / results are significant;
Because bars do not overlap;
3
(f) Plot as graph;

Draw line of best fit;
Read off appropriate value;
3
[20]
Page 69 of 85
Q28.
(a) suitable method of capture;
mark individuals and release;
count percentage recaptured / use Lincoln index / equation;
2 max
(b)
(accept 3.1 / 3.122)
2
(c) decrease in total numbers of butterflies;

(reject population)
change in proportion of species / example(s);
increase in diversity in logged forest / calculation(4.01);
2 max
[6]
Q29.
(a) colder / below 0°C (January) areas, cyanogenic plants die in this cold / acyanogenic
survive;
non-cyanogenic allele / gene passed on more often / its frequency increases;
warmer (January) areas cyanogenic plants at advantage,
because of less herbivore selection pressure / feeding;
so cyanogenic survive more often to pass on cyanogenic allele / gene.
4 max
(b) large (and equal) number of quadrats in each area;

(reject several)
random sampling method, described;
(accept described ‘systematic’ method)
percentage cover / point hits per quadrat / count plants;
mean / average value for each area;
statistics test to see if differences significant.
4 max
[8]
Q30.
(a) source of pests / animals, and effect on crop;
source of weeds / no longer taking nutrients, hence competition /
reduced yield; creation of larger fields / leaving room,
hence more efficient use of machinery / grow more crops;
hedgerows have to be maintained, so removal saves time / money;
2 max
(b) allows beetles to remain / survive / over winter in the middle of the
field / strip of grass;
effect on distribution, e.g. do not normally reach the centre of the field
/ can reach all parts;
2
(c) increases biodiversity;

source of food for animals;
habitat / nest for animals;
reduce need for insecticides / attracts insects away from crop;
Page 70 of 85
windbreaks / prevent erosion / run-off / leaching;
migratory corridors;
2 max
[6]
Q31.
(i) for correct use of sigma;
numerator = 380 and denominator = 132;
2
2.87 to 2.9 gains 2 marks

(do not allow 2.8 or denominator = 135)
(ii) more types of prey found on strawberries;

1
[3]
Q32.
(a) angle, moisture and pH
(all required)
1
(b) system for subdividing quadrat into, e.g. many squares;

method of estimating cover in small squares, e.g. counting those where cover
over 50%, or cover at points (of intersection);
(not just ‘count squares with vegetation’ unless very small)
2
(c) increasing vegetation cover is related to increasing moisture content

(allow ‘affects‘ moisture content or vice versa, not ‘causes);
correlation is significant / not due to chance / can reject null hypothesis

/ only 1 in 20 / 5% probability that the correlation is due to chance;
2
(d) factor; and linked effect e.g.

wind-blown particles trapped;
accumulation of soil;
OR
accumulation of organic / dead / decomposed matter / humus;
increase in mineral ions / improved water retention / improved
soil structure;
OR
nitrogen fixation;
increased nitrate concentration / improved soil fertility;
2 max
[7]
Q33.
(a) 10
(reject: 9.76)
1
(b) isolation (on islands);
Page 71 of 85
variety of habitats / conditions different from origin / other islands;
differing pathways of natural selection;
leading to organisms too different to interbreed.
3 max
[4]
Page 72 of 85
Examiner reports
Q1.
67.1% of students could answer question (a), a test of recall from section 3.4.6 of the
specification. Once again, many students confused the terms population and community,
and the terms species richness and an index of diversity.
Question (b) was the first opportunity on the paper for students to interpret scientific
evidence and demonstrate Assessment Objective 3 skills. The question, ‘Do the data in
the figure support these conclusions?’, should have demonstrated that careful use of
these data would be required in the answer. Both conclusions were comparative
statements, natural habitat being the most favourable and town habitat being the least
favourable, and so the marking points were linked to comparative statements between the
habitats. A description of one habitat alone was, thus, not sufficient to gain credit.
Numbers were provided on the axes and so quoting days of the year was expected in the
answers. This question provides a good example to demonstrate the importance of using
and quoting the correct evidence from the data when trying to support the conclusions. It
is also a good example of how times from the x-axis of the graph should be used to
illustrate where observed trends begin and end. Some 76.6% of students were able to
gain at least one mark; only 7.9% scored four marks.
In part (c), the majority of students appreciated that the bees should not be harmed and
so gained the first mark. Many students got confused with mark-release-recapture
techniques but, since no population estimate was being made in this investigation, this
was not relevant.
Question (d) was designed to test practical skills with the command ‘suggest and explain’,
so an improvement with a specific explanation of how that change would improve the data
was required. It was hoped that A-level students could be specific about why collecting
more data would be beneficial. For example, they were told that these graphs were drawn
following collection from four data points – students should be aware from their graphical
work that this would not result in an accurate line of best fit, or that intermediate points
could not be determined from these few data points. Similarly, statements related to the
improved accuracy of the (mean) data were few and far between; simple statements
referring to collecting from more sites, or for more years, are not sufficient to gain marks
when asked to give an explanation. Students should be encouraged to use an appropriate
term from the published glossary – “to make the results reliable” was not sufficient to gain
credit. Very, very few students could use their knowledge of section 3.4.6 to point out that
these data would have been more meaningful if numbers of each species had been
counted so that an index of diversity could be calculated. Worryingly, 71% of students
failed to score here; less than 2% gained both available marks.
Question (e) was answered well, with most students (62.1%) understanding the binomial
system for naming of species and linking it to their evolutionary relationship. Some
students suggested that the two Andrena species were unrelated to Peponapis pruinosa
and that they did not share a common ancestor – this was not creditworthy.
Q2.
In answering question (a), the majority of students were able to define a species, but
simpler answers just stated “can make offspring”, rather than fertile offspring. Far fewer
were able to define species richness. Some gave the definition of the index of diversity,
and many stated the number of species in a population.
Two-thirds of students answered question (b) correctly; those who failed to score did not
Page 73 of 85
understand what the mode is.
Question (c) was far more challenging for students, with 62% failing to score any marks.
Students failed to understand what had been asked and what the data showed, for
example stating “68% from one sample is not fair; all sample sizes should be the same”.
Many students also stated that sample A could have been all of the same species, which
was not possible. Once again students were trying to apply generic ideas about
experimental design without comprehending what had been asked. Commonly seen
answers included “only one area”, “no repeats”, “no statistical tests”, “not representative”,
“not a fair test”, “correlation does not mean causation”. Students failed to understand what
species richness is, stating that “the number of different species is not given”. Only 0.2%
of students scored all three marks.
Q3.
(a) Students had more success with this calculation than with the previous two in the
paper; possibly this was because they had practised inserting numbers into this
equation. It was pleasing to see that 58% of students knew what N and n represent,
and could insert their values into the equation and get a correct answer. Another
20% obtained one mark for correctly calculating either the top or bottom number in
the equation (but getting the wrong final answer). The commonest error was thinking
that N = number of species.
(b) This question discriminated quite well, even though it involved a well-known method.
The commonest error was to count the number (or percentage cover) of each
species, when only the number of species is required. If a student wrote about
counting the number of species and the number of individuals, they did not get the
mark because the examiner had no way of knowing whether or not they understood
the difference between the data required to calculate species richness and index of
diversity.
(c) This question discriminated very well, even though 46% of students scored zero.
Answers suggested that few students really understand P values, or the nature and
purpose of statistical tests. They showed how many think statistical tests
demonstrate whether or not results, i.e. the data collected, are significant, or
accurate, or reliable. Quite a few followed statements, about the data being due to
chance, with observations that this showed the method was incorrect, that the
scientists made errors, or that not enough data were collected. The data in Table 2
came from a study published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. Unless given
specific information in a question that indicates otherwise, students should assume
that data have been collected, processed and presented correctly. The results of the
statistical test in this example indicate whether or not the difference between two
means is significant or not. It was heartening to find a few students who noted that a
t-test might have been used to obtain P; though this was not required to answer the
question. Some students got the meanings of ≤ and ≥ the wrong way around. This
might explain why quite a few thought that only the change in diversity for Islay was
significant. Some students tried to compare 0.001 with 0.05. Many noted that there
was a significant change in species richness on all three, but failed to note that there
were increases on two islands and a reduction on the other.
Q10.
(a) 70% of students correctly gave 14 as the answer. Some students used Figure 2
rather than Figure 1 or provided a definition of species richness.
(b) Surprisingly, less than 50% of students obtained this mark. Many students
suggested that the additional information required was the total number of all dung
Page 74 of 85
beetles rather than the number of individuals in each species.
(c) Almost two thirds of students failed to obtain a mark on this question. It was evident
that many students did not fully understand what was meant by standard deviations.
Also a large number of students used the results in Figure 1 rather than Figure 2.
Most students who did refer to no overlap in standard deviations were able to relate
this to there being a significant difference in mean total to obtain both mark points.
(d) Three out of every four students correctly explained that choosing sites at random
would prevent bias. Responses failing to gain credit often referred to ‘controlling
variables’ or ‘a fair test’.
(e) Most students obtained at least one mark usually by referring to the removal of a
habitat for the birds. A significant number of these students then gained a second
mark by referring to a decrease in food sources. Very few students obtained
maximum marks as they did not relate the removal of hedges to the loss of
plant/insect species. Often students showed understanding but did not gain credit
due to the use of imprecise terminology and/or poor quality of communication.
Common examples of this included, ‘less food’, ‘less homes’ and ‘less shelters’. A
small minority of students misinterpreted this question and discussed reduction in
genetic diversity.
Q11.
(a) Almost as many achieved this mark as did not, so the definition of species diversity
is not well known. Some confusion exists between species diversity and genetic
diversity. Many students referred incorrectly to diversity within a ‘population’ so
missed completely the point that the definition focussed on a collection of species.
Instead of using ‘number’ in their definition, some students mentioned ‘range’ to
suggest that they regarded diversity as a measure between two extremes.
(b) Most students achieved a mark for demonstrating they knew that the number of
each species is relevant in the calculation, but, for many, their poor quality of written
communication prevented the award of a second mark. For example, a common
error was to refer to ‘number of species’ rather than make clear the importance of a
‘grand total of organisms’.
(c) Many students showed a good appreciation of the principles of diversity and density
and achieved both marks. The imprecise use of terms prevented some from
achieving any marks, eg, ‘organism’ rather than ‘species’; ‘thrive’ rather than
‘reproduce’ and ‘hostile’ rather than a precisely described effect of sewage.
(d) (i) The principle that repeatable results are a requirement in order to be able to
draw conclusions was well understood. Unfortunately, some students only
offered a comment about the observed difference in results and did not go
further to state that it prevented the scientist from coming to a conclusion.
Others gave an imprecise comment about the scientist being less able to draw
a conclusion or they gave reasons why the two investigations might have
produced differing results or they offered suggestions on how to improve the
quality of findings.
(ii) Very few students gained the mark here either because they referred only to
making a ‘single repeat’, or they repeated the investigation by changing the
independent variable, and hardly any went further to confirm what the repeats
would need to show before conclusions could be made.
Page 75 of 85
Q12.
Parts (a), (b)(ii) and (b)(iii) proved to be good discriminators.
(a) 70% of students scored full marks. Those who scored one mark often gave both
alternatives of the second mark point. Weaker responses often lacked clarity; for
example, ‘number of individuals’ and ‘different species within a population’. Students
who failed to score often thought that the ‘size of the area’ and ‘standard deviation
values’ are needed to calculate an index of diversity. It should be noted that although
the specification requires students to be able to calculate one specific index of
diversity, the mark scheme was amended so that other types of index of diversity
could be credited.
(b) (i) Most students were aware that the purpose of the control fields was to ensure
that the results are due to the herbicide, or not due to another factor. Those
who failed to score typically gave stock How Science Works responses, which
could apply to any investigation. These usually referred to comparing groups
or results, ensuring that the results were due to the independent variable, or
simply that these fields acted as controls. Students should be reminded of the
need to relate their answers to the specific investigation or context outlined.
(ii) Half of students scored one mark and this was usually for appreciating that the
herbicide killed more weeds, which led to less competition. However, the
ability to explain the effect of high concentrations of herbicide, in terms of
damage to the crop, proved to be a good discriminator. Unfortunately, many
students did not read information in the introduction carefully enough. They
thought that the herbicide killed insects, which meant that fewer crops were
eaten. The weakest responses usually went no further than to describe the
graph.
(iii) Just under half of students scored at least two marks. This was usually for
‘fewer habitats’ and ‘fewer food sources’. It was only the best responses that
referred to ‘fewer plant species’ being present. Similarly, the ability to express
these ideas discriminated well. Weaker responses often referred to ‘less food’
and ‘less plants’, which were not credited. As mentioned in part (i), some
students wrongly thought that the herbicide killed insects, which directly led to
a decrease in their index of diversity.
Q13.
(a) About a third obtained both marks and half one mark. The commonest correct
observation was that female lizards are longer. Fewer students noted that there is a
greater range of lengths amongst females. Many students had trouble expressing
themselves clearly. Some said that most females were 90 mm long and most males
80 mm. This is not correct, these are modal values. Others stated that males were
mainly shorter than females below 100 mm.
(b) (i) 75% obtained both marks for the calculation.
(ii) The problem for many students in this part was that they wrote about factors
affecting the number of lizards, not the number of species as required in the
stem of the question. This meant that large numbers wrote about less food in
the plantation, rather than fewer food sources, and failed to gain credit. The
question required students to think about fewer food sources for both lizards
and the insects they feed on. Only just over a tenth of students noted that
there would be a lower diversity of insects in the plantation. This, together with
fewer species of plants, would limit the range of food sources available and
thus the number of species of lizard that could live there. It was pleasing to
Page 76 of 85
see that many students obtained a mark for stating there were fewer habitats
or niches in the plantation.
Q14.
(a) Over 95% of students correctly named the process as succession. Speciation was
the most common incorrect response.
(b) Most students obtained at least one mark, usually for stating that more habitats
would be available. Many of these students also referred to a greater variety of food
sources although a significant minority simply stated there would be more food,
which was not credited. Approximately a third of students gained all three marks by
also indicating that as the woodland developed there would be an increase in the
variety of plants.
(c) (i) 50% of students correctly gave temperature and carbon dioxide as the two
limiting factors. Most who did not referred to water rather than temperature.
However, humidity, mineral ions / nutrients, oxygen, pH, light intensity and
chlorophyll were also given as limiting factors. Only rarely were two incorrect
factors selected.
(ii) Most students referred to the uptake of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis and
its release during respiration but did not fully explain net productivity. Some
students got the use / production of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis /
respiration the wrong way round. Almost a third of students did gain this mark,
almost invariably by stating that net productivity = gross productivity minus
respiration.
(iii) This question was not answered well. Very few students were able to use the
information in Figure 2 to explain how the shade plant is better adapted to
gain both marks. The lower rate of respiration was recognised but the lower
release of carbon dioxide was usually described at low light intensities rather
than at 0 or in the dark. The idea of greater productivity in the shade plant was
less frequently described. Most answers related to photosynthesis and many
students gained no marks. As in part (ii), the uptake and release of carbon
dioxide was sometimes wrongly assigned to respiration and / or
photosynthesis. The surface area of the leaves, amount of chlorophyll and
number of stomata were also incorrectly used as part of some students’
explanations.
Q15.
This question was targeted at grade E. It is again surprising that all parts proved to be
good discriminators.
(a) Two-thirds of students gained full marks. This was usually for mentioning that
organisms of the same species can produce fertile offspring. However, some
students failed to gain the mark for replacing the word ‘fertile’ with ‘viable’.
(b) (i) Seventy percent of students correctly calculated the index of diversity within
the range of 6.97 to 7. Of the other thirty percent, most gained one mark for
calculating a correct numerator or denominator.
(ii) Nearly all students gained at least one mark, typically for ‘fewer habitats’.
Similarly, reference to pesticides or machinery decreasing species diversity
was common. Compared with the previous series, it was pleasing to see a
greater percentage of students refer to ‘less food sources’ or ‘less variety of
Page 77 of 85
food’, rather than simply ‘less food’. Relatively few students linked clearing the
forest to a reduction in the number of plant species.
Q16.
(a) This question was the most effective discriminator on the entire paper. The best
answers used all the information provided to describe how geographic isolation
could cause a very high diversity of bird species. At the other extreme, speciation
was ignored and a description of succession was given. Most answers did attempt
to explain speciation but often did not make sufficient use of the information
provided to gain high marks. Usually these accounts only gained the marks for
geographic isolation and for describing differential reproductive success. Poor use of
terminology was also clearly evident in these weaker responses. References to
different selection pressures and changes in allele frequency were often only
mentioned in better responses.
(b) Surprisingly, almost fifty percent of students failed to gain this mark. Common
incorrect response referred to a climax community being formed, or mutations not
occurring. Students gaining this mark often mentioned no ‘isolationߣ or ‘a similar
environmentߣ.
Q17.
(a) (i) 40% of students gave one ethical argument for maintaining biodiversity that
was of A-level standard. This was the idea of preventing extinction or loss of
habitats. References to animal rights, or ‘playing God’ were classed as neutral.
(ii) Just under half of students gave one economic argument for maintaining
biodiversity. The most common responses that gained credit referred to
medicine, tourism or agriculture.
(b) This proved to be a good discriminator. Nearly two-thirds of students gained at least
one mark usually for the answer ‘fewer habitats’. Very few students mentioned that a
lower percentage of the original forest meant that fewer plant species would be
present. The ability to express the idea of ‘fewer food sources’ discriminated well.
This was often conveyed in weaker responses as ‘less food’, which was not
credited.
(c) 85% of students scored at least one mark. This was usually for ‘number of each
species’. It should be noted that the specification requires students to be able to
calculate one specific index of diversity. The ‘number of species’ is not required to
calculate this index of diversity. Consequently, this response was classed as neutral
(d) 70% of students scored full marks. Students who did not typically referred to surface
area only, a larger SA:VOL, a smaller VOL:SA, fat or feathers.
Q18.
(a) This question was generally answered well, with the better students able to explain
the importance of random collection in the context of the investigation rather than
simply turning out the phrase ‘avoiding bias’.
(b) (i) Most students understood the summation process even though they made
mistakes in another part of the calculation. A significant number of answers
went up to 5 or 6 decimal places which, although not penalised, should be
avoided. The mathematical requirements of the specification do state the ‘use
Page 78 of 85
of an appropriate number of significant figures’. A significant number of
students use the space available as rough working rather than for setting out
the logic by which they arrived at the answer. A tangled mass of numbers did
not always allow the examiners to credit incorrect responses for an
understanding of underlying principles.
(ii) Most students made reasonable attempts at this section. Most correct
references were to the reduction in species number and to the predominance
of the bird-cherry aphid. Incorrect references were made to totals of all
organisms and totals of all species. Weaker students assumed that the fewer
organisms in total, the lower the biodiversity. Some wrote, incorrectly, about
genetic diversity.
(c) Instead of evaluating the conclusion given, a significant number of students wrote
their own conclusions about the effects of farming on the environment and the
mechanisms by which these were brought about. Answers were often vague and did
not refer to the data provided.
(d) Generally answered well; almost all students offered responses, often with good
explanations relating to increasing variety of habitats and food sources.
Q19.
(a) (i) Slightly more than half the students obtained this mark, often for mentioning
the idea of identifying anomalies or that the sample would be representative of
the population. Answers failing to gain credit often lacked sufficient detail with
responses such as 'to make the results reliable' or 'to calculate an average'
being commonplace.
(ii) Almost 95% of students gained this mark by mentioning the removal of bias.
(b) Two thirds of students correctly carried out the calculation and obtained both marks.
Approximately 5% of students obtained a principle method mark having calculated
an incorrect answer.
(c) This question proved to be a fairly effective discriminator. Surprisingly, a significant

minority of students suggested that there would be a decrease in the variety of
insects on the golf course despite the stem of the question indicating that diversity
would be higher. However, most students did mention an increase in habitats for one
mark. Many also appreciated there would be an increase in the variety of food
sources although references to 'more food' were not credited. Only the very best
students mentioned an increase in the variety of plants.
Q20.
(a) This proved to be a very effective discriminator with almost equal numbers of
candidates scoring two, one or zero marks. A significant number of candidates
referred to ‘more food’ rather than a greater variety of foods. Vague terms such as
‘more shelter’ were not accepted as an alternative to more habitats.
(b) Very few candidates obtained both marks in this question. However, almost half the
candidates gained one mark for indicating that the index of diversity measures the
number of species and the number of individuals. Better candidates used this
information to explain that an index of diversity would be more useful where some
species were only present in low or high numbers.
Page 79 of 85
(c) (i) This proved a very demanding question with two thirds of candidates scoring
zero. Despite the cue that ‘these eggs are small’ relatively few candidates
correctly linked this to a large surface area to volume ratio. Only a small
percentage of these candidates then referred to diffusion. It was very
disappointing to see responses describing pesticides moving by osmosis.
(ii) The majority of candidates appreciated that evaporation of water would

increase the concentration of the pesticide.
Q21.
(a) Those candidates who could explain with sufficient clarity that it was necessary to
determine the number of each species present were able to gain credit. A surprising
number of candidates knew that an equation was involved and could quote it with
some degree of accuracy. Many revealed, however, little knowledge of what the
various terms represented.
(b) Part (a) should have indicated to candidates that the thrust of this question was
species diversity. Unfortunately the term diversity triggered many candidates to
respond in terms of selection, genetic bottlenecks or the founder effect. The
approach to this question was further influenced by a poor understanding of the
concept of a species with many candidates apparently of the impression that all
insects are members of the same species. Better candidates however approached
the question in an appropriate way, and although they did not always appear to
appreciate that clearing forest and planting crops would lower the plant diversity and
hence the variety of available food, they were able to make worthwhile comments.
(c) In part (i), many candidates showed an unfamiliarity with the idea that joining points
on a graph with straight lines indicated uncertainty over the reliability of intermediate
points. Answers to part (ii) were rather better with most candidates clearly
understanding the nature of controls even if they enjoyed less success in explaining
why a control would be necessary in the investigation described.
(d) The best candidates understood the requirements of a question requiring evaluation
and were able to link the changes in breeding birds shown on the graph with species
diversity. They also indicated that the data referred to total number of birds and not
diversity and point out the shortcomings at arriving at conclusions based on limited
data. Those who did not gain significant credit, not infrequently failed to read the
axes with sufficient care or did not appreciate why the points had been joined with
straight lines. Evaluate was occasionally regarded as having the same meaning as
Explain. Explanations gained little if any credit.
Q22.
(a) (i) Most candidates correctly carried out the calculation and obtained both marks.
Approximately 10% of candidates obtained a principle method mark but
calculated an incorrect answer.
(ii) Very few candidates obtained both marks in this question. Approximately a
third of candidates gained one mark for indicating that the index of diversity
measures the number of species and the number of individuals. However, only
the very best candidates used this information that an index of diversity would
be more useful when some species were only present in small numbers.
(b) (i) Most candidates gained one mark for explaining that removing other plant
species or growing a single crop would reduce the species diversity of plants.
However, very few candidates gained a second mark for explaining how these
Page 80 of 85
plant species would be decreased e.g. by the use of chemicals or by
competition from the crop plant.
(ii) A majority of candidates gained one mark for appreciating that a decrease in
plant species would provide fewer habitats for animals. Better candidates
gained a second mark for referring to a decrease in the variety of food sources
available. However, many candidates simply stated there would be ‘less food’
which was not credited.
Q23.
Candidates were not always selective in choosing the material to answer this question.
They sometimes wrote at length about succession in part (a) (which concerned diversity),
and then found they had nothing new to say in part (b), which did concern succession.
(a) Good candidates were able to state, clearly and unequivocally, that an increase in
the index of diversity means that the number of species has increased, as has the
number of individuals within each species. Weaker candidates sometimes wrote all
they knew about succession here or sometimes just wrote about “an increase in the
organisms“, failing to distinguish between new species and existing species.
(b) Most candidates were able to describe the role of pioneer species in colonising a
harsh environment and the ways in which they might change this environment.
Better candidates then went on to say that these changes allowed new species to
become established with the creation of new habitats for still other species.
However, too many could not resist following the development right through to the
climax and describing the nature of this condition. Clearly, given the question, this
was not necessary and could have wasted valuable time for some candidates.
Q24.
(a) Nearly all candidates knew that habitats would be lost, and a good number also
knew that this would reduce the number of species in the area.
(b) Better candidates realised that both potassium nitrate and ammonium nitrate would
release nitrate ions into the soil immediately, and that the ammonium ions in
ammonium nitrate could be nitrified by nitrifying bacteria to provide a secondary
release of nitrates. Many candidates, however, just did not apply their knowledge to
the problem and merely recited chunks of the nitrogen cycle, with some confusion
between nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
Q25.
(a) In this section, candidates often concentrated on either the method of achieving
randomness in the sampling or on how other variables might have been controlled:
both aspects were required for a complete answer.
(b) Most realised that mayfly nymphs belonging to the family Caenidae and living in the
deep water showed the greatest variation as this sample had the highest standard
deviation. Some were less specific.
(c) A simple definition in terms of an organism’s role in the ecosystem or community

was required to explain the meaning of the term ecological niche. Some candidates’
answers could equally well have been applied to the term ‘habitat’. However, there
were few problems in recognising that one family of mayfly nymphs living mainly in
deep water and the other in shallow water indicated that they occupied different
ecological niches. Also, most candidates appreciated that the occupancy of different
Page 81 of 85
niches would result in reduced competition for some environmental resource (food
being the most common correct suggestion), although some should have thought
more carefully about the given situation before suggesting competition for ‘light’ of
for ‘mates’ (the two groups of mayflies were from different families). Some confused
intraspecific and interspecific competition – only the latter being applicable here.
Q26.
(a) Most candidates were able to substitute the data in the formula and calculate the
index of diversity correctly. There were occasional arithmetical errors. Many
appreciated that the numbers of individuals had been used in the calculation of the
index of diversity, or pointed out that the influence of rare species would be
minimised. Weaker candidates frequently thought the index of diversity was good for
comparing two areas (although why this should be an advance on just comparing
the numbers of species present was not made apparent).
(b) Some candidates were confused and seemed to regard the results as having been
derived in situ on the shore rather than being produced using a balance in a
laboratory. Many confused cause and effect and ignored information provided earlier
in the question, insisting that Fucus spiralis must have been located on the lower
shore as it lost less water due to having been exposed for a shorter time. Those who
did realise that Fucus spiralis in fact lost less water because it was better adapted to
life on the upper shore, very rarely went on to suggest that living in this location
(seemingly rather hostile) would result in reduced competition between it and the
other species.
Q27.
(a) Most candidates clearly appreciated that the samples would best be obtained by
using random numbers to determine co-ordinates, although they were not always
specific as to how these numbers would be generated. There were, however,
frequent references to “throwing” a quadrat, a technique which does not give rise to
a genuinely random distribution.
(b) In part (i), candidates revealed considerable difficulty in recognising the trend of a
decrease followed by stabilisation from a depth of around 200 cm. The most
frequent response was to ignore the change in gradient and refer simply to the
population falling. Where a genuine attempt was made to offer an explanation for
the difference in numbers in part (ii), answers were usually correctly related to the
decreasing concentration of oxygen available for respiration.
(c) There was obvious confusion in the minds of some between the concepts of
ecological succession and natural selection. While some of those who made this
distinction produced excellent answers, others lost their way in rambling
anthropomorphic accounts of bacteria “not finding conditions to their liking” or being
“happier” with conditions at other depths. There were also many general references
to “bacteria”. These lacked the necessary precision to gain significant credit.
(d) Part (i) was generally well answered and there were many accounts based on
correct references to the surface layers being the only ones where numbers of
aerobic bacteria increased. Part (ii) also produced some sound responses although
candidates were inclined to embellish their answers with irrelevant detail relating to
the anticipated change with time. Once again, a failure to gain marks most
commonly stemmed from imprecise use of the word “bacteria”. In both parts (c) and
(d) there was a need to refer them as being either aerobic or anaerobic.
(e) There was encouraging evidence of a good understanding of standard error and
Page 82 of 85
many candidates were able to show some appreciation of this demanding concept.
However, answers were seldom targeted at explaining what the error bars revealed
about the difference in activity at the times given. In spite of the wording of the last
sentence of the question, the terms probability and chance were seldom
incorporated into the explanation.
(f) The most frequent approach to this part of the question was to produce a mass of
figures supporting a complex but inappropriate calculation. With these data the best
approach was to construct a graph and draw a line of best fit. The likely number of
bacteria could then have been established by reading off the appropriate value from
the curve.
Q28.
(a) Surprisingly few candidates suggested a suitable method of trapping butterflies, but
many could suggest mark, release and recapture as a method of estimating the
population and gained one mark. Few candidates could then go on to explain how
the data collected would be used to estimate a population.
(b) This calculation was done well by many candidates, although some did a lot of extra
work and did not use the information given. A minority of candidates could not even
begin to attempt the calculation.
(c) This question discriminated well. Better candidates calculated the index of diversity
and correctly stated that diversity increased with logging. Weaker candidates could
explain the effects on one or more species of butterfly, but they often missed the
mark for stating that the number of butterflies decreased because they incorrectly
used the term species (fewer species of butterflies) or population (the butterfly
population decreases).
Q29.
Many good answers were seen to both parts of this question. The topics covered were
obviously familiar to many candidates. Where marks were not gained, it was usually
because of omissions rather than errors. The full range of marks was seen and the
question discriminated well.
(a) Almost all of the candidates obtained a mark for noting that cyanogenic plants might
die in areas with very low mean January temperatures. Many went on to obtain a
second mark for identifying the positive advantage that cyanogenic plants have in
warmer areas, because they deter herbivores. Only the better candidates wrote
about the impact of these different selection pressures on allele frequencies in
different clover populations. It was encouraging to note that ‘rote answers’, unrelated
to this example were absent. Some weaker candidates did fail to score marks
because they wrote in general terms about factors affecting natural selection and
evolution but with no reference to the specific factors given in this example.
(b) The vast majority of candidates were familiar with the use of quadrats. Many were
also able to describe a suitable method for placing these at random locations in the
study areas. Some candidates suggested the use of transects and this suggestion
was rejected; unless they suggested the use of very large numbers of transects
along randomly chosen lines. Many candidates scored one mark for suggesting the
use of large numbers of quadrats. A surprising number failed to get this mark, either
Page 83 of 85
because they made no reference to sample size, or because they wrote vaguely
about ‘several’ quadrats being used. The majority of candidates obtained a mark for
what a quadrat might be used to measure. A large number of candidates made
reference to the use of statistics but often that was all they said. The examiners
were looking for the use of a statistical test to determine whether or not there was a
significant difference in the number of clover plants in the two areas.
Q30.
(a) Many candidates failed to explain the advantages of removing hedgerows in
sufficient detail, many just stating that this leaves ‘more space’ with no further
qualification. Good candidates included detail about the effect on the crop, or the
cost of labour in maintaining hedgerows.
(b) Although most candidates scored at least one mark, many did not refer back to the
stem of the question. Some suggested that it might be easier for the farmer to
destroy the beetles if they were all in one place, or that the strip of grass might
become a source of humus. Relatively few candidates explained that the strip of
grass would allow the beetles easier access to pests throughout the crop.
(c) Most candidates scored well on this question, with the most popular responses
describing the effect of hedgerows in preventing erosion, or promoting biodiversity.
Q31.
(i) Most candidates calculated the diversity index correctly and obtained both marks. A
significant few understood how to use the equation but failed to apply the right
mathematical approach; multiplying a number by the value zero was often
performed incorrectly.
(ii) Only rarely was a valid reason given for the difference in diversity index. Many
candidates incorrectly believe that the quantity of available food, rather than the type
of food, determines species diversity.
Q32.
(a) The majority of candidates showed that they were aware of what is meant by an
abiotic factor and many correctly identified all three.
(b) Candidates showed little evidence of having actually carried out fieldwork. Several
misread the question and simply gave the standard answer relating to the random
positioning of quadrats. Few could give a reasonable description of how to obtain a
measure of the percentage cover. Better answers suggested subdividing the large
quadrat into smaller squares, or counting whether vegetation was present at a large
number of points. Several candidates merely subdivided the quadrat into 10 small
squares, and candidates then recorded presence or absence of vegetation, which
clearly could only at best give a value to the nearest 10%.
(c) Most candidates were aware that the correlation was unlikely to be due to chance,
and several expanded their answer to point out there was only a 1 in 20 probability
of its being a chance result. Some, however, stated that the result showed that
moisture in the soil caused the increase in vegetation, or vice versa.
Page 84 of 85
(d) Most could suggest some factor that might change, such as increase in humus, but
few gave a clear explanation of how the physical environment would be changed as
a consequence.
Q33.
(a) A surprisingly high proportion of candidates failed to calculate the percentage
correctly, and those who did often did not round off their answer, thus suggesting
that a fraction of a species existed.
(b) Few candidates showed appreciation of the role of isolation in the production of new
species that would be unique to the Solomon Islands. Most focused on one aspect
only. For example, some described adaptation to the range of habitats without
discussing speciation. Others pointed out the problems of interbreeding without
considering how the endemic species might have arisen in the first place.
Page 85 of 85

Biodiversity Within A Community

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_______________________

Time: 329 minutes

Marks: 252 marks

(a) What is meant by ‘species richness’?

1. The natural habitat is most favourable for bees.

1. The natural habitat is most favourable for bees.

2. The town is the least favourable for bees.

2. allowed them to identify accurately the species to which each belonged.

Species richness _____________________________________________________

Species Number of individuals

Change in mean Change in mean

Islay +8.89 ≤0.001 +0.22 >0.05

Colonsay +14.70 ≤0.001 +2.68 ≤0.01

Harris −5.13 ≤0.001 −2.44 ≤0.01

Her results are shown in the table below.

Number of individuals of each insect species in

Insect species Barley field Wheat field Hedge

(b) Calculate the index of diversity of the wheat field.

Use the following formula:

where N = total number of organisms

and n = total number of organisms of each species.

• They divided a field into plots measuring 25 m × 5 m, with a 5-metre-wide grassy

Mean number of animals Mean number of species

Beetles 41.2 (± 6.4) 80.1 (± 10.1) 10.0 (± 1.6) 17.3 (± 1.0)

Centipedes 18.4 (± 3.6) 13.5 (± 1.0) 1.8 (± 0.3) 2.1 (± 0.2)

Earthworms 244.5 (± 27.1) 281.2 (± 39.4) 3.8 (± 0.3) 5.1 (± 0.2)

Woodlice 0.0 73.9 (± 8.5) 0.0 2.8 (± 0.2)

A summary of this research was published in a farming magazine. The journalist

Do you agree with this conclusion?

Use evidence from the table to justify your answer.

(d) Effect size is calculated in the following way.

1. Divide the species richness in the last year of an investigation (SR2) by

• species richness in year 2 (SR2) was 15.3

Effect size = ___________________

Species of plant Number counted in

(a) What is the species richness of this sample?

Use the following formula to calculate the index of diversity.

where N is the total number of organisms of all species

Index of diversity = ____________________

(a) What is the difference between these two measures of biodiversity?

Scientists investigated the biodiversity of butterflies in a rainforest. Their investigation

Species of Mean number of butterflies P value

Prepona laertes 15 0 < 0.001

Zaretis itys 25 11 > 0.05

Memphis arachne 89 23 < 0.001

Memphis offa 21 3 < 0.001

Memphis xenocles 32 8 < 0.001

Use the following formula to calculate species diversity.

Explain what the results of these statistical tests show.

The table below shows the ecologists’ results.

Days after Number of Number of Number of

Show your working.

Figure 1 and Figure 2 show some of their results.

Explain the importance of the sites being chosen at random.

The figure below shows their results.

Concentration of herbicide sprayed on field / mg dm−3

(ii) Suggest an explanation for the relationship between the concentration of

(b) Another group of ecologists investigated biodiversity of lizards in a woodland area.

Their results are shown in the table.