FILIPINO PERSONALITY

AND
SOCIAL WORK
 FILIPINO PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL WORK
� Learn the interplay of human behavior and the environment
from a developmental and ecosystem perspective
� Apply human behavior and personality development concepts
and theories in understanding the Filipino personality- its
uniqueness, similarities to other cultures and adaptation to
changing times
� Understand the essence of behavioral/social science theories
� To critically select and use appropriate human behavior and
social environment theory in the assessment of client’s situation
and in intervention planning
� Be able explain the causes and effects of social problems on
personal and collective well-being
Human Behavior and Social Environment
FOCUSED ON

MAN
SOCIETY

Biopsychosocial/Spiritual Social, cultural, political and

economic forces

Continuous desire to Condition of equilibrium between

live productive, needs and demands imposed
satisfying life upon him by social environment.
MUST BE ESTABLISHED

Inability to satisfy Harsh and difficult social

needs because of: environment

Inability to cope with Personal Inadequacies

problems of living

Impairment of social
functioning 🡪 DEVIATION
SOCIAL WORK & BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE
�Human behavior can be explained adequately by
understanding the biological, physical,
psychological and social factors which influence
such behavior. These forces interact and affect
each other, thus we say that the individual is a
“biopsychosocial” being

(Mendoza,
2008)
 Basic Concepts of Personality
PERSONALITY
⮚ Origin –”persona”-theatrical masks –
Romans in Greek & Latin drama
▪ Totality of individual psychic qualities that
includes temperament, traits, one’s mode of
reaction & character.
▪ Stable & enduring organization of a person’s character,
temperament, intellect, physique which determines his/her
unique adjustment to his/her environment
▪ Unique constellation of consistent behavioral traits.
▪ A relatively permanent pattern of traits, dispositions or
characteristics that give some degree of consistency t a
person's behavior (Feist & Feist , 2010)
▪ TRAITS – a relatively permanent disposition of an
individual, which is inferred from behavior
✔ Maybe unique, common to some group or shared
by entire specie, but their pattern is different from
each individual
▪ CHARACTER – relatively permanent acquired qualities
through which people relate themselves to others and
to the world, (Fromm)
✔ Unique qualitied of an individual that include
attributes such as temperament, physique and
intelligence

(Feist & Feist, 2010)

What is Theory? – it is a set of related assumptions that allows
scientist to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable
hypotheses.

❑ Assumption - component of a theory that are not proven facts

in the sense that their validity has been absolutely established.
✔ Result of which continue to build and reshape the original
theory
❑ It is a set of assumptions
✔ A single assumption could not serve to integrate several
observations, a requirement of an adequate theory
❑ It is a set of related assumptions
✔ Isolated assumption can neither generate meaningful
hypotheses nor posses internal consistency- two criteria of a
useful theory
❑Social Worker uses theory to help organize and make
sense of the situations we encounter.
❖Reid and Smith (1989, p 45) suggest:
Scratch any social worker and you will find a
theoretician. Her own theoretical perspectives about
people and practice may be informed by theories in print
( or formal theories) but are put together in her own way
with many modifications and additions growing out of
her own professional and personal experience.
❑ Thus, theory gives us a framework for interpreting
person/ environment transactions and planning
intervention.
 Personality Theories
TYPE AUTHOR Theory
Psychoanalytic Sigmund Freud (1856- Psychodynamic/ Psychoanalytic Theory
Approach 1939)
Social Psychological Carl Jung (1875-1961) Analytical Psychology
Approach
Alfred Adler (1870- 1937) Individual Psychology
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) Psychosocial Theory of Development
(Ego Psychology)
Karen Horney Psychoanalytic Social Theory/
Social Psychoanalysis
Harry Stack Sullivan Interpersonal theory
Erich Fromm Humanistic Psychoanalysis
Biological Approach Hans Eysenck Trait theory
(Trait)
Humanistic Approach Carl Rogers Person-Centered Theory
Abraham Maslow Motivation Theory
Behavioral/Social B.F. Skinner Trait Theory
Learning Approach Albert Bandura Social Learning Theory
John Watson
Cognitive & Moral Jean Piaget Cognitive Theory
Approach Lawrence Kohlberg Moral Development Theory
Theories and Approaches to Personality

1. Psychoanalytic– argue that people’s unconscious

minds are largely responsible for important
differences in their behavior styles.
2. Trait– identifies where the person might lie along a
continuum of various personality characteristics. It
viewed personality as the result of internal
characteristics that are genetically based.
3. Biological– point to inherited predispositions and
physiological processes to explain individual
differences in personality
4. Humanistic– identifies personal responsibility and feelings of
self-acceptance as the key causes of differences in
personality. theories emphasize the importance of free will
and individual experience in the development of personality.
5. Behavioral/Social Learning– explains consistent behavior
patterns as the result of conditioning and expectations.
Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of
interaction between the individual and the environment.
Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable
behaviors, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and
feelings into account.
6. Cognitive– looks at differences in the way people process
information to explain differences in behavior.
 Concept of Human Nature

✔ Conscious vs. Unconscious

Determinants
✔ Biological vs. Social Factors
✔ Determinism vs. Free Choice
✔ Pessimism vs. Optimism
✔ Causality (prior experience) vs.
Teleology (aims and aspirations)
✔ Uniqueness vs. Similarities
Sigmund Freud: Psychodynamic Theory

❖ the father of psychoanalysis

❖ a physiologist, medical
doctor, psychologist and
influential thinker
❖ born in Moravia (now Czech
Republic ) but when he was
four years old his family
moved to Vienna where he
was to live and work until the
last years of his life.
(1856-1939)
http://www.iep.utm.edu/freu
d/#H1
Psychodynamic Theory Key Concepts:

� Concerned primarily with internal

psychological processes
� Early childhood experiences is significant
� Unconscious motivation
� Presence of ego (rationality) and superego
(morality)
� Use of defense mechanism
 Psychodynamic Theory

� Refers to a wide group of theories that emphasize

the overriding influence of instinctive drive and
forces, and the importance of developmental
experiences in shaping personality
� Dynamic - The interplay of the forces in the mind,
forces acting in unison or in opposition and
finding expression in a form representing a
compromise of the participating elements.
▪ What makes Freud theory interesting and
controversial?
✔ Twin cornerstone of psychoanalysis: sex and
aggression
✔ Theory spread beyond Vienna through
ardent followers, romanticizing him as nearly
mythological and lonely hero
✔ His command of language enabled him to
present his theories in stimulating and
exciting manner
▪ Freud’s understanding of human personality was
based on:
⮚ his experience with patients,
⮚ his analysis of his own dreams and
⮚ his vast readings in the various sciences and
humanities
� According to him, theory followed
observation, and his concept of personality
underwent constant revision during the last 50
years of his life
� Freud insist that psychoanalysis could not be
subjected to eclecticism and disciples who
deviated from his basic idea found
themselves personally and professionally
ostracized by Freud
Freud’s Biography and His Personality
Theory
▪ First-born among his parents, although his father
has two grown sons from previous marriage, and
had seven other siblings
▪ Did not have close relationship with any of his
younger siblings
▪ He was his mother’s favorite, and enjoyed a
warm, indulgent relationship with his mother
▪ Lead him to observe that mother/son
relationship was the most perfect, the most free
from ambivalence of all human relationships
▪ The birth of his younger brother
Julius made a significant impact
in his psychic development
❖ He was filled with hostility
and harbored an
unconscious wish for his
brother’s death
▪ When Julius died at 6 months of
age, Freud was left with feelings
of guilt at having caused his
death

▪ When he reached middle aged, he began to understand

that his wish did not actually caused his brother’s death and
that children often have a death wish for a younger sibling

▪ This discovery purged him of the guilt he carried into

adulthood and by his own analysis, contributed in his later
psychic development
▪ He was drawn into medicine for his intense
curiosity about human nature
▪ Entered Vienna Medical School, with no intention
to practice medicine but to teach and do
research in physiology
▪ He worked in Vienna General Hospital and
became familiar with medicine, psychiatry and
nervous diseases
▪ Received a traveling grant from University of
Vienna and studied in Paris under French
neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot, from whom he
learned the hypnotic technique for treating
hysteria
❖ HYSTERIA - a disorder typically characterized
by paralysis or improper functioning of a
certain part of the body, and through
hypnosis
▪ Freud was convinced of psychogenic and sexual
origin of hysterical symptoms.
▪ He developed a close professional and personal
friendship with Josef Breuer, well known Viennese
physician who taught him about catharsis
❖ Catharsis – the process of removing hysterical
symptoms through “talking them out”.
▪ Freud, while using catharsis discovered free
association technique, which he soon replaced
hypnosis as his principal therapeutic technique
❖ Free Association Technique – therapist instructs
the patient verbalize every thought that comes
to mind, no matter how irrelevant or repugnant
it may appear
✔ Considered as the pioneer forms of
psychodynamic treatment, later became
known as psychoanalysis
 PSYCHOANALYSIS
Key factors:
▪ The unconscious can affect our
behavior.
▪ Human personality & abnormality can
develop from childhood.
▪ You can treat neurotic patients through
talking
▪ ideas were based on dream
interpretation
 LEVELS OF MENTAL LIFE
❖ Man are primarily motivated by drives
of which they have little or no
awareness
Divided into two levels: unconscious and
conscious
▪ Unconscious – contains all the drives,
urges or instincts that are beyond
awareness but nevertheless motivate
most of our words, feelings and actions.
❖ Preconscious –contains all the elements that are
not conscious but come become conscious either
quite readily or with some difficulty
❑ Conscious- mental elements in awareness in any given
point in time, the only level of mental life directly
available to us
 PERSONALITY STRUCTURE

⮚ Consists of 3 elements: the Id, Ego and Superego

PERSONALITY STRUCTURE – Personality is consists of 3
elements: the Id, Ego and Superego

Processes or Systems of the Mind:

❑ ID
✔ origin of personality, most basic, instinctual- beyond
conscious awareness
✔ satisfaction of, internal and basic drive (hunger, thirst,
drive for sex)
✔ serves the pleasure principle (avoid pain & seek
pleasure feelings)
✔demands immediate satisfaction- powered by libido
❖ Libido (energy that permit life instinct to work; the
motive force of sexual life; the driving force behind
behavior)
❑ID- subjective/directed – in its wants and
demands
❖ Operates on 2 processes: reflex and primary
process
✔ Primary process works to resolve tension
created by the pleasure principle.
✔ The primary process acts as the id's
mechanism for discharging the tension
created by the pleasure principle.
✔ Rather than act on dangerous or
unacceptable urges, the id forms a mental
image of a desired object to substitute for an
urge in order to diffuse tension and anxiety.
✔ This image can take the form of a dream,
hallucination, fantasy, or delusion.
❖ For example: Hungry = Form mental image
of pizza or a sandwich.
❖ The experience of this mental image
through the primary process is known as wish
fulfillment.
✔ The primary process has no way to distinguish
between the fantasy image and reality, it can
be used to temporarily reduce tension, such
that it is only effective in the short-term.
 2 Basic Categories of Instincts
1) Eros (Life Instinct)- for survival; the energy for preserving
oneself and one’s species (libido)
⮚sexual instincts, the life instincts are those which deal
with basic survival, pleasure, and reproduction
⮚Also include thirst, hunger, and pain avoidance
2) Thanatos (death Instinct)- Freud noted that people
who experience traumatic event would often reenact
that experience; people hold an unconscious desire to
die
� aggression, violence, murder, suicide
� “the goal of all life is death.”
� aim of returning living things to their original lifeless
state;
❑ Ego
✔ objective, directed
✔ Manager of personality –
to cope with conflicting
demands of id, superego
& society
✔ works to satisfy id’s needs
in a socially acceptable
manner.

▪ Operates according to:

✔ reality principle (delay gratification of id demands;
allows satisfaction without harmful consequences)
✔ secondary process (thinking, planning, decision
making, etc.
 ❑Superego
✔ guided by the moralistic and idealistic principles
✔ Unrealistic in its demand for perfection
✔ internal representation of society’s standards & values taught
by parents to child –reinforcement or punishment.

Two Subsystems of Superego

1) Conscience- results from the experiences w/ punishments for
improper behavior; tells what we shouldn’t do;
❖ Guilt- function of conscience- guilt results when ego acts or
intends to act contrary to moral standard of superego.
2) Ego-ideal -results from experiences with rewards for proper
behavior; tells us what we should do;
❖ Inferiority feelings stems from ego- ideal
❖ Feelings of inferiority arise when ego is unable to meet
superego’s standard of perfection.
 Three types of Anxiety

1) Reality anxiety - caused by real, objective

sources of danger in the environment (ex.)
2) Moral anxiety – result from guilt/shame-fail
to live up to dictates of superego
3) Neurotic anxiety- fear that instinctual
impulses (id) overpowers ego control/gets
into trouble
 Types of Anxiety

⮚ Ego reaction to threatening surges of its instincts

is anxiety
❖ Anxiety- a state of extremely unpleasant
emotional discomfort
⮚ To ward off anxiety ego utilizes: defense
mechanism
⮚ Defense mechanisms - psychological strategies
(mostly unconscious ) for coping with or
regaining control over threatening urges.
⮚ According to Freud, our most overwhelming
experience of anxiety - birth trauma where
feeling of helplessness following birth - the basis
of all subsequent feelings of anxiety.
 Defense Mechanisms
� Functions: protect ego & minimize anxiety &
distress
� Largely unconscious -help people achieve
some balance between instinctual drives -
demands of reality.
� Assist in coping with reality, in deferring
gratification & in meeting needs in socially
acceptable ways.
� Tend to distort or deny reality & operate
unconsciously- person not aware of what is
taking place- often & self-defeating
behaviors.
 Most Common Types of Defense Mechanisms
❑ Denial – refusal to face unpleasant aspects or reality; refusal to perceive
anxiety-provoking stimuli.
� a person told that their spouse was killed in a motor vehicle accident acts
as if he/ or she is still alive (not consciously lying)
❑ Rationalization – justifying one’s failure with socially acceptable reasons
instead of the real reason
❑ Reaction Formation - Over-compensation for fear of the opposite. Two
conflicting parts of self -- one is strengthened while the other is repressed.
� Transforming anxiety producing thoughts into their opposites in
consciousness
� a person will attempt to hide his true feelings or desires by
demonstrating or adopting the exact opposite feelings
❖ An overly nice and agreeable person may have a lot of repressed hostility
and rage of which they are completely unaware on a conscious level
� A common pattern in Reaction Formation is where the person uses
‘excessive behavior
❑ Regression - involves a reversion to immature patterns of
behavior.
� Way of alleviating anxiety by withdrawing into behaviors that
have in earlier years.
� a person abandons age-appropriate coping strategies in favor of
earlier, more childlike patterns of behavior. This regression is a
form of retreat, bringing back a time when the person feels safe
and taken care of.
❖ After the divorce of his parents, a 10-year-old begins wetting
the bed.
❖ An adult suffering from a mental breakdown may begin to rock
back and forth in the fetal position.
❑ Repression- process where a threatening thought, memory,
emotion or event are excluded from consciousness.
� Repression involves keeping distressing thoughts and feelings
buried in the unconscious.
❑ Projection - Attributing own characteristics or
unacceptable thoughts feeling (often persecutory) unto
others.
❖ e.g. Someone with adulterous feelings might accuse
their partner of infidelity
❑Introjection (or identification)
� internalization of the characteristics of a loved or
feared individual in order to reduce anxiety, increase
closeness with that individual.
� bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real
alliance with some person or group.
❑ Displacement - involves diverting emotional feelings (usually
anger) from their original source to a substitute target.
� It is the expression of some feelings against and object that has
not provoked it. It is used when the real object is perceived as
being too threatening to confront directly
❑ Sublimation (type of displacement)
� Modification of unacceptable urges into acceptable ones by
changing the object or vehicle of expression.
� Psychic energies are channeled so that it results to valuable/
beneficial contribution to society.
❑ Fixation– when the prospect of making the next step becomes
too anxiety provoking, resorts to remain at the present, more
comfortable physiological stage
� Oral fixation: derives pleasure from eating, smoking talking
� Anal fixation: obsessed with neatness and orderliness
I was accused by my professor cheating at examination . At
Regression
first, I cried a great deal and locked myself in my room, and I
refused to eat. I told several of my friends that my professor
Projection
was trying to put me down. Later, I began to feel that it was
not entirely my fault because my professorRationalization
rarely teaches at
all. Frustrated, I startedDisplacement
to kick and throw my things. Fearing I
will have a failing grade, I went to outings Denial
and socialized and
forget about the incident. It's funny – at one point I couldn't
Repression-
even remember I have a problem! But eventually I began to
look at the situation more objectively. I realized that I was not
really intoRationalization
academics and that I am destined to be an artist,
Sublimation
so it is better to concentrate in my painting and photography.
 Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

� every child goes through a

sequence of developmental
stages ;
� the child’s experiences during
these stages determine adult
personality characteristics.

� that every person’s personality is established by the age of FIVE

(5)
� In order to make smooth transition from one stage to the next,
the child must not be overgratified or undergratified because it
can lead to either fixation or regression.
 Stages of Psychosexual Development
STAGES APPROX. EROTIC FOCUS KEY TASKS
AGES AND EXPERIENCES
Oral 0–1 Mouth (sucking, biting) Weaning (from breast or
Fixation-oral receptive & oral bottle)
aggressive types
Anal 1–3 Anus Toilet training
(expelling or retaining feces)
Fixation- anal retentive & anal
expulsive types

Phallic 3–6 Genitals (masturbating) Identifying with adult role

Fixation- Oedipus complex(male) models; coping with oedipal
Electra complex (female) crisis

Latency 6 – 12 None Expanding social contacts

(Sexually repressed)
Genital Puberty Genitals Establishing intimate
onward (being sexually intimate) relationships; contributing to
Fixation- immaturity, sexual society through working
deviation & neurosis
❑although he is the best known personality theorist,
many of his followers and associates disagreed with him,
developed their own theories or modified and expanded on his
original theory.
Carl Jung and Alfred Adler
⮚ disagreed with him regarding the role of the libido or sexual
motivation as the root of all human conflicts and anxieties.
❖ Jung believed that human beings are guided, as much as aims
and aspirations, as by sexual urges.
❖ Adler’s tenet is that human beings have an innate social interest
and a tendency to strive for superiority.
 CARL JUNG: ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY
▪ Carl Gustav Jung (born in Switzerland1875-1961), Swiss
psychologist and psychiatrist, founded analytic psychology, in
some aspects a response to Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis.
▪ Carl Jung was Freud's handpicked successor in the field of
psychodynamic theory.
FREUD JUNG
▪ He differed ▪ Believed libido motivated ▪ Believed pure energy “horme”
from Freud on behavior motivates us
several ▪ Felt neurotics suffered ▪ Felt neurotics were processing the
from damaged reality world correctly but were involved
fundamental in myth-making, analogy
issues: producing activities

▪ Believed neurosis was a ▪ Believed neurosis was a

personal disorder transpersonal, universal
experience
▪ Focused on brain and ▪ Focused on man’s spirit
body
 Analytical Psychology
Distinctive Feature:
▪ Human Behavior - Individual and racial history
(causality- prior experience)
▪ Aims and aspiration (teleology)
▪ Constant search for wholeness and completion
▪ Yearning for rebirth

▪ Individual and racial history (causality)

o Jung did not discount causality (prior experiences) to explain adult
personality, he finds that it does not give a complete picture of human
behavior and motivation.
o He added Teleology (Aims and aspiration) which means that human
behavior has a purpose; our behavior tends towards the future as
much as it is pushed by the past.
▪ To truly understand a person, one must understand his/her aims and
aspirations; his yearnings, and constant search for wholeness and
completion.
Individual and Racial History (Causality)
� Jung did not discount causality (prior experiences) to
explain adult personality, he finds that it does not give
a complete picture of human behavior and motivation.
� He added teleology (aims and aspiration) which means
that human behavior has a purpose; our behavior
tends towards the future as much as it is pushed by the
past.
❖ To truly understand a person, one must understand
his/her aims and aspirations; his yearnings, and
constant search for wholeness and completion.
Structure of Personality
❑ Ego
❑ Personal Unconscious
▪ Complexes
❑ Collective Unconscious
▪ Archetypes
▪ Persona
▪ Anima/Animus
▪ Shadow
❑ Attitudes
▪ Introversion
▪ Extroversion
❑ Functions
▪ Thinking
▪ Feeling
▪ Sensing
▪ Intuiting
❑ Self
 Structure of Personality
❖ EGO
✔ the center of the field of consciousness,
✔ the part of the psyche where our conscious awareness resides,
our sense of identity and existence
✔ HQ concerned with thinking, feeling, thinking, perceiving,
remembering;
✔ responsible for seeing that functions of daily life are carried
out;
❖ Ego - conscious mind; responsible for feelings of identity and
continuity.

▪ Ego is not equated to Psyche- it’s only a small portion of

personality.
❖ Psyche refers to both conscious and the more substantial
unconscious aspects of personality.
❖ PERSONAL UNCONSCIOUS– arises from
the interaction between the collective
unconscious and one’s personal growth
▪ all information that is present within an
individual's mind, but not readily
available to conscious recall, i.e.
memories that have been forgotten or
repressed.

▪ Contents of personal unconscious are COMPLEXES- emotionally toned

conglomeration of associated ideas
❖Ex. A person's experience with Mother may become grouped around
an emotional core so that the person's mother, or even the word
‘mother” sparks an emotional response that block smooth flow of
thought
⮚ It is largely personal, but may also be derived from humanities
collective experience
❖ Ex. Mother complex comes not only from one’ personal relationship
with mother but also from entire species experience with mother
▪ COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS – the boldest, most mystical and most
controversial concept of Jungian Psychology.
❖ It is the heart of Jung’s theory.
✔ storehouse of latent memories, inherited from ancestral past,
repeated experience over many generations, more or less same
collective unconscious in all cultures.
▪ It is the collective experiences that humans had in their
evolutionary past; the “deposit of ancestral experiences from
untold million of years; it results from common experiences that all
humans have.
▪ These ancestral experiences that are registered in the psyche -
called at various times racial memories, primordial images or more
commonly archetypes.
❖ the most important and influential part of the psyche and its
inherited predisposition seeks outward manifestation.
▪ When the contents of collective unconscious are not recognized in
consciousness, they are manifested in dreams, fantasies, images.
COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS- ARCHETYPES: Persona, Anima,
Animus, Shadow, Self
▪ Archetypes – ancient archaic images derived from collective
unconscious
❖ Similar to complexes, emotionally charged thought from (ideas)
and images, they are generalized and derived from the contents
of the collective unconscious, and have universal meaning.
� Structural component of collective unconscious.
❖ Each archetype can be viewed as an inherited tendency to
respond, emotionally and mythologically to certain kinds of
experience.
▪ Persona - mask person adopts in response to demands of social
convention & tradition; part society expects one to play in life;
public personality.
⮚ Jung believed that all humans are psychologically bisexual
and possesses both masculine and feminine side.
❑ Anima - feminine archetype in man.
❑ Animus - masculine archetype in woman.
❖“no man, is so entirely masculine that he has nothing
feminine in him.”
❑ Shadow – archetype of darkness and repression, which we
do not wish to acknowledge and attempt to hide from
ourselves and others.
✔ either hidden from public by persona or repressed into
personal unconscious.
❖ Jung’s goal was to introduce his patient to the various components of his/her
psyche, & when known, to synthesize them into an interrelated configuration
towards a deeper and more creative person.
� SELF -midpoint of personality that holds other systems together; represents
human striving for unity/ wholeness; the goal people constantly strive for
but rarely reached; the archetype that represent the transcendence of the
opposites.
� According to Jung, life’s primary goal is to achieve self-realization (a
harmonious blending of the many components and forces within the
psyche; never completely achieved (can approximate- through a long
complex journey of self-discovery.
� Self-realization & individuation go hand in hand. Individuation is a lifelong
process.
� Process of psychological maturity-components of psyche recognized & given
expression by the individual.
� Individuation or the tendency toward self-realization is inherent in all living
organisms.
� Jung - is the first to describe introvert (inner directed) and
extravert (outer-directed) personality types.
� 2 major Attitudes/Orientation Of Personality.
▪ Introversion - internal world of one’s thoughts, feelings and experiences.
▪ Extraversion - external world of people and thing
� The Fundamental Psychological Functions : Thinking, Sensing, Feeling,
Intuiting
1. THINKING refers to the faculty of rational analysis; of
understanding and responding to things through the
intellect, the "head" so to speak. Thinking means
connecting ideas in order to arrive at a general
understanding. The Thinking-type often appears detached
and unemotional. The Scientist and the Philosopher are
examples of the "thinking type", which is found more
commonly in men.
� 2. FEELING is the interpretation of things at a value- level, a
"heart"-level rather than a "head"-level. Feeling evaluates, it
accepts or rejects an idea on the basis of whether it is pleasant
or unpleasant. According to Jung this is the emotional
personality type, and occurs more frequently in women.
� 3. SENSATION means conscious perception through the sense-
organs. The Sensation personality-type relates to physical
stimulii. But there is a difference according to whether the
person is an introvert or an extrovert.
� 4. INTUITION is like sensation in that it is an experience which is
immediately given to consciousness rather than arising through
mental activity (e.g. thinking or feeling). But it differs in that it
has no physical cause. It constitutes an intuition or hunch, a
"gut"-level feeling, or an "ESP" experience.
� It is the source of inspiration, creativity, novel ideas,
etc. According to Jung, the Intuitive type jumps from image, is
interested in a while, but soon loses interest
❑ Stages of Personality
▪ Childhood - Birth to Adolescence
▪ Young Adulthood - Adolescence-about age 40
▪ Middle Age - 40 to later years of life
� Radical transformation/new interests/more cultural, less
biological; youthful interests & pursuit ,lose
values/wisdom & sagacity vs. physical and mental vigor
� Values more sublimated to social, religious, civic/more
spiritual
Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology

� Austrian doctor and therapist, born in

1870, died in 1937
� Sickly child, suffered rickets, which
prevented him from walking until the
age of four, considered childhood as an
unhappy experience.

� Resented an older brother, Mother’s favorite.

� Pursued medicine at the University of Vienna.
� 902 – First Association with Freud
 ADLER'S THEORY VS. FREUD’S
FREUD ADLER
▪ Man is motivated by Sex ▪ Man is motivated by social
and Aggression. influences & striving for
superiority.

▪ People have no choice in ▪ People are largely responsible

shaping their personality. for who they are.

▪ Present behavior is ▪ Present behavior is shaped by

caused by the past. the future.

▪ Emphasis on the ▪ People are usually aware of

unconscious. what they are doing and why.
� Adler attempts to understand the experiences and behavior of
each person as an organized entity.
� viewed the mind as an integrated whole working to attain the
future goal of man.
� Actions are guided by a person’s fundamental attitudes towards
life.
� assumes that man is motivated primarily by social motives.
� Stressed social context of Personality development. Humans are
social creatures by nature not by habits.
� Greatest contribution: social determinants of behavior. First to
focus attention on the importance of birth order as factor
governing personality
� Adler contended that each child is treated differently within a
family depending on the child’s birth order;
� this deferential treatment influences the child's worldview and
thus his choice of a life’s goal and lifestyle.
� His crowning achievement as a personality theories is the concept
of creative Self. All other concepts are subordinated to it.
� Adler’s Basic Concepts and Principles:
▪ Striving for superiority
▪ The struggle for perfections
▪ Feelings of Inferiority and striving for superiority
▪ Style of life and the creative self
▪ Parental influence of early childhood
▪ Birth order
▪ Development of a Constructive & Destructive
lifestyle
❑ Striving for Superiority - the foremost source of human
motivation
� Superiority - striving for perfect completion not for individual
superiority but for the good of others-better society.
� Superiority vs. superiority complex
❖ How do this striving for superiority come into being in a
person?
� Inferiority feelings + compensation
� In general feelings of inferiority arise from a sense of
incompletion or imperfection in any sphere of life.
� a child dependent on adults for survival-feeling weak
stimulates child to seek power to overcome inferiority.
❖ Superiority Complex- overcompensation for feelings of
inferiority, exaggerated opinion of one’s abilities and
accomplishments
Striving for Success or Superiority
� Single drive of motivation
� Physical deficiencies activate feelings of
inferiority.
� Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive
for personal superiority. (Superiority)
� Psychologically healthy individuals seek
success for all humanity. (Success)
� Guided by a Final Goal
� Acts of Compensation
❑ Organ Inferiority and Compensation
� Physical deficiency
� Puts forth the idea that people are especially vulnerable
to organ deficiencies, inhibiting them from normal
functioning and must be dealt with.
� Compensation means the effort to overcome
marginalized/real inferiority by developing one’s abilities.
� Growth results from compensation: attempts to overcome
inferior feelings
� Since the body acts as an integrated unit, a person can
compensate for a weakness. Some persons may
overcompensate by converting a weakness into strength.
� Organ Dialect- organ jargon and organ language -refers
to somatic signs and symptoms that express (though
veiled) an individual's attitudes and opinions.
❑ Fictional Goals and Lifestyles
� People strive for superiority or success to compensate for the
feelings of inferiority, but the manner in which they strive is not
shaped by reality but by their subjective perception of reality,
i.e. by their fictions or experience of the future.
� Fictional future goal to which a person aspires. This goal is the
end to which the person is aspiring, and his or her lifestyle is
the means to that end.
� As fictions , these perception need not be conscious or
understood; yet they give a purpose on people’s action and
are responsible for a consistent pattern that runs throughout
his life. (Lifestyle);
� The individual invents a worldview and derives a final goal of
guiding self-ideal from that worldview; then invent a unique
lifestyle as a means of achieving that goal.
❖ Unconscious for neglected or pampered children.
❖ Conscious for children who experienced love and security.
 ❑ Social Interest
� value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest
⮚ i.e an attitude of RELATEDNESS with humanity (membership) in general as
well as EMPATHY for each member of human community, manifested in
cooperation with others for a better society.
� A person’s fictional goal and lifestyle must consider the improvement of society,
social advancement rather than personal gain
� The index of normality, sole criterion of human values
� A natural condition of the human species and the adhesive that bind society
together
� The natural inferiority of individuals necessitates their joining the society together;
e.g. without social protection a baby will not survive; without protection from family
or clan, early human would have perished due to animals, etc.,
� Rooted as a potentiality in everyone, must be developed to contribute to style of
life; originates from mother-child relationship during early months of infancy,
provided by mothering person who possessed some amount of social interest,
thus is sowed to a child during this stage
Psychologically Unhealthy Individuals Psychologically Healthy Individuals

� Final Goal Dimly Perceived � Final Goal Clearly Perceived

� Personal superiority � Success

� Personal gain � Social Interest

� Exaggerated feelings � Normal feelings of incompletion

� Feeling of inferiority

� Physical deficiencies

� Innate striving force

Two Basic Methods of Striving Toward Final Goal

❑ STYLE OF LIFE – flavor of one’s life
� Include person’s goal, self-concept, feelings for others, and
attitude toward the world
� Fairly established by age 4 or 5
� Learned from early social interactions, the product of interaction,
heredity, environment and persons’ creative power
� Expression of striving for superiority to attain goals
� Guiding framework for all later behaviors
� Includes a person’s goal, self- concept, feelings for others, and
attitude towards the world.
� Unhealthy individuals = rigid Style Of Life
� Healthy individuals = flexible Style of Life
� Problems: Neighborly love, sexual love, and occupation
� Means: cooperation, courage, and willingness to contribute to
another
 Universal Problems and Styles of Life for Dealing with
Problems
� Problems:
▪ Involving behavior toward others
▪ Occupational
▪ Relationships/Love
� Styles of Life: Specific Types
▪ Dominant: Little social awareness
▪ Getting: Expects to receive satisfaction from others,
becomes dependent
▪ Avoiding: Avoids life’s problems
▪ Socially useful: Cooperates with others, shows social
interest
❑ CREATIVE SELF -
� Ability to create an appropriate style of life
� Humans are not simply passive recipients of environmental &
genetic influences;
� rather each person is free to construct their own personality
out of the raw materials of heredity and experiences.
� We create ourselves, personality and character
� Creative power- man has control of their on lives, responsible
for final goal, determines methods of striving for that goal and
contribute to the development of social interest
❑ “the law of low doorway” - You can use your creative power to
solve the problem successfully
❖ Reactions and interpretations of experience more important
than actual experience
❑ Birth Order – Adler contended that each child is treated differently within a
family depending on the child’s birth order; this deferential treatment
influences the child's worldview and thus his choice of a life’s goal and lifestyle.
Adler’s View of Some Possible Traits By Birth Order

POSITIVE NEGATIVE
OLDEST CHILD
Nurturing and protective of Highly anxious; exaggerated feelings of power;
others; Good organizer unconscious hostility; fights for acceptance; must always
be right; highly critical of others; uncooperative

Second Child
Highly motivated; cooperative; Highly competitive; easily discouraged
moderately competitive

YOUNGEST CHILD
Realistically ambitious Pampered style of life; dependent on others; wants to
excel in everything; unrealistic ambitious
ONLY CHILD
Socially mature Exaggerated feelings of superiority; low feelings of
cooperation; inflated sense of self; pampered lifestyle
� ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT - LACK of social interest.
� Creative power is not limited to healthy people; unhealthy
individuals also create their own personalities, each is free to
choose either a useful or a useless style of life.
� People with a useless style of life tend to (1) set their goals too high,
(2) have a dogmatic style of life, and (3) live in their own private
world.
� External Factors in Maladjustment
three factors that relate to abnormal development:
� (1) exaggerated physical deficiencies, which do not by themselves
cause abnormal development, but which may contribute to it by
generating subjective and exaggerated feelings of inferiority;
� (2) a pampered style of life, which contributes to an overriding drive
to establish a permanent parasitic relationship with the mother or a
mother substitute; and
� (3) a neglected style of life, which leads to distrust of other people.
Safeguarding Tendencies
⮚ patterns of behavior created to protect exaggerated
sense of self-esteem against public disgrace
� enable people to hide inflated self- image and to
maintain current style of life
� Compared to Freud’s Defense Mechanisms:
❖Largely conscious , protects self- esteem from
public disgrace

TYPES: Excuses, Aggression, & Withdrawal

1. Excuses - which allow people to preserve their inflated sense
of personal worth;
2. Aggression, which may take the form of:
❖depreciating others' accomplishments -one’s
accomplishments are overvalued and the accomplishments
of others are undervalued,
❖accusing others of being responsible for one's own failures -
blaming other people for one’s shortcomings and seeking
revenge against those people, and
❖ self-accusation - wallowing in self-torture and guilt, the
ultimate purpose of which is to hurt other people)
3. Withdrawal, which can be expressed by psychologically
moving backward, standing still, hesitating, or constructing
obstacles
� MASCULINE PROTEST
- Both men and women sometimes overemphasize the
desirability of being manly,
❖Attempting to become more powerful by being more
masculine, and thereby less feminine
❖ describe the behavior of women who reject traditional
feminine roles in favor of more masculine ones.
� According to Adler’s earlier theorizing, both men and
women attempt to gain power by becoming more like the
cultural ideal of a man.
� The frequently found inferior status of women is not based
on physiology but on historical developments and social
learning.
 Ego Psychology/ Psychosocial Theory of Development

❖ Danish-German-American
developmental psychologist and
psychoanalyst
❖ Erik Homberger Erikson was born
in June 15, 1902 in Frankfurt,
Germany
(http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/hist
ory/erikson.htm)
❖ Erik Erikson is the best known
among the ego psychologists.

Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

❑ The ego is viewed as that part of the personality that
takes action in life situations.
✔ It is considered as the “executive officer” of the
personality.
❑ Psychosocial factors -major motivators of the individual-
not instinct, not unconscious, not early childhood
development.
❑ Psychosocial stages in the development of personality:
❑ Each is critical for developing certain personality
characteristics and for preparing the individual for
subsequent ones.
❑ Each involves a specific developmental task and a crisis,
the successful resolution of which leads to optimal ego
development.
❑ Psychosocial stages in the development of personality:
⮚ There is optimal time for each task
⮚ Each stage contributes to the formation of the total
personality.
⮚ Each is critical for developing certain personality
characteristics and for preparing the individual for
subsequent ones.
⮚ Each involves a specific developmental task and a
crisis, the successful resolution of which leads to
optimal ego development.
� If the stage is well managed – virtue/ psychosocial
strength- will help thru the rest of the stages of life
� If not- maladaptation/malignancies –endangers future
development.
❖ The resolution of each stage is seen as dependent on the
following:
✔ the individual’s own innate capacities
✔ those with whom he interacts
✔culture
✔environment as they shape child-bearing practices and
provide opportunities or obstacles to optimal
adaptation.
❑ Erikson saw reciprocity between the individual and the
environment that if the environment meets the basic
needs of the individual, the person will take his place
in society.
� “HOPE is both the earliest and the most
indispensable virtue inherent in the state of being
alive. If LIFE is to be sustained HOPE must remain,
even where confidence is wounded, trust impaired”--
Erik Erikson
❑ KAREN HORNEY: PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL
THEORY
� Karen Horney was born near Hamburg, Germany,
in 1885.
� As a teenager, she suffered her first episode of
depression, a challenge she faced several times
throughout her life.
� Lecturer at the New School for Social Research
and a teacher at the New York Psychoanalytic
Institute
� Horney’s beliefs differed from traditional Freudian theories, and this
led to her expulsion from the New York Psychoanalytic Institute.
Psychoanalytic Social Theory:
❖ Cultural conditions especially childhood experience are largely
responsible for shaping personality
� Horney’s writings deal mostly with what she called neuroses and
neurotic personalities
❖ HORNEY on FREUD’s Theory: Freud’s explanations result in a
pessimistic view of humanity.
� Criticized Freudian theory on at least three accounts:
1) its rigidity toward new ideas,
2) objected to Freud’s idea on feminine psychology
3) its overemphasis on biology and the pleasure principle.
� Major Concept: Basic anxiety which can be related to two basic
needs in childhood
❖ Satisfaction - Children's need for food, water, sleep (At least
minimal satisfaction is necessary for children's survival)
❖ Safety: Need for security + Freedom from fear.
 ❑The Importance Of Childhood Experiences
� Neurotic conflict stems largely from childhood traumas, most of which are
traced to a lack of genuine love.
� Children who do not receive genuine affection feel threatened and adopt rigid
behavioral patterns in an attempt to gain love.
❑ BASIC HOSTILITY AND BASIC ANXIETY- parents often neglect, dominate, reject,
or overindulge their children, conditions that lead to the child’s feelings of
BASIC HOSTILITY toward parents.
� If children repress basic hostility, they will develop feelings of insecurity and a
pervasive sense of apprehension called BASIC ANXIETY.
� Basic evil - the behavior of parents that undermines a child’s security
� To combat this basic anxiety, they adopt one of the 3 fundamental styles of
relating to others: Moving towards, moving against, or moving away from
people.
� Normal individuals may use any of these moves of relating to others, but
neurotics are compelled to rigidly rely on only one (compulsive behavior)-
generates a basic intrapsychic conflict that may take the form of either an
idealized self-image or self-hatred.
❑REAL VS. IDEALIZED SELF
� Horney contends that a person whose needs for safety
and satisfaction have not been adequately met tends
to develop an idealized self which may be at variance of
real self.
� Homey's idea of healthy self depends on person's view
about self which may have been formed through his
experience with significant others family.
 The Three Major Adjustment Techniques and the 10 Neurotic
Needs (Hergenhahn, 1994)
Self-Effacing Solution Expansive Solution Resignation Solution
Love – “Moving Toward” Mastery – “Moving Freedom – “Moving
(Compliance) Against” (Aggression) Away” (Detachment)
Need for: Need for: Need for:
1. Affection and approval 4. Power and omnipotence 9. Self-sufficiency
2. Partner to take control and perfection 10. Perfection and
3. Restriction of life to 5. Exploitation of others. unassailability
narrow borders 6. Social recognition and
prestige “If I withdraw, nothing
7. Personal admiration can hurt me”
8. Personal achievement Vacillation between
“If you love me, you will “If I have power, no one despised and ideal self
not hurt me” can hurt me”
Identification with the Identification with the
despised self ideal self
 Erich Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis
� “People have lost their connection with nature and one
another”
� everybody’s main goal in life is to become stronger, freer,
more noble – essentially, the person you were meant to be.
� swapped Freud’s idea of libido as the life drive for a more
practical one that included a new understanding of assimilation
and socialization.
� Erich Fromm was born in Germany in 1900, the only child of
orthodox Jewish parents.
� A thoughtful young man, Fromm was influenced by the bible,
Freud, and Marx, as well as by socialist ideology.
� After receiving his Ph.D., Fromm began studying psychoanalysis
and became an analyst by being analyzed by Hanns Sachs, a
student of Freud.
Basic Assumptions
� Believed that humans have been torn away from their prehistoric union
with nature and left with no powerful instincts to adapt to a changing
world. But because humans have acquired the ability to reason, they
can think about their isolated condition-a situation called the human
dilemma.
� According to Fromm, human dilemma cannot be solved by satisfying
our animal needs. Can only be addressed by fulfilling our uniquely
human needs, an accomplishment that moves us toward a reunion with
the natural world.
� Fromm identified five of these distinctively human or existential needs:
1) Relatedness
2) Transcendence
3) Rootedness
4) Sense of Identity
5) Frame of Orientation
▪ Relatedness - which can take the form of (1) submission, (2) power, and
(3) love. Love, or the ability to unite with another while retaining one's
own individuality and integrity, is the only relatedness need that can solve
our basic human dilemma.
▪ Transcendence- Being thrown into the world without their consent,
humans have to transcend their nature by destroying or creating people
or things.
⮚ Humans can destroy through malignant aggression, or killing for
reasons other than survival, but they can also create and care about
their creations.
▪ Rootedness- Rootedness is the need to establish roots and to feel at
home again in the world.
⮚ Productively, rootedness enables us to grow beyond the security of
our mother and establish ties with the outside world.
⮚ With the nonproductive strategy, we become fixated and afraid to
move beyond the security and safety of our mother or a mother
substitute.
▪ Sense of Identity- The fourth human need is for a sense of
identity, or an awareness of ourselves as a separate person.
⮚ The drive for a sense of identity is expressed
nonproductively as conformity to a group and productively
as individuality.
▪ Frame of Orientation- a road map or consistent philosophy by
which we find our way through the world.
⮚ This need is expressed nonproductively as a striving for
irrational goals and productively as movement toward
rational goals.
 ❑ The Burden of Freedom
� As the only animal possessing self-awareness, humans
are what Fromm called the "freaks of the universe.“
� Historically, as people gained more political freedom,
they began to experience more isolation from others
and from the world and to feel free from the security
of a permanent place in the world.
� As a result, freedom becomes a burden, and people
experience basic anxiety, or a feeling of being alone
in the world.
❑ Mechanisms of Escape
� To reduce the frightening sense of isolation and aloneness, people
may adopt one of three mechanisms of escape:
1) Authoritarianism, or the tendency to give up one's
independence and to unite with a powerful partner;
2) Destructiveness, an escape mechanism aimed at doing away
with other people or things; and
3) Conformity, or surrendering of one's individuality in order to
meet the wishes
of others.
❑ Positive Freedom
� The human dilemma can only be solved through positive freedom,
which is the spontaneous activity of the whole, integrated
personality, and which is achieved when a person becomes
reunited with others.
 ❑ Character Orientations = how people relate to the world
1) Assimilation
2) Socialization
3) The Nonproductive Orientations
1) Receptive
2) Exploitative
3) Hoarding
4) Marketing
4) The Productive Orientations
1) Working
2) Loving
3) Reasoning
4) Psychologically healthy people work toward positive freedom
❑ Character Orientations - People relate to the world by acquiring and using
things (assimilation) and by relating to self and others (socialization), and
they can do so either nonproductively or productively.
❑ Nonproductive Orientations - Four nonproductive strategies that fail to
move people closer to positive freedom and self-realization.
⮚ People with a receptive orientation - believe that the source of all good lies
outside themselves and that the only way they can relate to the world is to
receive things, including love, knowledge, and material objects.
⮚ People with an exploitative orientation- believe that the source of good
lies outside themselves, but they aggressively take what they want rather
than passively receiving it.
⮚ Hoarding characters try to save what they have already obtained, including
their opinions, feelings, and material possessions.
⮚ People with a marketing orientation see themselves as commodities and
value themselves against the criterion of their ability to sell themselves.
They have fewer positive qualities than the other orientations because they
are essentially empty.
❑ The Productive Orientation
Psychologically healthy people work toward positive freedom
through productive work, love, and reasoning.
⮚ Productive love necessitates a passionate love of all life and is
called biophilia.
❑ Personality Disorders- Unhealthy people have nonproductive
ways of working, reasoning, and especially loving.
� Fromm recognized three major personality disorders:
� (1) necrophilia, or the love of death and the hatred of all
humanity;
� (2) malignant narcissism, or a belief that everything belonging to
one's self is of great value and anything belonging to others is
worthless; and
� 3) incestuous symbiosis, or an extreme dependence on one's
mother or mother surrogate.
 ❑ Harry Stack Sullivan- Interpersonal Theory
� Born Feb. 21, 1892; oldest existing son of poor Irish Catholic
parents, lonely childhood existence, poor relationship with
father.
� People develop their personality within a social context. Without
other people, humans would have no personality.
� Development rests on the individual’s ability to establish
intimacy with another person. Anxiety can interfere with
satisfying interpersonal relations.
� Sullivan had a lonely and isolated childhood, he evolved a theory
of personality that emphasized the importance of interpersonal
relations.
� He insisted that personality is shaped almost entirely by the
relationships we have with other people.
� Sullivan's principal contribution to personality theory was his
conception of developmental stages.
❑ Tensions- personality as an energy system, with energy existing either as
tension (potentiality for action) or as energy transformations (the actions
themselves).
⮚ He further divided tensions into needs and anxiety.
❑ A. Needs - can relate either to the general well-being of a person or to
specific zones, such as the mouth or genitals.
❖General needs can be either physiological, such as food or oxygen, or
they can be interpersonal, such as tenderness and intimacy.
❑ B. Anxiety - unlike needs-which are conjunctive and call for specific
actions to reduce them-anxiety is disjunctive and calls for no consistent
actions for its relief.
❖All infants learn to be anxious through the empathic relationship that
they have with their mothering one.
❖Sullivan called anxiety the chief disruptive force in interpersonal
relations.
❖A complete absence of anxiety and other tensions is called euphoria.
� Dynamisms: Malevolence, Intimacy, Lust, Self-System
Sullivan used the term dynamism to refer to a typical pattern of
behavior. Dynamisms may relate either to specific zones of the
body or to tensions.
❑ A. Malevolence
The disjunctive dynamism of evil and hatred is called malevolence,
defined by Sullivan as a feeling of living among one's enemies.
Those children who become malevolent have much difficulty
giving and receiving tenderness or being intimate with other
people.
❑ B. Intimacy
The conjunctive dynamism marked by a close personal
relationship between two people of equal status is called
intimacy. Intimacy facilitates interpersonal development while
decreasing both anxiety and loneliness.
� C. Lust - In contrast to both malevolence and intimacy, lust is an isolating
dynamism.
⮚ is a self-centered need, can be satisfied in the absence of an intimate
interpersonal relationship.
⮚ In other words, although intimacy presupposes tenderness or love, lust is
based solely on sexual gratification and requires no other person for its
satisfaction.
❑ D. Self-System -The most inclusive of all dynamisms is the self-system, or that
pattern of behaviors that protects us against anxiety and maintains our
interpersonal security.
⮚ The self-system is a conjunctive dynamism, but because its primary job is to
protect the self from anxiety, it tends to stifle personality change.
❖ Experiences that are inconsistent with our self-system threaten our security
and necessitate our use of security operations, which consist of behaviors
designed to reduce interpersonal tensions: dissociation and selective
inattention
▪ Dissociation- all those experiences that we block from awareness.
▪ Selective inattention- involves blocking only certain experiences from
awareness.
� Personifications - people acquire certain images of self and
others throughout the developmental stages, and he referred to
these subjective perceptions as personifications.
❑ A. Bad-Mother, Good-Mother
The bad-mother personification grows out of infants'
experiences with a nipple that does not satisfy their hunger
needs.
⮚ All infants experience the bad-mother personification, even
though their real mothers may be loving and nurturing.
⮚ Later, infants acquire a good-mother personification as they
become mature enough to recognize the tender and
cooperative behavior of their mothering one.
⮚ Still later, these two personifications combine to form a
complex and contrasting image of the real mother.
❑ B. Me Personifications - during infancy, children acquire three "me"
personifications:
1) the bad-me- grows from experiences of punishment and
disapproval,
2) the good-me -results from experiences with reward and
approval, and
3) the not-me - allows a person to dissociate or selectively inattend
the experiences related to anxiety.
❑ C. Eidetic Personifications- people often create imaginary traits that
they project onto others.
❖ Included in these eidetic personifications are the imaginary
playmates that preschool-aged children often have.
❖ These imaginary friends enable children to have a safe, secure
relationship with another person, even though that person is
imaginary.
� Levels of Cognition (ways of perceiving things) Prototaxic, Parataxic, and
Syntaxic.
❑ Prototaxic Level- Experiences that are impossible to put into words or to
communicate to others are called prototaxic.
❖ Newborn infants experience images mostly on a prototaxic level, but
adults, too, frequently have preverbal experiences that are momentary and
incapable of being communicated.
❑ Parataxic Level
Experiences that are prelogical and nearly impossible to accurately
communicate to others are called parataxic.
❖ Included in these are erroneous assumptions about cause and effect, which
Sullivan termed parataxic distortions.
❑ Syntaxic Level
Experiences that can be accurately communicated to others are called
syntaxic.
❖ Children become capable of syntaxic language at about 12 to 18 months of
age when words begin to have the same meaning for them that they do for
others.
� Stages of Development
Sullivan saw interpersonal development as taking place over seven stages, from infancy to mature adulthood.
Personality changes can take place at any time but are more likely to occur during transitions between stages.
 ❑ Hans Eysenck: Biological Theory of Personality
� born in Berlin, Germany on March 4, 1916.
� received his Ph.D. in Psychology from the University of London in
1940
� Developed the concept of neuroticism, arguing that it was a
biological form of emotional instability, argued that much of
personality is genetically determined
� Personality: a person’s internally based characteristic way of acting
and thinking.
� Character: Personal characteristics that have been judged or
evaluated
� Temperament: Hereditary aspects of personality, including
sensitivity, moods, irritability, and distractibility
� Personality Trait: Stable qualities that a person shows in most
situations
� Personality Type: People who have several traits in common
Hans Eysenck: Biological Theory of Personality
▪ Personality is a more stable person’s character, temperament, intellect and
physique which determines his unique adjustment in the environment
� Main Dimension of Personality
1. Will
2. Emotion
3. Intelligence
� Dopamine Levels and creativity
� Inhibition Theory
� Arousal theory
Personality Development
⮚ The Role of Hereditary
⮚ The role of Socialization
� PERSONALITY
❑ is “the sum-total of the actual or potential behavior-patterns of
the organism, as determined by heredity and environment it
originates and develops through the functional interaction of
the four main sectors into which these behavior-patterns are
organized.
❖ For Eysenck, personality consists of acts and dispositions organized
in a hierarchical fashion in terms of their level of generality:
� The cognitive sector (intelligence)
� the conative sector (character)
� the affective sector (temperament)
� and the somatic sector (constitution)
� Three Dimensions of Personality:
1.Extraversion
2. Neuroticism
3. Psychoticism
❖ Introversion versus Extroversion
❖ Emotionally Stable versus Unstable (neurotic)
❖ Impulse Control versus Psychotic
❑ Extraversion - Introversion:
� Extraversion: toughmindedness; impulsiveness; tendency to be
outgoing; desire for novelty; performance enhanced by excitement;
preference for vocations involving contact with other people; tolerance
for pain.
� Introversion: tendermindedness; introspectiveness; seriousness;
performance interfered with by excitement; easily aroused but
restrained, inhibited; preference for solitary vocations; sensitivity to
pain.
❑Neuroticism- Psychoticism
� Neuroticism: Below-average emotional control, will-
power, and capacity to exert self; slowness in thought
and action; suggestibility; lack of persistence; tendency
to repress unpleasant facts; lack of sociability; below-
average sensory acuity but high level of activation.
� Psychoticism: Poor concentration, poor memory;
insensitivity; lack of caring for others; cruelty; disregard
for danger and convention; occasionally originality
and/or creativity; liking for unusual things; considered
peculiar by others.
� 4 Basic Temperaments
 Abraham Maslow: Motivation Theory
� Against Freudian theories, and thought psychology shouldn’t be
pessimistic.
� He was against because psychology was before, focused on
psychological flaws, and was very objective.
� His unique contribution is drawing upon his investigation of healthy and
creative persons to arrive as certain formulations regarding personality.
� Abraham Maslow sighted healthy people instead of mentally ill ones.
� It was his pursuance of subjective Psychology and eagerness in
optimism that made Humanistic Psychology.
� He thought the heart of learning lied in experiences, and that
psychologically speaking people’s fulfillment or “self-actualization” is
the “development of human potential,”
� To Maslow, reason, dignity, worth, nobility are key concerns and
foundations o Humanistic Psychology.
� Propounded a theory of human motivat ion that differentiates
between basic needs & metaneeds
� His theory of human motivation suggests a hierarchical
principle - takes both biological and social foundation of human
motives into consideration.
� The whole person is motivated requiring a holistic approach.
� People are continually motivated by one need or another.
� Satisfying one need results in the individual trying to satisfy
other needs.
� People are universally motivated by the same basic needs
� Needs can be arranged in a hierarchical fashion
 PROGRESSION
5 IF LOWER NEEDS
ARE SATISFIED

:
3

1
⚫Key contribution to personality theory – the self-
actualizing person as an example of psychological
health.
⚫Maslow (1971) held that self-actualizing people are
motivated” what he called B-values.
❖ “Being” values - indicators of Psychological health
and are opposed to deficiency needs
❖ Maslow termed B-values “metaneeds” (growth
needs)to indicate that they are the ultimate level of
needs.
❖ The motives of self-actualizing people, which called
Metamotivation. (Feist and Feist 2006).
� Maslow advocated a holistic analytic approach to
study the total person. His theory is concerned with
growth motivation, which can be gained through self
actualization.
� The value of self-actualizing people include:
✔ truth,
✔goodness,
✔ beauty
✔ spontaneity,
✔Simplicity
✔ playfulness or humor,
✔ justice and order,
✔transcendence of dichotomies totality.
Peak Experience
� Are especially joyous and exciting moments in the life of every individual.
� Feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision; the feeling of being;
mystical in nature; somehow gave a feeling of transcendence.
❑ Jonah Complex
� It is the “ the fear of one’s own greatness ..evasion of one’s destiny...
running away from one’s talents”.
(Maslow, Hergenhahn, & Olson, 2003)
� The Jonah Complex is the fear of success which prevents self-
actualization, or the realization of one’s potential. It is the fear of one’s
own greatness, the evasion of one’s destiny, or the avoidance of
exercising one’s talents.
� Everyone has a voice inside them that tells them they can be something
great. Many of us believe that, if given the right opportunities and
resources, we can be as successful or as great as our predecessors.
“We have, all of us, an impulse to improve ourselves, an impulse toward
actualizing more of our potentialities, toward self-actualization, or full
humanness or human fulfillment, or whatever term you like. Granted this,
then what holds us up? What blocks us? = Maslow
� Characteristic of Self-actualizing People
▪ More Efficient Perception of Reality
▪ Acceptance of Self, others, and Nature
▪ Spontaneity, simplicity and Naturalness
▪ Problem-centering
▪ The need for privacy
▪ Autonomy
▪ Continued Freshness of Appreciation
▪ The Peak Experience
▪ Profound Interpersonal Relations
▪ The Democratic character structure
▪ Discrimination between means and ends
▪ Sense of Humor
▪ Creativeness
▪ Resistance to Enculturation
 CARL ROGERS: Person-Centered Theory
▪ Humanistic Psychology - unique qualities of human.
i.e. potential for growth,
hopeful and optimistic
▪ Organismic Theory - individual motivated by one sovereign
drive – SELF-ACTUALIZATION.
⮚ unity, coherence, integration of a normal personality

▪ Ideally, all individuals evaluate their experiences using the

organismic valuing process.
❖ Healthy people use these processes as guides to living their lives.
This means that people can trust their feelings.
� According to Rogers all people live in a subjective world, their
own subjective reality, called their phenomenological field.
� In Rogers' view, the self is the central ingredient in human
personality and personal adjustment
� His theory is basically phenomenological in character
❖ Growth occurs when individuals confront problems, struggle to
master them, and through that struggle develop new aspects
of their skills, capacities, views about life.
❖ Life, therefore, is an endless process of creatively moving
forward, even if only in small ways.
Structure of Personality
1. Organism - locus of all experiences; the person is experiencing
organism.
2. Self or Self-Concept - subjective nature (own picture of yourself);
collection of self-perception.
- not entirely consistent with external reality (Distortion)
� HOWEVER, if the person’s self-concept is reasonably
accurate - there is CONGRUENCE.
� If distortion occurs- there is INCONCRUENCE (gap between
self-concept and reality).
� Some Incongruence is probably unavoidable but TOO MUCH
incongruence undermines one’s psychological well-being.
Development of Personality
� Roger focuses upon ways in which evaluation of an individual by
others.
� Organismic self-possess inherent actualizing tendency (to expand to
grow) - subject to strong influence from social environment
(parents/significant other)
� Also strong need for affection, love, acceptance (positive regards).
❖ In childhood - parents provide this, but some parent make positive
regard Conditional-this creates conditions of worth and child's block
out of His self-concept those experiences that makes them unworthy
of love.
⚫ If given unconditional love -less need to block out unworthy
experience and grow up to be the kind of person he wants to be
(Real Self).
✔ Unconditional love foster CONGRUENCE
✔ Conditional love foster INCONGRUENCE.
▪ If child grow up believing that affection from others is very conditional
– more and more distortion in child’s experience in order to feel worthy
of acceptance.
▪ Self-concept evolves throughout child and adolescence as it gradually
stabilizes person
1) Behave consistent with it
2) Resistant to information that contradicts self-
concept.
� Contradictory information threatens- principal cause of anxiety.
� To ward off-behave defensively (ignore, deny twist reality) to protect
and perpetuate self-concept.
� Defensiveness is the protection of the self-concept against anxiety and
threat by using denial or distortion, (two major defense mechanism),
allowing us to block out experiences that otherwise would cause
unpleasant anxiety or threat.
� Whenever these defenses, (denial or distortion) fail or are insufficient
to block out incongruence, people become disorganized..
▪ In general, organismic theory feels that potentialities of
organism – If allowed to unfold in an orderly manner by an
appropriate environment (warm, affectionate, accepting) will
produce, healthy, integrated personality.
▪ Malignant environment forces – cripple /destroy the person.
▪ Nothing is inherent “bad” in the organism – It is made bad by an
inadequate environment.

� Psychotherapy
� Conditions (3) which are necessary for psychological growth to
take place:
1. Counselor Therapist Congruence
2. Unconditional Positive Regard
3. Empathic Listening
 IVAN PAVLOV: Classical Conditioning
▪ Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of
learning
▪ Originators and Key Contributors: First described by Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936). Russian Physiologist in 1903, and studied in infants by
John B. Watson (1878-1958)
▪ The most basic form is associative learning (like, making a new
association between events in the environment).
▪ There are two forms of associative learning ;
✔ Classical Conditioning, (experimenting with dogs) and
✔ Operant Conditioning (

⚫ Classical conditioning -(later developed by John Watson)

involves learning to associate an unconditioned stimulus that
already brings about a particular response (i.e., a reflex) with a
new (conditioned) stimulus, so that the new stimulus brings about
the same response.
✔Operant Conditioning
JOHN B. WATSON
� coined the term behaviourism, based on the assumption
that:
✔ All learning occurs through interactions with the
environment
✔ The environment shapes behavior
� Watson urged that there is no such thing as
consciousness;
� That all human activity is conditioned and conditionable
in spite of the variation in genetic makeup.
� He placed the emphasis on external behavior of people
and their reactions in given situations, rather than on their
internal, mental state
� Experimented on “Little Albert”
� WATSON FOUND:
� In addition to demonstrating that emotional responses could be
conditioned in humans, Watson and Rayner also observed
that stimulus generalization had occurred.
� After conditioning, Albert feared not just the white rat, but a wide
variety of similar white objects as well. His fear included other furry
objects including Raynor's fur coat and Watson wearing a Santa
Claus beard.
 B. F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning, Reinforcement Theory

▪ Operant Conditioning – learning occurs when a reward is

provided after an organism makes the desired response.
▪ The term operant refers to how an organism operates in the
environment.

⚫The fundamental principle of operant conditioning is embodied

in the Skinner’s concept of Reinforcement.

⚫Reinforcement – occurs when an event following a response

strengthens the tendency to make that response
Types of Reinforcement
1. Positive – adding something (positive reinforcer) in order to
increase/strengthen a response.
2. Negative – strengthening a response by avoiding/removing an unpleasant
stimulus(aversive stimulus).
3. Punishment –something aversive to decrease a behavior.

MAKING PUNISHMENT MORE EFFECTIVE

▪ Guidelines ( research evidence) on how to make punishment more effective
(Weiten, 1989)
1) Apply punishment swiftly – delay undermines the impact
2) Make punishment consistent – inconsistency creates more confusion in
learning.
3) Explain why the punishment – to make children understand.
4) Make alternative response available and reinforce
Ex. attention seeking behavior
Albert Bandura : SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
⮚ Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviourist learning theories of
classical conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two
important ideas:
1. Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.
2. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of
observational learning.
� Observational Learning
� Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. This
is illustrated during the famous Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961).
� Individuals that are observed are called models.
� In society, children are surrounded by many influential models, such as
parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within
their peer group and teachers at school. Theses models provide
examples of behavior to observe and imitate, e.g. masculine and
feminine, pro and anti-social etc.
Albert Bandura: Social Learning Theory
▪ Emphasizes interaction of cognitive, behavioral and
environmental determinants
▪ Observational learning -organism’s response is influenced
through observation of others (model).
❖ Key processes in Observational Learning
� Attention
� Retention
� Motor Reproduction
� Motivational Processes
� There are Four Meditational Processes proposed by Bandura:
1. Attention: The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behaviour.
For a behavior to be imitated it has to grab our attention
2. Retention: How well the behaviour is remembered. The behaviour may
be noticed, but is it not always remembered which obviously prevents
imitation. It is important therefore that a memory of the behaviour is
formed to be performed later by the observer.
3. Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the
model has just demonstrated. We see much behaviour on a daily basis
that we would like to be able to imitate but that this not always
possible. We are limited by our physical ability and for that reason,
even if we wish to reproduce the behaviour, we cannot.
4. Motivation: The will to perform the behaviour. The rewards and
punishment that follow a behaviour will be considered by the observer.
If the perceived rewards outweighs the perceived costs (if there are
any) then the behaviour will be more likely to be imitated by the
observer.
� Cognitive theory- is a learning theory of psychology that attempts to
explain human behavior by understanding the thought processes.

▪ Triadic reciprocal determinism – assumes that human action is a

result of a interaction among three variables Environment, behavior
and person

▪ Self-Efficacy – the capacity to organize, execute the sources of

action required to manage prospective situation (Bandura)

� Self-regulation – controlling our own behavior.

▪ Bandura suggests 3 steps of self-regulation:
✔ Self-observation
✔ Judgment
✔ Self-response
Jean Piaget: COGNITIVE THEORIES
� The principle in development stages theory defining progress
from one stage to the next depending upon maturational
changes
� He built his theory on how the children use their intelligence
rather than how their intelligence measured
▪ Sensation – refers to the processes by which organism
detects internal and external stimulation at is various
receptor
▪ Assimilation – what people perceive in the external world
does not always fit out internal schema or thought
▪ Accommodation – we can accommodate our thought
patterns to what we are perceive or change what we think.
 Cognitive Development
PIAGET FOUR MAJOR STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN’S THOUGHT
PROCESSES
APPROX.
AGE STAGE MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS
RANGE
• coordination of sensory input into motor action.
Birth – 2 Sensorimotor
• development of object permanence.
years Period • little or no capacity for symbolic representation.

• development of symbolic thought.

• egocentric thinking. (animism)
Pre-operational • thought marked by centration (concentrate only one detail/ignore
2 – 7 years
Period other aspects)and irreversibility.(follow & think thru in one
direction)
• attention span improves.

Concrete • mental operations applied to concrete objects and events;

• development of conservation, decentration and reversibility.
7 – 11 years Operational
• Acquire concept of classification.; fairly good in inductive logic;
Period difficulty with deductive logic

Formal • Mental operations applied to abstractions.

Through
Operational • Development of logical and systematic thinking.
Adulthood • Problem solving
Period
Lawrence Kohlberg: Moral Development Theory
▪ Expanded on Piaget’s theory ( e.g shifting of moral judgment from
heteronomous morality)
❑ Stages of Moral development
� Level 1. Preconventional Morality
▪ Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment
▪ Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange
� Level 2. Conventional Morality
▪ Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships
▪ Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order
� Level 3. Postconventional Morality
▪ Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights
▪ Stage 6 - Universal Principles
Kohlberg's Moral Development
 Lawrence Kohlberg: Moral Development Theory
⮚ Expanded on Piaget’s theory ( e.g shifting of moral judgment from
heteronomous morality)
⮚ Stages of Moral development
� Level 1. Preconventional Morality
Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment
The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young
children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At
this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is
important because it is a means to avoid punishment.
Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange
At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of
view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz
dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that
best-served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral
development but only if it serves one's own interests.
Level 2. Conventional Morality
� Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships
Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral development
is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis
on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
� Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order
At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when
making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing
one’s duty and respecting authority.
Level 3. Postconventional Morality
� Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights
At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of
other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the
society should agree upon these standards.
� Stage 6 - Universal Principles
Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and
abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice,
even if they conflict with laws and rules.