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COMMUNICATION SKILLS 2
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2022
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pasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjpTABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION ONE

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Communication defined
Effective Communication
03
04

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Purpose of Communication 04

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SECTION TWO
Oral Presentation 06
Elements of effective Presentation 06

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Presentation Skills
How to make a presentation effective
07
07

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SECTION THREE
Questioning and Interrogation skills 10

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Types of Questions
Questions and Power
10
12

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SECTION FOUR
Letter writing skills 15

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Application letter 15

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APPENDIX

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Application letter 1
Application letter 1

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Curriculum Vitae Sample

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ghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcv pg. 2
SECTION ONE
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
MEANING AND ROLE OF COMMUNICATION
The word communication is used to mean speaking or writing or sending a message to another
person. Communication is really much more than that. It involves ensuring that your message
reaches the target audience and that the receiver understands and responds to the message
appropriately. Communication is an important aspect of behaviour; human communication is
affected by all factors that influence human behaviour.

GENERAL DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION

Communication comes from the Latin word communicare, which means “to make common” or
“to share.” Communication is defined as the process of using messages to generate meaning.
Communication is considered a process because it is an activity, an exchange, or a set of
behaviours—not an unchanging product. It is an activity in which you participate. David Berlo
(1960), a pioneer in the field of communication, probably provided the clearest statement about
communication as a process: accepting this means, we view events and relationships as dynamic,
on-going, ever changing, continuous. When we label something as a process, we also mean that
it does not have a beginning, an end, a fixed sequence of events. It is not static, at rest. It is
moving. The ingredients within a process interact; each affects all the others.

WORKING DEFINITION
Communication is the process of transmitting information and meaning from one individual or
organisation to another by means of mutually understandable symbols. The crucial element is
meaning. Communication has as its central objective the transmission of meaning. The process
of communication is successful only when the receiver understands an idea as the sender
intended it. Both parties must agree not only on the information transmitted but also on the
meaning of that information.
In order to transfer an idea, we must use symbols (words, signs, pictures, sounds) which stand for
the idea. The symbols must be understood by the person or persons with whom we intend to
communicate. Both must assign the same meaning to the symbols used; otherwise, there is
miscommunication.

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HOW TO ACHIEVE EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
To achieve effective communication, the sender must encourage creative and critical thinking,
consider audience’s information needs, consider audience's Technical background, consider
cultural background and Gender also consider audience's knowledge of the subject. It is equally
important to consider the possibility of Communication failure by expecting audience resistance,
recognizing communication constraints, Legal, social economic, psychological, institutional,
cultural etc.
Using gender-neutral terms for occupations, positions, roles, Terms that specify a particular
gender can unnecessarily effect certain stereotypes when used generically

AVOID THIS USE THIS INSTEAD

Businessman businessperson, executive, manager, business owner,
Chairpman chair, chairperson
Housewife homemaker
Layman layperson, no specialist, nonprofessional
Postman mail or letter carrier
Policeman police officer or law enforcement officer
Fireman firefighter
Salesman/woman, salesperson, sales representative, sales associate, salesgirl
Spokesman spokesperson,
Workman worker

PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION
1. Managing the human resource. Communication is the tool with which we exercise influence
on others, bring about changes in the attitudes and views of our associates, motivate them and
establish and maintain relations with them. The primary element in the skills of management is
competence in communication.
2. Communication is central to the success of everything that we do in an organisations
(objectives); our family, school/college, office, hobby group, community group, our city/town
are the organisations in which we live and act. Our activities succeed or fail, and our goals are

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achieved or not achieved, according to our ability to communicate effectively with other
members.
3. Building positive interpersonal relation. Communication plays a foundational role in the
development of any healthy interpersonal relationship. It can strengthen a mutual sense of
commitment; it also helps to bridge the gap between people who have misunderstandings.
Indeed, communication plays a critical role in all phases of interpersonal relations, from creating
a relationship to maintenance of relationships.
4. Communication is the glue that holds an organisation together, whatever its business or its size
(creates unity and harmony). Without communication an organisation cannot function at all.
Without effective communication, information cannot be collected, processed, or exchanged;
words and data would remain isolated facts. With effective communication, multinational
organisations which are spread all over the world can function like a single unit.
5. Communication enables an individual to express ideas thoughts and feelings effectively in
writing and in speech. The most important foundation skill for anyone in the new world of work
is the ability to communicate; being able to express your ideas effectively.
6. Communication helps in team building and team-work. Owing to advances in information
technology, companies downsize and decentralize, and work is increasingly carried out by teams.
Team members must be able to work together to identify problems, analyse alternatives, and
recommend solutions. They must be able to communicate their ideas persuasively to others.
Ability to work well in teams, to manage your subordinates and your relationships with seniors,
customers and colleagues, depends on your communication skill.
7. Marketing the products and services. Communication in the form of advertisement and public
relations is needed in order to inform the public and to persuade potential customers to buy the
products. Production of goods is of no use if potential buyers have no information about the
product. Communicating to the public about the product is the essence of business.
8. Delegation of work horizontally and vertically.
9. Transacting business: through internal and external communication.
10. Building positive public relations

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 SECTION 2
ORAL PRESENTATION
Oral presentation involves delivery of pre-prepared information to an individual or group in
order to convey information, sell products, defend an idea or for other formal discussion. Oral
presentations are also used to carry out debates, campaigns, preach religious and other gospel.
ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE PRESENTATIONS
3 Key Steps
1. Presentation Analysis – Know your subject
• Identify the purpose of your presentation.
• Identify what your subject or topic should/will be.
• Make sure you can show how your topic relates to the audience.
2. Audience Analysis – Know your audience
• Consider the audience demographics (age, gender, culture, etc.)
• Use appropriate examples that can be understood by your audience.
• Use the appropriate vocabulary, but watch using jargon.
• Make sure you can properly pronounce every word in your speech.
3. Practice, Practice, Practice

OUTLINES
Types of Outlines
• Research Notes
• Handwritten
• Very Detailed
• Preparation Outline
• Write out a complete introduction, transitions, and conclusion.
• Typically, in standard outline form.
• Written in complete sentences.
• Delivery/Formal Outline
• Bulleted introduction, transitions, and conclusion.
• Single words or phrases used as reminders, not so you can read directly from it.
• You still want to write out the quotes and anything else you need to be able to say verbatim.
Wording sometimes counts!

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PRESENTATION SKILLS
In carrying out a presentation, the speaker must develop specific skills to facilitate thorough
sending of the right information and assessing feedback and responses through verbal and non-
verbal medium.

KEY CONSIDERATIONS WHILE PREPARING FOR ORAL PRESENTATION

 Know Your Audience
 Prepare the Presentation
 Deliver the Presentation

HOW TO MAKE A GOOD PRESENTATION MORE EFFECTIVE?

The aim is to help to take your presentations from merely ‘good’ to ‘great’ by bringing together
advice from a wide range of professionals by covering a whole range of areas.
1. Show your Passion and Connect with your Audience
It’s hard to be relaxed and be yourself when you’re nervous. But great presenters say that the
most important thing is to connect with your audience, and the best way to do that is to let your
passion for the subject shine through. Be honest with the audience about what is important to you
and why it matters. Be enthusiastic and the audience will respond.
2. Focus on your Audience’s Needs
Your presentation needs to be built around what your audience is going to benefit from the
presentation. Always bear in mind what the audience needs and wants to know, not what you can
tell them. While delivering the presentation, remain focused on audience’s response, and react to
that. Make it easy for your audience to understand and respond.
3. Keep it Simple: Concentrate on your Core Message
When planning the presentation, keep in mind the question: What is the key message (or three
key points) for my audience to take away? You should be able to communicate that key message
very briefly. The important thing is to keep your core message focused and brief. And if what
you are planning to say doesn’t contribute to that core message, don’t say it.
4. Smile and Make Eye Contact with your Audience
This sounds very easy, but a surprisingly large number of presenters fail to do it. If you smile and
make eye contact, you are building rapport, which helps the audience to connect with you and
your subject. It also helps you to feel less nervous, because you are talking to individuals, not to
a great mass of unknown people. To help you with this, make sure that you don’t turn down all

pg. 7
the lights so that only the slide screen is visible. Your audience needs to see you as well as your
slides.
5. Start Strongly
The beginning of your presentation is crucial. You need to grab your audience’s attention and
hold it. They will give you a few minutes’ grace in which to entertain them, before they start to
switch off if you’re dull. So don’t waste that on explaining who you are. Start by entertaining
them. Try a story or use an attention grabber.
6. Remember the 10-20-30 Rule for Slideshows
This is a tip from Guy Kawasaki of Apple. He suggests that slideshows should:
 Contain no more than 10 slides;
 Last no more than 20 minutes; and
 Use a font size of no less than 30 point.
This last point stops you trying to put too much information on any one slide. This whole
approach avoids the dreaded ‘Death by PowerPoint’. As a general rule, slides should be the
sideshow to you, the presenter. A good set of slides should be no use without the presenter, and
they should definitely contain less, rather than more, information, expressed simply. If you need
to provide more information, create additional information literature and distribute after your
presentation.
7. Tell Stories
Human beings are programmed to respond to stories. Stories help us to pay attention, and also to
remember things. If you can use stories in your presentation, your audience is more likely to
engage and to remember your points afterwards. It is a good idea to start with a story, but there is
a wider point too: you need your presentation to act like a story. Think about what story you are
trying to tell your audience, and create your presentation to tell it. Ensure the story is relevant
and speaks to the content of information you are sending.
8. Use your Voice Effectively
The spoken word is actually a pretty inefficient means of communication, because it uses only
one of your audience’s five senses. That’s why presenters tend to use visual aids, too. But you
can help to make the spoken word better by using your voice effectively. Varying the speed with
which you talk, and emphasizing changes in pitch and tone all help to make your voice more
interesting and hold your audience’s attention.

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9. Gesticulation: Use your Body Too
It has been estimated that more than three quarters of communication is non-verbal. That means
that as well as your tone of voice, your body language is crucial to getting your message across.
Make sure that you are giving the right messages: avoid crossed arms, hands held behind your
back or in your pockets, and pacing the stage. Make your gestures open and confident, and move
naturally around the stage, and among the audience too, if possible.
10. Relax, Breathe and Enjoy
If you find presenting difficult, it can be hard to be calm and relaxed about doing it. One option
is to start by concentrating on your breathing. Slow it down, and make sure that you’re breathing
fully. Make sure that you continue to pause for breath occasionally during your presentation too.
If you can bring yourself to relax, you will almost certainly present better. If you can actually
start to enjoy yourself, your audience will respond to that, and engage better. Your presentations
will improve exponentially, and so will your confidence. It’s well worth a try

pg. 9
SECTION 3
QUESTIONING AND INTERROGATION SKILLS
These special skill sets are used for extraction of relevant and detailed information from
respondents. Interrogation is defined as the process of obtaining information by asking
appropriate and relevant questions. Sometimes, interrogation requires the use of direct or indirect
questions. It may be done in an aggressive manner as in police interrogation but the ultimate
objective is to obtain information.
DEFINING QUESTIONS: INTERROGATIVES, KNOWLEDGE AND INTERACTION
‘What is it that we do when we ask questions?’
The answer to this depends on the framework and perspective used to conceptualise and analyse
questions. While questioning appears to be a straightforward feature of communication, further
analysis reveals many complexities. Hence, ‘“questioning” is … not as simple as it first appears’.
Various attempts have been made to categorise not only question types and functions but also the
different levels on which questions may be identified and analysed. For example, three distinct
linguistic levels: form (the literal level; including meanings of the words and grammatical
structures used), content (semantic level, relating to the type of information that is being sought),
and intent (pragmatic level; what the speaker intends the question to mean or achieve). Questions
have typically been defined from one of three main perspectives.
Syntactically, questions are interrogative in form, that is, sentences in which the subject and first
verb are inverted (e.g. ‘Do you want to go?’), or which begin with a question-word (e.g. ‘Why do
you want to go?’), or which end with a question tag (e.g. ‘You do want to go, don’t you?’).
Semantically, they express a desire for further information or response from the listener. The
type and quantity of information expected or sought by the speaker is reflected in the type of
question used (see Types of questions below).
Finally, questions may be defined as a discourse category, whereby they are identified by their
purpose and function, including information elicitation, directive to perform an action, or
intention to produce a response.
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Closed and open questions
A crucial distinction concerns the extent to which questions restrict the scope of response.
Closed questions seek specific, and often pre-determined, types of information. They ‘usually

pg. 10
have a correct answer, or can be answered with a short response selected from a limited number
of possible options’. Three main types have been identified
 Yes–no questions. These are sometimes called polar questions and, as the name suggests,
they can be answered with a simple affirmation or negative. Examples: ‘Are you enjoying
your course of study?’; ‘Was the door closed when you left?’ Polar questions are
ubiquitous across casual and institutional communication and are part of the basic
organisation of interaction
 Selection questions. Sometimes known as alternative questions, these require the
respondent to pick a response from one of two or more options, which are built into the
question itself. Examples: ‘Did she seem happy or sad when you saw her?’, ‘Do you like
classical, rock or dance music?’.
 Identification questions. These require the respondent to provide a specific piece of
information, usually in response to a question-word, such as ‘what’, ‘where’, ‘which’,
‘when’, or ‘who’. Examples: ‘Where were you born?’, ‘What is the capital of France?’,
‘Who was the first person you saw?’.
In contrast to closed questions, open questions place fewer restrictions on the addressee and may
be answered in a number of possible ways. Hence, the response is left open and the respondent is
given a higher degree of freedom in choosing their answer. Like identification questions, open
questions are often framed with question-words (including ‘how’), but here the structure and
content of the question aims for elaboration rather than restriction of response. Examples of these
would be: ‘What were your first impressions of London?’, ‘How did it make you feel when he
said that?’, ‘What kind of solutions might we think of to address world poverty?’.
Other forms of open questions can include declaratives (e.g. ‘That must have an exciting time for
you, with lots of new experiences?’) or direct requests and invitations to respond e.g.‘Tell me
how you think that you could contribute to the organization’.

APPLICATION OF CLOSED AND OPEN QUESTIONS

Closed questions are useful
for opening and subsequently controlling interaction,
for obtaining specific information, and
for testing knowledge or learning.

pg. 11
in screening or initial assessments by many professionals.
Open questions are generally more useful
for exploring issues in-depth,
for eliciting information not previously known to the questioner,
for expressing interest and concern, and
for empowering the addressee
Closed questions require respondents to merely ‘fill in’ required information, while open
questions invite them to ‘fill out’ the information that they choose to provide. It may be
concluded, then, that open and closed questions have specific benefits and drawbacks relevant to
different interpersonal goals and contexts.
The structural format alone does not determine the function of the question, but it provides a
useful basis from which to select the most strategically and interactionally effective question
format. Open and closed questions may also be sequenced in specific ways to achieve desired
outcomes. These can include working from general ideas to specific facts and examples (open to
closed sequence); developing in-depth perspectives on initial factual information (closed to open
sequence); or disorienting an addressee by erratic sequencing of open and closed formats.

QUESTIONS AND POWER

Questions have been widely associated with power and control in interpersonal interactions.
Different types and sequences of questions may be used to exercise control over both content and
structure/organization. These interactional controls allow the questioner to exert considerable
influence on the addressee(s). Leaders used considerably more questions than non-leaders,
although the type and purpose of their questions varied with leadership style (e.g. directive vs.
collaborative). Questions also influence the attitudes, self-perceptions and behaviours of
addressees and moreover, can affect how the addressee is perceived by others. The manner in
which somebody is questioned influences how he or she is seen by others.
One of the reasons that questions have the potential to control and influence is in the constraining
nature of the Q&A adjacency pair and also in the links between question wording and broader
conversational and cognitive structures. As noted earlier, when a question has been asked, a
response is normally required, and if not forthcoming, its absence needs to be explained or
marked. In this way, questioners can oblige the addressee to produce different types of

pg. 12
information and/or interactional moves, while rendering other topics and responses less relevant.
The constraining power of questions is summarized as follows:
(1) questions set agendas (determine what is relevant or worthy of discussion);
(2) questions embody presuppositions (e.g. about the topic, participants);
(3) questions convey epistemic stance (and therefore authority); and
(4) questions ‘prefer’ certain types of response.
Wording and framing are important here.
Different forms of wording can also produce different types of leading question, which prime
addressees to perceive and respond in particular ways. For example, when asked to estimate the
same individual’s height, respondents who were asked ‘How tall was the basketball player?’
guessed about 79 inches, while those who were asked ‘How short was the basketball player?’
guessed about 69 inches. This is one in a tradition of many studies examining the effects of
wording/framing on perception and response, and again, it illustrates the way in which
questioners can strongly influence the answers they receive. Leading questions can have
particularly distorting effects on the responses of children and therefore, great care should be
taken in designing and implementing questions to elicit information from younger respondents.
Questions may also be overtly challenging or face-threatening.
In addition, all questions contain presuppositions, expressed through their wording, and these
may position the addressee in a more or less favourable light. Compare ‘What do you think you
could do to lose weight?’ to ‘Why are you not able to lose weight?’, where the latter contains
presuppositions about the addressee’s previous actions, which must either be tacitly accepted or
explicitly challenged in the reply.
In everyday conversation, questions may lead to disaffiliation as well as affiliation depending on
their framing and their placement in conversational sequences. Moreover, some questions are
framed in a manner that is overtly accusatory, with the aim of directly challenging the
addressee(s). This type of adversarial and critical questioning is normative in a number of
professional contexts, including political news interviews and parliamentary discourse such as
Prime Minister’s Question Time in the UK
The potential of questions to exert power and control is also evident in formal allocations of
questioning rights and obligations. In most settings, and particularly in formal, institutional

pg. 13
contexts, those of higher status have greater rights to ask questions, while those of lower status
are obliged to provide answers.
In courtrooms, which are arguably the most explicitly ordered of these contexts, speaking turns
are strictly pre-allocated and addressees are not only required to answer questions but are also
prevented from asking questions of their own, or indeed from making any contribution that is not
a direct response to a question. Such highly ordered, asymmetrical use of questions is also
present, in mitigated form, in many institutional settings, where it is accepted that individuals of
higher status (e.g. managers) hold non-reciprocal rights to question others.
Furthermore, and as noted earlier, in courtrooms and classrooms, the questioner (lawyer or
teacher) already knows the answers to the questions that he or she asks.
In a globalised context, with increased access to information by all parties, there is an ongoing
democratisation of workplaces and a heightened emphasis on customer care. This leads to a
‘conversationalisation’ of institutional discourse and places increased demands on workers to use
questions in customer-oriented ways. Even before modern transformations of the workplace,
there have also been exceptions to the institutional questioning power model. In the helping
professions, for example, counsellors typically attempt to minimise distance between themselves
and their clients and to cultivate a more egalitarian relationship.
Questioning practice in counselling tries to avoid imposing assumptions about a given topic or
issue, but rather aims to develop the client’s own perspectives and contributions, with some
theorists advocating that counsellors should avoid asking questions completely in order not to be
seen as the controller of the interaction chair, chairperson. In addition to these points, and as
highlighted in the previous section, questions are, by nature, multifunctional and context-
dependent. Therefore, while the links with institutional power are clearly still manifest, these
should not be viewed as inevitable or uniform across contexts.

pg. 14
 SECTION 4
APPLICATION LETTER WRITING
It is imperative that every job seeker is able to put up a written application in addition to a
professionally written resume or curriculum vitae. A well drafted CV is a way to reach out to
your employer. A well-written application letter is a prerequisite for an interview invitation.
When applying for a job, a cover letter acts as a formal introduction between you and the
potential employer you are addressing. Most of the time, it helps you obtain an edge over other
job applicants by providing your future employer with a reason to believe you are better than the
rest.
In Nigeria, the labour force faces stiff competition in the job market, particularly when positions
are advertised due to the influx of thousands of graduates each year. You find thousands of
applicants showing interest. An application letter can make or break your chances of being hired,
so make it stand out. Prepare a resume/CV and a piece of writing that outlines your strongest
selling points and professional achievements, you should include it with the application.

Table of contents
Below is a summary of the major items that must be contained in a well written job application
letter.
 Make an Outline
 Create a Draft
 Salutations
 Write Your Letter
 Work on Your Words
 Customise your Application
 Paint a Picture of Yourself
 Include Your Contact Info
 Close the Letter
 Conclusion

FORMAT
 Company’s address
 Salutation
 Introductory paragraph: “Strong leadership; excellent customer service.”
 Reasons for applying “How your experience matches their requirements”
 Your skills and what you can bring to the table.
 Summarize, thank
 Close

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