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UDAAN
Quick and Comprehensive Revision Series

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“UDAAN” - Quick and Comprehensive Revision Series SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
INDEX
Sr. CHAPTER Pg. No

1 BIOTECHNOLOGY 1
2 DEFENCE 11
3 HEALTH 21
4 DISEASES 26
5 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 35
6 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY 46
7 SPACE AND SPACE TECHNOLOGY 56
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1. BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology is the use of biological systems found in organisms or the use of the living organisms themselves
to make technological advances and adapt those technologies to various fields.
COLOR CLASSIFICATION OF BRANCHES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY:

• Gold biotechnology or Bioinformatics: Computational Biology à address biological problems using
computational techniques.
• Red Biotechnology: Biopharma à relates to medicine and veterinary products.
• White Biotechnology: Industrial Biotech à to design more energy efficient, low resource consuming
products.
• Yellow Biotechnology: Biotech in Food Industry.
• Grey Biotechnology: Environmental applications to maintain Biodiversity.
• Green Biotechnology: Emphasizes on Agriculture interests.
• Blue Biotechnology: based on use of marine resources.
• Violet Biotechnology: deals with law, ethical and philosophical issues of biotechnology.
• Dark Biotechnology: associated with bioterrorism and biological weapons.
GENE:
• Gene is the basic physical unit of inheritance.
• It is a part of the DNA in a cell that controls the physical
development, behaviour, etc. of an individual plant or
animal & is passed on from its parents.
GENOME:
• Genome is the complete set of genes or genetic material
present in a cell or organisms.
• The human genome is a complex set of instructions, like
a recipe book, directing organism growth & development.
GENOMIC ORGANIZATION:
• This refers to the linear order of DNA elements and their division into chromosomes.
• Can also refer to the 3D structure of chromosomes & the positioning of DNA sequences within the nucleus.
CHROMOSOME:
• These are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal & plant cells.
• Each chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule of Deoxyribose-Nucleic Acid (DNA).
• Chromosomes are a key part of the process that ensures DNA is accurately copied and distributed in the
vast majority of cell divisions.
• Changes in the number or structure of chromosomes in new cells may lead to serious problems like: Down
Syndrome, Turner Syndrome etc.
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA):

• DNA is an organic chemical that contains genetic information and instructions for protein synthesis.
• DNA is a key part of reproduction in which genetic heredity passed down through DNA from parents to
offspring.
RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA):
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• RNA is a nucleic acid principally involved in the synthesis of proteins, carrying the messenger (ex: mRNA)
instructions from DNA, which itself contains the genetic instructions.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA:
DNA RNA
It has deoxyribose and phosphate backbone having four It has ribose and phosphate backbone with four
distinct bases: Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine & Thymine bases: Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine& Uracil (ACGU).
(ACGT).
Found in cell nucleus and Mitochondria. Found in Cytoplasm, nucleus and Ribosome.
Has 2-deoxyribose. Has Ribose.
Double stranded molecule with long chain of Single stranded molecule with shorter chain of
nucleotides. nucleotides.
Self-replicating Synthesize from DNA when required.
CELL
• A Cell is defined as smallest, basic unit of life responsible for all life’s processes.
• Robert Hooke coined the term Cell in 1665.
• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.
• Cells are of 2 types namely, Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Size of cell is generally small Size of cell is generally large.
Nucleus absent. Nucleus present.
It contains single chromosome It contains more than one chromosome
Membrane bound cell organelles are absent. Cell organelles are present.
Cell division takes place by fission or budding. Cell division takes place by mitosis and meiosis.
STRUCTURE OF A CELL:
A cell consists of three parts:
1. The cell membrane
2. The nucleus, and, between the two,
3. The cytoplasm.
• Every cell in the body is enclosed by a cell (Plasma) membrane.

• It maintains the integrity of a cell and controls passage of materials into and out
The Cell membrane of the cell.
• All materials within a cell must have access to the cell membrane for the needed
exchange.
• The nucleus determines how the cell will function, as well as the basic structure
of that cell.
The Nucleus & • Threads of chromatin in the nucleus contain Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), the
nucleolus genetic material of the cell.
• The nucleolus is a dense region of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleus and is
the site of ribosome formation.
• Cytoplasm is a thick solution that fills each cell and is enclosed by the cell
The cytoplasm membrane.
• Within the cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibres and hundreds or
even thousands of miniscule but distinct structures called organelles.
• Each type of organelle has a definite structure and a specific role in the function
of the cell.
ORGANELLE AND ITS FUNCTION
Organelle Function
Nucleus DNA Storage
Mitochondrion (Power house) Energy production
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum(SER) Lipid Production; Detoxification
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum(RER) Protein production
Golgi apparatus (Cell’s Post office) Made of tubes, vesicles & vacuoles. Protein Modification and
material transfer, also involved in the synthesis of Cell wall,
Plasma membrane & Lysosomes
Peroxisome Lipid Destruction; contains oxidative enzymes
Lysosome (cell’s suicide bags) Protein Destruction
Chromosomes Determine the sex of an individual
Ribosome Protein synthesis
Chloroplast (Kitchen of the plant cell) It contains the pigment Chlorophyll–take part in Photosynthesis
Vacuole It helps in Osmoregulation. It stores toxic metabolic waste.
NOTE: Organelles are found only in plant cells.
PLASTID:
• Plastid is a double membrane-bound organelle involved in the synthesis and storage of food.
• Commonly found within the cells of photosynthetic plants.
• It is of 3 types: Chloroplasts, Chromoplast & Leucoplast.
• Chloroplasts: These are green pigments found in green plant involve in photosynthesis.
• Chromoplast provides various colors to the plant like flower, fruit etc. For example, Carotene provide orange
color for Carrot & Lycopene in tomato provide red color.
• Leucoplast is colorless. It stores the food in the form of starch, fat & protein.
NOTE: Plastids were discovered and named by Ernst Haeckel, but A. F. W. Schimper was the first to provide a
clear definition.
CELL WALL:
• A cell wall is an outer layer surrounding certain cells that is outside of the cell membrane.
• All cells have cell membranes, but generally only plants, fungi, algae, most bacteria, and archaea have cells
with cell walls.
• The cell wall provides strength and structural support to the cell.
NOTE: Chitin a polysaccharide that is a main component of fungal cell walls and also of the exoskeletons of
certain animals like insects.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL:
Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell are larger in size Generally smaller
Cell wall – Present. Made up of Cellulose & Chitin Cell wall - Absent
Plastid present Plastid absent

Centrosome absent Centrosome present

Vacuole are larger in size Vacuole are smaller in size
STEM CELLS
• The smallest functional unit of life is called the Cell.
• These cells develop to form tissues which in turn develop to form organs.
• Stem cells are basically undifferentiated, primitive cells which have the potential to develop into many
different types of cells like those in muscles, kidney, liver etc.
• Stem cell therapy has shown potential to cure many severe ailments. It is touted as future of medical
treatments.
• They have proved effective in the treatment of blood disorders, immune disorders, metabolic problems, &
other organ degenerated diseases.
Growing Human Organs in Animal Body

Recently Japanese researchers have successfully developed functional mouse kidneys inside rats using stem cells.
This could be replicated in Humans.
Source of Stem Cells:

• Bone marrow, Umbilical cord blood, Adipose tissue, Allografts, Amniotic fluid etc.
• Types of stem Cells, Based on Source:
1. Embryonic Stem Cells (ESCs)
2. Adult/Somatic stem cells
Adult stem cells include:

• Hematopoietic Stem cells (HSCs), Mesenchymal Stem Cells, Neural stem cells, Epithelial Stem cells, Skin stem
cells, Induced pluripotent stem cells.
• Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS): Scientists create
these in a lab, using skin cells and other tissue-specific
cells. These cells behave in a similar way to embryonic
stem cells, so they could be useful for developing a range of
therapies.
• These cells derived from the patient themselves, so less
likely to be rejected.
Cell Potency:
• Refers to the varying ability of stem cells to differentiate
into specialized cell types.
• Cells with greatest potency can generate more cells types
than lower potency cell.
Hierarchy of Cell Potency:

• Totipotent Stem Cells: Stem cells can give rise to any of
220 cell types found in embryo as well as extra-embryonic
cells(placenta).
• Pluripotent Stem Cells: can give rise to all cell types of
body (but not the placenta).
• Multipotent Stem Cells: can develop limited number of
cell types in a particular lineage.
• Unipotent Stem Cells: give rise to cells of their own type along a single lineage.

DNA PROFILING
• DNA profiling is the process where a specific DNA pattern, called a profile, is obtained from a person or
sample of bodily tissue.
• It is a forensic technique in criminal investigations, comparing criminal suspects' profiles to DNA evidence
so as to assess the likelihood of their involvement in the crime.
• It is also used in parentage testing, to establish immigration eligibility, and in genealogical and medical
research.
Short Tandem Repeats (STRs):

• One of the current techniques for DNA profiling uses polymorphisms called STRs.
• These are regions of non-coding DNA that contain repeats of the same nucleotide sequence. Ex: GATAGATA
GENETIC DISORDERS
• A genetic disorder is a disease that is caused by a change, or mutation, in an individual’s DNA sequence.
• These mutations can be due to an error in DNA replication or due to environmental factors, such as
cigarette smoke & exposure to radiation, which cause changes in the DNA sequence.
• The three main categories are:
Single Gene Disorders: Disorders caused by defects in one particular gene, often with simple and
predictable inheritance patterns. Ex: Huntington’s disease, Cystic fibrosis.
Disorders resulting from changes in the number or structure of the
Chromosome Disorders: chromosomes. Ex: Down’s syndrome, which results from an extra
chromosome 21.
Multifactorial Disorders Disorders caused by changes in multiple genes, often in a complex
(Complex Diseases): interaction with environmental & lifestyle factors such as diet or cigarette
smoke. Ex: Cancer.
GENE THERAPY:
• Technique to replace defective genes with healthy genes to treat genetic disorders.
• Artificial method that introduces DNA into the cells of human body.
• First developed in 1972, but has limited success.
• Two types of gene therapy: Somatic gene therapy, Germline gene therapy.
GENE EDITING:
• Gene editing is a technique of making specific changes to the DNA at a specific sequence.
• For this DNA is inserted, deleted, modified or replaced in the genome.
• For this CRISPR CAS9 Scissor is used.
• It involves making cuts at specific DNA sequences with enzymes called ‘engineered nucleases’.
How does genome edit work?

• Genome editing uses a type of enzyme called an ‘engineered nuclease’ which cuts the genome in a specific
place.
• Engineered nucleases are made up of two parts:
1. A nuclease part that cuts the DNA.
2. A DNA-targeting part that is designed to guide the nuclease to a specific sequence of DNA.
• After cutting the DNA in a specific place, the cell will naturally repair the cut. We can manipulate this repair
process to make changes (or ‘edits’) to the DNA in that location in the genome.
CRISPR-Cas9:
• CRISPR stands for ‘Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short

Palindromic Repeats’
• It is the most common, cheap & efficient system used for
genome editing.
• CRISPR is the DNA-targeting part of the system which
consists of an RNA molecule, or ‘guide’, designed to bind to
specific DNA bases through complementary base-pairing.
• Cas9 stands for CRISPR- associated protein 9, & is the
nuclease part that cuts the DNA.
• The CRISPR-Cas9 system was originally discovered
in Bacteria that use this system to destroy
invading viruses.
Zinc-Finger Nucleases (ZFN):

The DNA-binding part of ZFNs is made of zinc-finger proteins, which each bind to about three DNA bases.
Different combinations of zinc-finger proteins bind to different sequences of DNA.
The nuclease part of ZFNs is normally a FokI nuclease, which cuts the DNA.
• Gene silencing is the regulation of gene expression in a cell to prevent the

expression of a certain gene.
• When genes are silenced, their expression is reduced. Ex: the researchers
Gene Silencing designed two small RNA molecules that silence the fungal genes which produce
aflatoxin in Groundnut.
• When genes are knocked out, they are completely erased from the organism's
genome and thus, have no expression.
• Specific gene silencing using RNAi in cell culture.
• Cancer treatments
Applications: • RNA interference has been used for applications in biotechnology.
• Useful in epigenomic analysis and clinical application of molecular diagnosis.
• Neuro-degenerative disorders treatment.
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA
• In addition to DNA in the nucleus, some DNA is also present in the mitochondria.
• During fertilization the nuclear DNA is formed with 46 chromosomes (i.e., 23 from mother & 23
chromosomes from the father).
• The Mitochondrial DNA has only one chromosome and its codes for only specific proteins responsible
for metabolism.
• Mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother & thus it is more effective to trace human ancestry.
THREE PARENT BABY

• Three-parent baby, human offspring produced from the genetic material of one man &two women
through the use of assisted reproductive technologies, specifically mitochondrial manipulation (or
replacement) technologies & three-person in vitro fertilization (IVF).
• This mechanism involves the replacement of a small amount of faulty DNA in a mother’s egg with healthy
DNA from a second woman.
• The idea is to prohibit certain genetic diseases being passed on to children.
Is it legalized?

The UK is the only country to have introduced laws to permit the technique. The European country legalized
the treatment in 2015.
EMBRYO TRANSFER TECHNOLOGY

• Embryo transfer refers to a step in the process of assisted reproduction in which embryos are placed
into the uterus of a female with the intent to establish a pregnancy.
• This technique (which is often used in connection with ‘In vitro fertilization’ (IVF)), may be used in humans
or in animals, in which situations the goals may vary.
• First performed in 1984.
• Factors that can affect the success of embryo transfer:
1. Endometrial receptivity,
2. Embryo quality and
3. Embryo transfer technique.
GM MOSQUITOES (GMMS)
• GMMs are mosquitoes that have been implanted with a gene or bacteria which was not originally
present or naturally occurring in the insect.
• Why GMMs?
Ø Each year, more than 700 000 people die from vector-borne diseases (VBDs) such as malaria, dengue,
yellow fever, Zika virus etc.,
Ø Hence, there is an urgent need for new tools to combat VBDs.
• What does it do?
Ø GMM approaches aimed at suppressing mosquito populations &reducing their susceptibility to
infection, as well as their ability to transmit disease-carrying pathogens.
• The WHO stand on GMMs:
Ø According to the WHO statement, GMMs could be a valuable new tool in efforts to eliminate malaria &
to control diseases carried by Aedes mosquitoes.
Ø WHO cautions, however, that the use of GMMs raises concerns& questions around ethics, safety,
governance, affordability & cost–effectiveness that must addressed.
HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (HGP)

• HGP was the international, collaborative research program whose goal was the complete mapping and
understanding of genome (all the genes) of human beings.
• This was first articulated in 1988 by a special committee of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences

• HGP was began in 1990 & completed in 2003.

• It led to the decoding of the entire human genome by sequencing & mapping all
HGP findings: of the genes of humans.
• The HGP gave us the ability, for the first time, to read nature’s complete genetic blue
print for building a human being.
• Can help us better understand diseases to direct appropriate treatment
Benefits: • More accurate prediction of their effects
• Advancement in forensic applied sciences etc.
GENOME INDIA PROJECT (GIP)

• It is aimed at studying the diversity of Indians and its impact on lifestyle, environment & genes that is
inherited.
• GIP also called, ‘Bioscience Mission for Precision Health & Optimal Well-being’.
• GIP is a combined initiative of Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Department of Health Research
&Department of Biotechnology.
• Nodal point: the IISc’s Centre for Brain Research.
• The first stage of the project will look at samples of “10,000 persons from all over the country” to form a
“grid” that will enable the development of a “reference genome”.
The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA):

• Landmark cancer genomics program, characterized over 20000 primary cancer and matched samples
spanning 33 cancer types.
• Minister of Science and Technology inaugurated the 2nd TCGA 2020 conference in New Delhi.
Indian Cancer Genome Atlas (ICGA): Aims to create indigenous, open-source database of molecular profiles
of all cancers prevalent in Indian population.
Cloning: Cloning is the process of producing individuals with identical or virtually identical DNA, either naturally
or artificially.
GM CROPS & ASSOCIATED ISSUES

• Genetically Modified (GM) Seeds: Genetic engineering aims to transcend the genus barrier by introducing
an alien gene in the seeds to get the desired effects. The alien gene could be from a plant, an animal or
even a soil bacterium.
• Genetic modification is done in GM crops to confer a particular trait with one of the following properties:
Ø Increased yield of a crop
Ø Increased nutritional content of a crop
Ø Developing resistance to:
1. Abiotic factors like temperature, salinity or herbicide resistant
2. Biotic factors like insects
GM Crops in India:
• Bt cotton, it has two alien genes from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that allows the crop to
develop a protein toxic to the common pest pink bollworm.
• Ht-Bt (Herbicide Resistant) Cotton is derived with the insertion of an additional gene, from another soil
bacterium, which allows the plant to resist the common herbicide glyphosate.
• In Bt brinjal, a gene allows the plant to resist attacks of fruit & shoot borer.
• In DMH-11 Mustard, genetic modification allows cross-pollination in a crop that self-pollinates in nature.

• Across the world, GM variants of maize, canola &soyabean, too, are available.
• Bt Cotton is the only GM crop that is allowed in India from 2002.
• Ht-Bt Cotton is not allowed to be cultivated in India.
• Bt Brinjal is under an indefinite moratorium on commercial cultivation since 2010 in India.
REGULATORY AUTHORITIES:
• GM Food: FASSI regulates manufacture, storage, distribution, sale & import GM food.
• For GM Crops: Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC)under MoEF&CC.
BIOTECHNOLOGY IN INDIA
• The remarkable march of India into the world of biosciences and technological advances began in 1986.
(Mr. Rajiv Gandhi period)
• In 1986, a separate Department for Biotechnology, within the Ministry of Science & Technology, GoI was
created.
• Vision: "Attaining new heights in biotechnology research, shaping biotechnology into a premier precision
tool of the future for creation of wealth & ensuring social justice especially for the welfare of the poor."
• BT has made a huge impact on Indian agriculture, healthcare, industry and environment on one hand, while
raising global standing of India.
• The National Biotechnology Development Strategy (2015-2020) aims to make India a US$ 100bn Bio-
economy by 2025.
BIO-Technology Kisan programme:

• Farmer-centric scheme, by DBT Ministry of Science & Technology.
• Pan India program to stimulates entrepreneurship and innovation in farmers and empowers women farmers.
• Aims to understands the problems and provide simple solutions to farmers.
Bio-Economy or Bio-Techonomy:
• It refers to all economic activity derived from scientific & research activity focused on biotechnology.
• It is closely linked to the evolution of the biotechnology industry.
Major initiatives of the National Biotechnology Development Strategy

• Launch four major missions in Healthcare, Food & Nutrition, Clean Energy and Education.
• Create a technology development & translation network across India with global partnership.
• Ensure strategic & focused investment in building the human capital by setting up a Life Sciences &
Biotechnology Education Council.
• BRAI is a proposed regulatory body to regulate the use of Genetically

BIOTECHNOLOGY Modified Organisms (GMOs), as per the provisions of the Bill
REGULATORY AUTHORITY OF introduced in the Parliament in 2013.
INDIA (BRAI)
• BRAI was needed as India had signed the Cartagena Protocol and the
Protocol mandates setting up of a Regulatory Body.
• The GEAC functions under the MoEF&CC.
• It is responsible for the appraisal of activities involving large-scale use
GENETIC ENGINEERING of hazardous microorganisms and recombinants in research &
APPRAISAL COMMITTEE
industrial production from the environmental angle.
(GEAC)
• Also responsible for the appraisal of proposals relating to the release
of GE organisms & products into the environment including
experimental field trials.

GEAC is chaired by the Special Secretary/Additional Secretary of

MoEF&CC and co-chaired by a representative from the Department of
Biotechnology (DBT).
Recombinant-DNA (R-DNA) Technology

• R-DNA is a “genetic engineering” technology used for producing Artificial DNA through the combination
of different genetic materials from different sources.
R-DNA involves several steps in specific sequence such as:

1. Isolation of DNA,
2. Fragmentation of DNA,
3. Isolation of a desired DNA fragment,
4. Ligation of the DNA fragment into a vector,
5. Transferring the R-DNA into the host,
6. Culturing the host cells and extraction of desired product.
Application:
1. In Gene Therapy to correct gene defects.
2. Useful in detecting presence of Human immunodeficiency virus. (ELISA test)
3. Production of Insulin.
STUDENT NOTES:

2. DEFENCE
Organisation Important Information

DEFENCE RESEARCH • DRDO is the R&D wing of Ministry of Defence, Government of India.
AND DEVELOPMENT • Established in 1958.
ORGANISATION (DRDO)
• It is a ‘not for profit’ company registered under Section 8 of the Companies
DEFENSE INNOVATION Act 2013.
ORGANISATION • Its two founding members are Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) &
Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) - Defence Public Sector Undertakings
(DPSUs).
COMMITTEES
Committee Year Purpose

N Chandrasekharan 2018 To study implications of AI in national security.
Shetkar Committee 2015 To suggest measures to enhance combat capability and rebalance
defence expenditure of the armed forces.
Defence Artificial Intelligence 2019 It aims for greater impetus on Artificial Intelligence in Defence.
Project Agency (DAIPA)
INDIA’S NUCLEAR DOCTRINE

• India conducted its first nuclear test in 1974 and the second nuclear test in 1998.
• India declared herself a nuclear weapon state in 1998 and came forward with Nuclear Doctrine in
2003.
• India's Nuclear Doctrine consist of the following major points:
Ø Credible Minimum Deterrence.
Ø No First Use policy i.e., India will use the weapon only in retaliation to a nuclear attack on Indian territory
or against Indian forces anywhere.
Ø Nuclear Command Authority-Retaliatory attacks will be authorized only by the civilian political
leadership
Ø Nuclear weapons will not be used against non-nuclear weapon states.
Ø Massive Retaliation.
NUCLEAR TRIAD
• A three-sided military-force structure consisting of land-launched nuclear missiles, nuclear-missile-
armed submarines, and strategic aircraft with nuclear bombs and missiles.
Land Based Agni; Agni-I; Agni-II; Agni III; Agni-IV; ICBM - Agni-V; SLBM - Sagarika (K-15); Cruise –
Brahmos Supersonic etc.
Sea Based Arihant class submarine
Air Based Mig-27 ETC
MISSILES
A missile is an intelligent unmanned rocket designed to carry the payload to a designated point with an aim of
destroying the object/target.

PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Type of Features
Propulsion
• Solid fuel used, mostly aluminium powder.
Solid propulsion • Can be easily stored.
• Reach high speed quickly.
Liquid • Liquid fuel used, i.e., hydrocarbons.
Propulsion • Storage difficult and complex.
• Can be controlled easily.
• No turbines
• Fuel injected and ignited.
• Cannot propel aerial vehicle to supersonic speeds.
Ramjet • It is a type of air breathing engine.
• the combustion chamber – where the air is mixed with fuel and ignited – only works
at subsonic speeds. So, the intake slows the air down, releasing some of its energy as
a shock wave, but this reduces fuel efficiency.
• Supersonic combustion ramjet.
• Combustion at supersonic velocities.
• Hydrogen fuel used.
Scramjet • It is a type of air breathing engine.
• India is fourth country apart from USA, Russia and ESA to demonstrate this
technology.
• The combustion chamber is specially designed to operate with supersonic airflow.
• Liquified gases at very low temp. e.g. Liquid hydrogen.
Cryogenic • Need insulated containers and vents.
• No air intake is required.

• India is sixth country apart from USA, Russia, France, japan, china to have this
technology.
BALLISTIC AND CRUISE MISSILES
Ballistic Missile Cruise Missile

It is propelled only for a brief duration after the Self-propelled till the end of its flight.
launch. It depends on gravity to reach its target.
Fixed target and parabolic path Moving target and no fixed path
They leave the earth’s atmosphere(Exosphere)and They remain within the earth’s atmosphere-
re-enter it. Endosphere
Low precision as trajectory depends on gravity, air High precision
resistance and Coriolis Force.
Can have a very long range (300 km to 12,000 km) The range is small (below 500 km)
Heavy payload carrying capacity. Payload capacity is limited.
Developed primarily to carry nuclear warheads. Developed primarily to carry conventional warheads.
E.g. Prithvi I, II, Agni I,II and Dhanush, Prahaar, E.g. BrahMos missiles
Prithvi and Trishul etc.
Types of ballistic missiles based on range: Types of cruise missiles based on speed:
1. Short range ballistic missile (SRBM)- 300 to 1. Hypersonic (Mach 5): speed is five times the
1000 KM speed of sound (Mach 5).
2. Medium range (MRBM)- 1000-3500 KM 2. Supersonic (Mach 2-3): speed is faster than the
3. Intermediate range (IRBM)- 3500-5500 KM speed of sound.
4. Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM)- 5500 3. Subsonic (Mach 0.8): speed is slower than the
KM speed of sound.
INDIAN MISSILE SYSTEM
Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP):

• It was conceived by Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam to enable India attain self-sufficiency in missile technology, in
response to the Missile Technology Control Regime.
• IGMDP was started in 1983 and completed in March 2012.
• It developed 5 types of missiles under it.
MISSILE DETAILS
• It is an intercontinental surface-to-surface, nuclear capable ballistic missile developed
by DRDO.
AGNI • At present, US, China, Russia, UK, France and Israel are known to have ICBMs.
• It has been equipped with very high accuracy.
• Ring Laser Gyro based Inertial Navigation System (RINS) and Micro Navigation System
(MINS).
• Tactical surface-to-surface short range ballistic missile.
• First missile developed under IGMDP in 1983.
• Uses either liquid or both liquid and solid fuels and are capable of carrying conventional as
PRITHVI well as nuclear warhead.
• Prithvi I- Army version-150 km range
• Prithvi II- Air force version-350 km range
• Prithvi III- Naval version-600 km range

• Short range surface-to-air missile for Indian Navy used for Immediate combat action.
TRISHUL • Range - 9km.
• Currently not in service.
• Anti-tank missile.
• Range - 4km.
NAG • 3rd generation ‘fire and forget’ guided missile where the target is identified and designated
before the weapon is launched.
• It is an all-weather condition with day and night capabilities.
• Launched from land and air-based platforms.
• Group of 4 medium range surface-to-air missile with a radar called Rajendra.
AKASH • Multi-target engagement capacity. Radar detects incoming objects and missiles are fired.
• Range – 30 km. Altitudes up to 18000m.
• Already in use.
OTHER MISSILES
• Astra is an all-weather beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile (BVRAAM)

• Range - 80km.
• Payload capacity: 15 kg.
ASTRA • First indigenously developed missile of India
• Uses solid fuel ducted Ramjet and has BVRAAM (beyond visual range air-to-air
missile) technology.
• Can destroy enemy aircrafts at supersonic speed.
• Solid-fuel, surface-to-surface tactical ballistic missile
PRAHAAR • Range - 150km.
• Payload capacity - 200 to 500kg.
PRALAY • solid fuel surface-to-surface tactical missile.
• Payload - 1 tonne and has range of 350 km.
• NIRBHAY is India’s first indigenous Long Range, all-weather, Sub-Sonic Cruise
Missile,
• It can carry a warhead of 200 kg to 300 kg at a speed of 0.6 to 0.7 Mach with a
launch weight of about 1500 kg.
NIRBHAY • It can avoid detection as it has ability to cruise at heights as low as 100 m.
• Can be launched from multiple platforms and is capable of carrying conventional
and nuclear warheads.
• Two-stage missile powered by Solid rocket motor booster.
• Range of 1000km.
• Sea-to-sea/surface short range ballistic missile.
DHANUSH • Range - 350km.
• Capable of carrying nuclear warheads.
• BRAHMOS is a joint venture between the Defence Research and Development
Organisation of India (DRDO) and the NPOM of Russia.
• Named after the rivers Brahmaputra (India) and Moskva (Russia).
• Two-stage (solid propellant engine in the first stage and liquid ramjet in second)
air-to-surface missile.
BRAHMOS MISSILE • Range - around 300 km.
SYSTEM • Speed - Mach 2.8
• India’s entry into the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) has extended the
range of the BRAHMOS missile to reach 450 km-600km.
• Can be launched from land, air, and sea and multi capability missile with pinpoint
accuracy that works in both day and night irrespective of the weather conditions.
• Operates on the “Fire and Forgets” principle.
• One of the fastest cruise missiles currently operationally deployed.

• Lower target dispersion and quicker engagement.
• Low radar signature.
• Indigenous multi-barrel rocket launch system, for the Indian Army by DRDO
PINAKA MISSILE • The navigation system - aided by the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System
SYSTEM (IRNSS).
• Range more than 70 km.
• It is the first indigenous anti-radiation missile of the country.
• Range of up to 200 km depending upon the launch conditions.
Rudra M-I • Can be launched from altitudes of 500 m to 15 km and speeds of 0.6 to 2 mach.
• Can locate and target any radiation-emitting source like enemy radars,
communication sites and other Radio Frequency (RF) emitting targets.
• To develop highly potent Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT).
• It is a joint programme of DRDO and the Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO).
• Anti-satellite (ASAT) System is missile-based system to attack moving satellites.
• ASAT propels India to the coveted space-superpower league.
• India will now have the power to decimate satellites for pure military and strategic
Anti-Satellite purpose.
Weapons (ASAT) • India will have the capability to interfere with satellites or engage in direct attacks.
MISION SHAKTI • ASAT missile can be air, sea or land based.
• Can also help in creating nuclear missile deterrence.
• In March 2019, India successfully tested its ASAT missile.
• joining a select group of nations – USA, Russia and China with a similar technology.
• India used the Kinetic Kill space technology.
• The ASAT missile destroyed a live satellite in Low Earth orbit (283-kilometre).
• As per DRDO, the missile is capable of shooting down targets moving at a speed of
10 km per second at an altitude as high as 1200 km.
AIR DEFENCE SYSYEMS
INDIAN BALLISTIC MISSILE DEFENCE PROGRAMME:

• India’s BMD development began in 1999, after the Kargil war.
• It is a two-tiered defence system and will be able to intercept any incoming missile launched 5,000 km away.
1. Prithvi Air Defence (PAD): It’s designed for High altitude interception (exo-atmospheric interception).
2. Advanced Air Defence (AAD): It’s endo-atmospheric interception system (for low altitude
interception).
ANTI-BALLISTIC MISSILE SYSTEMS:
S-400 TRIUMF MISSILE SYSTEM Russia - It is a mobile, surface-to-air missile system .

THAAD-Terminal High Altitude Area US- a transportable, ground-based
Defense system
Iron Dome Aerial Defence System Israel
INDIAN NAVY
SUBMARINES:
• Gets energy from nuclear reactor so can stay submerged in water for months.
Nuclear-powered • Difficult for enemy to detect.
• Can float near territorial waters of enemy nation.

• Provide excellent second-striking capability

• SSN: submersible ship nuclear-powered-specifically designed for attacking and
sinking other submarines/ships. Generally, do not carry long range missiles.
• SSBN: submersible ship Ballistic Nuclear-Powered-have the capability to deploy
submarine launched ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads.
• Come on waterbody surface after regular intervals because burning of diesel needs
oxygen
Diesel-powered • Easy for enemy to detect
• Can’t float near territorial waters of enemy nation
• Don’t possess that advantage
• Generally small submarines designed for specific tasks, which include attack on
enemy in combat.
Attack Submarines • It uses torpedoes and other small range missiles.
• These submarines have limited range and need to come out of the water after some
time.
• Bigger in size and are more destructive for the enemy.
• It is used as a launch platform for ballistic or long-range missiles.
Ballistic Missile • These can carry nuclear warheads.
Submarines • These submarines are nuclear powered submarines. As a result, have almost
unlimited range because of availability of unlimited power supply.
• These can remain under water for months and can travel up to thousand miles.
IN SERVICE:
Class Type Boats Origin

Nuclear-powered submarines (3)
Chakra (Akula II) class Attack submarine (SSN) INS Chakra Russia
Arihant class Ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) INS Arihant India
INS Arigha
Diesel-electric submarines (14)
Shishumar class Attack submarine INS Shishumar West Germany

INS Shankush India
INS Shalki
INS Shankul
Kalvari class Attack submarine INS Kalvari France
INS Khanderi India
Sindhughosh class Attack submarine INS Sindhughosh Russia
INS Sindhudhvaj
INS Sindhuraj
INS Sindhuratna
INS Sindhukesari
INS Sindhukirti
INS Sindhuvijay
INS Sindhurashtra
PROJECTS BY NAVY:
Project Name Features

• Part of a 30-year submarine building plan from 2007 upto 2030.

PROJECT 75 • This project envisages the construction of six conventional submarines with better
sensors and weapons and the Air Independent Propulsion System (AIP)- Kalvari,
Khanderi, Karanj, Vela, Vagir and Vagsheer.
• Under this 4 Anti-Submarine Warships have to be built indigenously in India.
PROJECT 28 • Four corvettes- INS Kamorta, INS Kadmatt, INS Kiltan and INS Kavaratti.
• The warships are named after the islands in the Lakshadweep archipelago.
PROJECT 17A • Involves the building of seven stealth frigates.
INITIATIVES TO MODERNISE DEFENCE INDUSTRY:
Strategic • It identifies a few Indian private companies who would initially tie up with global
Partnership (SP) Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) to seek technology transfers to set up
Model domestic manufacturing infrastructure and supply chains.
• Launched in 2018.
• Aims to promote innovation and technology development in Defence and
Aerospace by engaging Industries (which includes MSMEs, start-ups, individual
iDEX innovators, R&D institutes & academia)with funding and other support to carry out
Research & Development.
• It will be funded and managed by Defence Innovation Organization (DIO) and will
function as the executive arm of DIO.
DEFENCE INDIGENISATION
• Raising the sectoral cap of foreign direct investment (FDI) (automatic approval) from the existing 49% to
74%.
• A negative list for the import of defence equipment in India- means that the Armed Force will only procure
all of these 101 items from domestic manufacturers.
• Corporatization of the Ordnance Factory Board (OFB) and Defence industrial corridors in Tamil Nadu and
UP.
• SRIJAN portal for domestic vendors- one stop shop online portal that will give information on items that
can be taken up for indigenization by the private sector.
• Naval Innovation and Indigenization Organisation (NIIO) has been launched by the Defence Minister of India.
• Objective- To foster innovation and indigenization for self-reliance in defence in keeping with the vision of
Atma Nirbhar Bharat.
• Mission Raksha Gyan Shakti -to promote a culture of innovation and technology development and for
promoting the creation of Intellectual Property in the sector and its commercial utilisation.
DEFENCE CORRIDORS
• Defence corridors are refers to a route or path along which domestic production of defence equipment by
public sector, private to enhance the defence capability.
• Proposed to develop two defence corridors at Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
NEW DEFENCE ACQUISITION PROCEDURE OF 2020 (DAP 2020)

• DAP 2020 will govern the procurement of defence equipment from the capital budget.
• It superseded the Defence Procurement Procedure of 2016.
• Reservation in Categories for Indian Vendors- Some categories like Buy (Indian Indigenously Designed
Developed and Manufactured - IDDM), Production Agency in Design & Development etc. will be exclusively
reserved for Indian Vendors.

• Overall Greater indigenous content requirement:
• Measuring indigenous content- Indigenous content will now be calculated on ‘Base Contract Price’-Total
Contract Price, less taxes and duties.
• Offset liability- The government has decided not to have an offset clause in procurement of defence
equipment if the deal is done through inter-government agreement (IGA), government-to-government, single
vendor.
• Leasing introduced as a new category for acquisition in addition to the existing ‘Buy’ and ‘Make’ categories
so that periodical rental payments are made instead of huge capital investment.
UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE

• Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV)/Drones are a class of aircrafts that can fly without the onboard presence of
pilots.
• There are three subsets of Unmanned Aircraft- Remotely Piloted Aircraft, Autonomous Aircraft and Model
Aircraft.
• Some UAV used by Indian Military are: DRDO Abhyas; DRDO Fluffy; DRDO Imperial Eagle; DRDO Kapothaka;
DRDO Lakshya; DRDO Netra; DRDO Nishant; DRDO Rustom & Rustom II; DRDO Ulka.
INDIA DRONE REGULATIONS:

• India has a ‘No Permission-No Takeoff’ (NPNT) clause, which implies that a drone cannot be operated in
Indian skies unless the regulatory permission is received through the Digital Sky Platform
• Registration is required for all but the Nano category.
• Drone Categories in India:
1. Nano: Less than or equal to 250 grams
2. Micro: From 250 grams to 2 kg
3. Small: From 2 kg to 25 kg
4. Medium: From 25 kg to 150 kg
5. Large: Greater than 150 kg
CHEMICAL WEAPONS
• A Chemical Weapon is a chemical used to cause intentional death or harm

Definition through its toxic properties. Equipment specifically designed to weaponize
toxic chemicals also fall under this definition.
Chemical Weapons • CWC is a multilateral treaty that bans chemical weapons and requires their
Convention (CWC) destruction within a specified period of time.
• It is implemented by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical
Weapons (OPCW)

• Three states have neither signed nor ratified the convention are Egypt,
North Korea and South Sudan.
• Headquarter-Hague, Netherlands.
• OPCW was established by the Chemical Weapons Convention, 1997 to
Organization for the implement and enforce the terms of the non-proliferation treaty.
Prohibition of Chemical • It is authorized to perform inspections, perform testing of sites and victims
Weapons (OPCW) of suspected chemical weapons attacks to verify that signatory states are
complying with the convention.
• OPCW won the 2013 Nobel peace prize.
• India ratified the CWC in 1996.
• As a state party to the CWC India enacted Chemical Weapons Convention Act
Chemical weapons and in 2000.
India • National Authority Chemical Weapons Convention (NACWC) has been
established under the Chemical Weapons Convention Act, 2000 for
implementing the provisions of the Convention
• Chlorine gas - Choking agent
• Sarin gas - Nerve agent.
• Novichok -Nerve Agent- 5-8 times more lethal than VX nerve agent.
Chemical agents in news • Cyanide- Blood Agent
• Phosgene, Sulphur Mustard- Blister agents
• VX- very persistent once in the atmosphere, it is slow to evaporate, and thus
tends to cause prolonged exposure.
BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS
Biological weapons are microorganisms like virus, bacteria, fungi, or other toxins that are produced and
released deliberately to cause disease and death in humans, animals or plants. Examples- anthrax, botulinum
toxin, Plague, Ricin etc.
Biological Agents Chemical Agents

Natural origin Man-made
Difficult, costly, small-scale production Large-scale, cheaper, industrial production
Odourless and tasteless Many have noticeable odour or taste. One exception is
sarin gas, which is both odourless and tasteless.
Disseminated as aerosols in air or in water or food Disseminated as aerosols or liquids
Most won't penetrate skin Can penetrate skin
Delayed onset of physical effects Has immediate physical effects
Crisis measured in weeks, months Crisis typically measured in hours, days
Delayed response that would build Immediate, large response for some agents. Delayed
for others.
BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION (BWC):

• It is the first multilateral disarmament treaty banning the development, production and stockpiling of an
entire category of weapons of mass destruction. BWC entered into force on 26 March 1975.
• India signed the convention in 1973.
• The BWC bans:
Ø The development, stockpiling, acquisition, retention, and production of:
Ø Biological agents and toxins “of types and in quantities that have no justification for prophylactic,
protective or other peaceful purposes;”

Ø Weapons, equipment, and delivery vehicles “designed to use such agents or toxins for hostile purposes
or in armed conflict.”
Ø The transfer of or assistance with acquiring the agents, toxins, weapons, equipment, and delivery vehicles
described above.
STUDENT NOTES:

3. HEALTH
CARBOHYDRATES
• Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissues and including sugars, starch
and cellulose.
• They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically can be broken down to
release energy in the animal body.
TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES:
On the hydrolysis basis: Monosaccharides, Oligosaccharides, Polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides: • It cannot be hydrolysed further into a simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or

ketone. E.g.: Glucose, Fructose, Ribose, Galactose, etc.
• On hydrolysis, it yields two to ten monosaccharides units, e.g., disaccharides,
trisaccharide, etc.
Oligosaccharides: • Sucrose == Glucose + Fructose
• Maltose == Glucose + Glucose
• Lactose == Glucose + Galactose
• On hydrolysis, it yields a large number of monosaccharides unit. E.g.: Starch,
Polysaccharides: Cellulose, Glycogen, Gums.
• Polysaccharides are long chains of sugars, not sweet, hence called non-sugars.
• Insulin is a polymer of fructose.
DIABETES MELLITUS
• Generally referred as Diabetes, is a chronic condition where the Pancreas gland does not generate
enough insulin required by the body to regulate glucose metabolism, which led to high blood sugar levels in
body.
• All carbohydrates foods are broken down into glucose in the blood. Insulin is a hormone produce by the
pancreas, which helps glucose to get into cells. (insulin converts glucose into glycogen)
• Normal blood sugar level for our body is 150- 200mg/dl.
Two classes of Diabetes Mellitus:
• It is one of type where the pancreas doesn’t produce enough insulin in

Type 1 DM/ Insulin body, it needs daily insulin injection to maintain blood glucose level.
dependent diabetes • Type 1 diabetes can develop at any age, but most frequently occurs in
children and adolescents.
• In this type, pancreas produces some insulin, but it’s not sufficient as
Type 2 DM/ Insulin resistance per body requirements and cells are resistant to it.
diabetes • Type 2 diabetes treatment involved healthy lifestyle, regular physical
activities and healthy diets.
• More commons in adults, and accounts for 90% of diabetes cases.
• is a type of diabetes usually occurs when a pregnant women develops
Gestational Diabetes high blood sugar levels without a previous history of diabetes.
• It usually disappears after pregnancy but mother and child are at high
risk of developing type 2 diabetes in later stages of life.
PROTEINS
• Any of a class of nitrogenous organic compounds which have large molecules composed of one or more long
chains of amino acids and are an essential part of all living organisms, especially as structural components
of body tissues such as muscle, hair etc., and as enzymes and antibodies.
• Collagen is the most abundant protein in the animal world.
• Proteins can be classified into two types based on molecular shape: Fibrous proteins (fiber-like structure,
insoluble in water), Globular proteins (spherical shape, soluble in water).
Proteins Functions
Collagen Intercellular ground substance
Insulin Hormone
Antibody Fight Infectious agents
Receptor Sensory reception(smell, taste etc)
GLUT-4 Enables glucose transport into cells
VITAMINS
• Organic compounds required in small amount in our bodies to develop and function normally.
• Most of the vitamins cannot be synthesized in our body but plants can synthesize almost all of them.
• Vitamins can be classified on basis of solubility:
• Fat-Soluble vitamins: Soluble in fats and oil but insoluble in water. They are stored in liver and adipose
tissues. E.g., vitamin A, D, E, K (KEDA).
• Water-Soluble vitamins: needs regular supply in the diet, excreted in urine and cannot be stored in our
body. E.g., vitamin B and C groups (except B12).
• Deficiency of vitamins can cause several diseases.
Vitamins/Minerals Deficiency disease Sources Functions

Night blindness Green leafy vegetables, Necessary for wound healing,
A (Retinol) – Fat broccoli, tomatoes, growth and normal immune
soluble carrots, milk, liver, functions, formation of
watermelon etc. rhodopsin for vision in dim light
B1 (Thiamine) – Beriberi Fresh fruits, corn, cashew Part of an Enzyme, needed for
Water soluble nuts, peas, wheat, milk, energy metabolism and nerve
(Anti stress dates, black beans etc. functions.
vitamin)
Ariboflavinosis, Bananas, grapes,
Essentials for growth,
B2 (Riboflavin) - Photophobia, poor pumpkin, yoghurt,
enzymatic role in tissue
Water soluble growth mushroom, popcorn, liver
respiration and acts as
etc. transporter of hydrogen ions.
B3 (Niacin) - Pellagra, dermatitis, Meat, eggs, fish, milk,Helps in oxidation and energy
Water soluble dementia guava, peanuts, cereals,
releases, synthesis of glycogen
green peas etc. and breakdown of fatty acids
B5 (Pantothenic Fatigue, loss of Meat, kidney, egg yolk, Synthesis of vital body
Acid) - Water antibody production, fish, chicken, legumes, compounds, essential in
soluble sleep disturbances avocado etc. intermediary metabolism of
carbohydrates, fats and protein.
B6 (Pyridoxine) - Microcytic Anaemia, Pork, chicken, bread, Essential for normal growth,
Water soluble irritability wholegrain, soya beans, Synthesis and breakdown of
cereals etc. amino acids and unsaturated
fatty acids

Dermatitis, enteritis, Walnuts, peanuts, milk, Essential components of

B7 (Biotin) - insomnia egg yolks, salmon, enzymes, carrier of carbon
Water soluble mushroom, cauliflower, dioxide, metabolism of fatty
banana, raspberries etc. acids and amino acids
B9 (Folic Acid) - Megaloblastic anaemia Citrus fruits, green leafy Essential in biosynthesis of
Water soluble (poor growth) vegetables, beets, legumes nucleic acids, necessary for red
etc. blood cell maturation
Pernicious anaemia, Fish, meats, poultry, eggs, Essential in biosynthesis of
B12 (Cobalamin) neurological Breast milk etc. nucleic acids, red blood cell
deterioration maturation; involved in central
nervous system metabolism
Scurvy (bleeding Fresh citrus such as Essential in synthesis of
C (Ascorbic Acid) - gums) oranges, grapefruit, collagen, iron absorption and
Water soluble broccoli, goat milk, transportation, water soluble
chestnuts etc. antioxidants;
Rickets (soft bones) Fish, beef, cod liver oil, egg Necessary for normal bone
D (Calciferol) - Fat yolk, liver, cereals etc. formation, helps absorption of
soluble calcium and phosphorus in
Intestines
E (Tocopherol) - Muscles damages, less Potatoes, pumpkin, guava, Antioxidants, role in
Fat soluble fertility mango, Breast milk, nuts neuromuscular function
and seeds.
K (Phytonadione) Non-clotting of blood Tomatoes, broccoli, Required in other blood clothing
- Fat soluble mangoes, grapes, chest factors, synthesis by intestinal
nuts, lamb etc. bacteria
Rickets- abnormal Breast milk, yogurt, Builds and maintains bones and
Calcium development of bones cheese, fortified grains, teeth, essential in blood clotting
kale, mustards, salmon.
Endemic goitre, Breast milk, seafood, Helps regulate thyroid
Iodine depressed thyroid iodized salt hormones, regulation of cellular
function oxidation and growth
Hypochromic Breast milk, meat, liver, Formation of haemoglobin and
Iron microcytic anaemia, legumes, cereals, green oxygen transport, increase
lethargy leafy vegetables resistant to infections.
Mild anaemia, hair loss, Breast milk, egg yolk, Components of many enzyme
Zinc growth failure seafood, liver, oysters, system and insulin
whole-grain breads,
cereals
Muscles weakness, Orange juice, bananas, Builds and maintains bones and
Phosphorus cardiac arrhythmias. yogurt, potatoes, soy teeth, functions in energy
products metabolism.
CHOLESTEROL
• It is an organic compound, fat-like insoluble waxy substance, found in all cells of our body and is circulated
through the blood cells with the help of Lipoproteins.
• Cholesterol is synthesized in the liver.
• Two types of Cholesterol:
1. Low-Density Lipoproteins (LDL): Bad cholesterol.
2. High-Density Lipoproteins (HDL): Good cholesterol.
• Cholesterol plays an important role in creating cells, hormones, vitamin D production and bile acids.
FATS
• Fat is a major source of energy and helps our body absorb vitamins.
• Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol.
• Fats are solid at room temperature, generally insoluble in water.
• Essential Fatty acid: are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body.
• Two essential fatty acids: alpha-linolenic acid (an Omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an Omega- 6 fatty
acids).
Two types of Fats on basis of saturation:
• Fats in which the fatty acids all have single bonds.

SATURATED FAT: • Saturated fat has the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons.
• Most animal fats are saturated whereas plants and animal fats are unsaturated.
• Not healthy, less vulnerable to rancidity, solid at room temperature.
• In which there is at least one double bond within the fatty acid.
• Hydrogen is eliminated by double bonds.
UNSATURATED FAT: • Unsaturated fats are lesser in energy than the equivalent amount of saturated
fats.
• The greater the unsaturation means more vulnerable to rancidity.
• Omega-3 and Omega-6, Monosaturated and Polyunsaturated.
• Omega-3 and Omega-6 are polyunsaturated fatty acids are heart-healthy fats,
HEALTHY FATS: important components of cell membranes.
• Some sources of fats include almonds, cashews, pecans, pumpkins,
sunflower seeds, Olive oil, vegetable oils pine nuts etc.
• Saturated fat and Trans-fat.
• Saturated fats are primarily found in meats and dairy products.
• Solid fats, unhealthy because they increase LDL(bad cholesterol) levels and
increase heart diseases.
• Sources of saturated fats are high-fat cheeses, high-fat cuts of meat, butter,
UNHEALTHY FATS ice cream, palm, coconut oils etc.
• Trans fat is simply liquid oils turned into solid fats during food processing.
• Trans fats are worse than saturated fats, it increases LDL (bad cholesterol)
and decreases HDL (good cholesterol).
• Trans fatty acids are used as a preservative in packaged food items.
• Our body normally makes 85% of cholesterol, we need only 15% of cholesterol
or fat from outside.
MALNUTRITION
Malnutrition occurs when the body doesn't get enough nutrients. Causes include a poor diet, digestive conditions
or another disease. The nutrients involved are calories, carbohydrates, vitamins, proteins or minerals.
MALNUTRITION- TYPES:
Undernutrition: This covers stunting (low height for age), wasting (low weight for height),underweight
(low weight for age) and micronutrient deficiencies (lack of important minerals).
Acute • Marasmus- due to lack of nutrients, body fats and tissues starts degenerating at an
Malnutrition or alarming rate, affects the immune system of the body.
wasting: • Kwashiorkor- happens due to retention of fluid in legs, an under-nourished child
looks very plump.
• Marasmic- Kwashiorkor – happens due to oedema and severe wasting.

• Overweight and obesity are defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that
Obesity: presents a risk to health such as heart diseases, stroke, diabetes etc.
• A body mass index (BMI) over 25 is considered overweight, and over 30 is obese.
• Body Mass Index (BMI)= Weight/Height.
• Normal BMI is in the range of 18-25.
Related Information:
• Global Nutrition Report 2020- India is among 88 countries that are likely to miss the global nutrition’s
target by 2025.
• FAO- 14.5% of India’s population is undernourished.
• Global Hunger Index 2019 report- India ranked 102nd out of 117 countries.
• UNICEF report- 38% of children younger than 5 years of age in India are stunted.
• Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh has the highest percentages of underweight childbirths in India.
• World Food Day- October 16, to address the problem of global Hunger.
• POSHAN Abhiyan- to ensure a “Malnutrition Free India” by 2022.
• Mid-day Meal scheme- to improve nutritional levels in school children.
Initiatives • National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013- to ensure food and nutrition security
to most vulnerable, making access to food a legal right.
• Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme- aims at providing food,
preschool education, primary healthcare to children under 6 years of age and their
mothers.
STUDENT NOTES:

4. DISEASES
• Diseases are abnormal conditions that have a specific set of signs and symptoms.
• Diseases can have an external cause, such as an infection, or an internal cause, such as autoimmune diseases.
Types:
Communicable
Diseases
Non Communicable
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
A communicable disease is one that is spread from one person to another through a variety of ways that include:
contact with blood and bodily fluids; breathing in an airborne virus; or by being bitten by an insect. Ex: HIV, TB,
Malaria etc.
HOW DO THESE COMMUNICABLE DISEASES SPREAD?

Some ways in which communicable diseases spread are by:
1. Physical contact with an infected person, such as through touch (staphylococcus), sexual intercourse
(gonorrhea, HIV), fecal/oral transmission (hepatitis A), or droplets (influenza, TB)
2. Contact with a contaminated surface or object (Norwalk virus), food (salmonella, E. coli), blood (HIV,
hepatitis B), or water (cholera);
3. Bites from insects or animals capable of transmitting the disease (mosquito: malaria and yellow fever; flea:
plague); and
4. Travel through the air, such as tuberculosis or measles.
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES CAUSED BY BACTERIA:
1. TUBERCULOSIS (TB):
• According to WHO, TB is one of the top 10 causes of death worldwide and the leading cause of death from a
single infectious agent (ranking above HIV/AIDS).
• TB is caused by the bacillus Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• The disease typically affects the lungs (pulmonary TB) but can also affect other sites (extrapulmonary TB).
• India’s TB burden is the highest in the world, followed by Indonesia and China.
• TB is a disease of poverty, and economic distress, vulnerability, marginalization, stigma and discrimination
are often faced by people affected by TB (WHO).
• Latent TB doesn’t have symptoms. A skin or blood test can tell if you have it.
Tuberculosis Signs and • Signs of active TB disease include: A cough that lasts more than 3 weeks, Chest
Symptoms pain, Coughing up blood, Feeling tired all the time, Night sweats, Chills, Fever,
Loss of appetite, Weight loss.
• TB is curable and preventable.
Tuberculosis Treatment • About 85% of people who develop TB disease can be successfully treated with
a 6-month drug regimen.
• Vaccine/drug: BCG living attenuated bacteria, Antibiotics e.g. streptomycin.
Drug-Resistant TB: • Multidrug Resistance TB (MDR): It is TB that does not respond to at least
isoniazid and rifampicin (2 of the most powerful first-line drugs).

• Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis(XDR-TB): It is resistant to at

least four of the core anti-TB drugs. It involves multidrug-resistance (MDR-
TB), in addition to resistance to any of the fluoroquinolones (such as
levofloxacin or moxifloxacin) and at least one of the three injectable second-
line drugs (amikacin, capreomycin or kanamycin).
• Totally Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis(TDR-TB): TB which is resistant to all
the first- and second-line TB drugs.
• Vision: A world free of TB with zero deaths, disease and suffering due to TB.
o It has three high-level, overarching indicators and related targets for 2035:
Ø 95% reduction in the number of TB deaths compared with 2015.
Ø 90% reduction in TB incidence rate compared with 2015.
WHO- End TB Strategy: Ø Zero the level of catastrophic costs for TB-affected families.
• Nikshay: Indian government’s web-based TB case monitoring system.
• TrueNat: is a new molecular test that can diagnose TB in one hour as well as
testing for resistance to the drug rifampicin. Developed by an Indian firm
MolBio Diagnostics Pvt Ltd & endorsed by the WHO.
• TB Vaccination has been covered under the ‘Universal Immunization
Programme’.
Government • Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP) released ‘National
interventions to Strategic Plan to end TB’ framework in 2017 for the control and elimination
eliminate TB: of TB in India by 2025. The RNTCP is being implemented under the umbrella
of the National Health Mission.
• ‘TB Harega Desh Jeetega Campaign’ by the Ministry of Health to improve
and expand the reach of TB care services across the country, by 2022.
National Strategic Plan to end TB in India by 2025

• It provides goals and strategies for the country’s response to the disease during the period 2017-2025.
• It targets to eliminate TB five years ahead of the global End TB (by 2030) targets under SDGs to attain the
vision of a TB-free India.
• TB elimination has been integrated into the four strategic pillars of “Detect – Treat – Prevent – Build”
(DTPB).
2. DIARRHOEA:
• Loose, watery stools that occur more frequently than usual.
• It is primarily caused when there is a reduction in the absorption of fluid by intestines or an increase in the
secretion of fluid or speedy passage of stool through intestines.
• Diarrhoea is classified into two types, namely:
1. Acute diarrhoea: may last for 2 or 3 days, but not more than a week. It is not a life-threatening condition
and can be cured by taking relevant medications.
2. Chronic diarrhoea: may last for 1 or 2 weeks, but it can last much longer. This is usually due to other
underlying gastrointestinal diseases.
• Symptoms: Loose stools, Vomiting, Nausea, Cramps, The feeling of a bowel movement, Abdominal pain,
Fever, Bloody stools (rare cases)
• Treatment: Generally, acute diarrhoea will recede on its own, within 2 to 3 days without any treatment. But
it is advised to consult the physician regardless.
3. ANTHRAX:
• Anthrax is a serious infectious disease caused by gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria known as Bacillus
anthracis.
• Anthrax can be found naturally in soil and commonly affects domestic and wild animals around the world.
• Affects animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats more often than people. People can get anthrax from contact
with infected animals, wool, meat, or hides.
• Spread: It does not spread directly from one infected animal or person to another; it is spread by spores.
These spores can be transported by clothing or shoes.
• Symptoms: People may experience pain in the chest or muscles, Skin blister, dark scab, Ulcers, fever or
malaise, respiratory distress or shortness of breath, coughing, headache, itching, nausea, sore throat, or
swollen lymph nodes.
• Treatment: The standard treatment for anthrax is a 60-day course of an antibiotic. Examples include
ciprofloxacin (Cipro) or doxycycline (Doryx, Monodox).
• The anti-anthrax vaccines available in the market generate an immune response against a Bacillus
protein-protective antigen- a protein that helps in the transport of bacillus toxins inside the cells.
4. LEPROSY:
• Leprosyis a chronic, curable infectious disease mainly causing skin lesions and nerve damage.
• Caused by: bacterium Mycobacterium leprae. It mainly affects the skin, eyes, nose and peripheral nerves.
• Symptoms include light-colored or red skin patches with reduced sensation, numbness and weakness in
hands and feet.
• Mode of Transmission: Mainly by breathing airborne droplets from the affected individuals. It can be
contacted at any age.
• Treatment: Leprosy can be cured with 6-12 months of Multi-Drug Therapy (MDT). Early treatment avoids
disability.
• Rifampicin and clofazimine are now combined with dapsone to treat multi-bacillary leprosy.
• Leprosy is one of the oldest diseases in recorded history, afflicting humanity

since time immemorial. A written account of Leprosy date as far back as 600
B.C.
Related Information • Leprosy is also known as Hansen’s Disease.
• World Leprosy Day is observed on the last Sunday in January every year.
Theme (2020): ‘Leprosy isn’t what you think’.
• The day was chosen by French humanitarian Raoul Follereau in 1953 to
coincide with the anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi's death on 30th January
1948.
• Launched the WHO in 2016
Global Leprosy • Aims to reinvigorate efforts to control leprosy and avert disabilities, especially
Strategy 2016–2020: among children still affected by the disease in endemic countries.
Accelerating towards a • The strategy emphasizes the need to sustain expertise and increase the
leprosy-free world number of skilled leprosy staff, improve the participation of affected persons
in leprosy services and reduce visible deformities as well as stigmatization
associated with the disease.
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES
1. ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME/AIDS:

• Caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
• HIV is a lentivirus, which is a sub-classification of the retrovirus. It causes the HIV infection which over time
leads to AIDS.
• HIV demolishes a particular type of WBC (White Blood Cells) and the T-helper (CD4) cells.

• Unlike some other viruses, the human body can’t get rid of HIV completely, even with treatment. So once a
person gets HIV, currently, there is no cure for it.
• ELISA is a test that detects & measures antibodies in the blood.

• This test can be used to determine antibodies related to certain infectious
conditions.
ELISA (Enzyme- • Antibodies are proteins that your body produces in response to harmful
Linked substances called antigens.
Immunosorbent • An ELISA test may be used to diagnose: HIV, which causes AIDS, Lyme disease,
Assay) TEST: Pernicious anaemia, Rotavirus, Varicella-zoster virus (which causes chickenpox)
and shingles Zika virus.
• ELISA is often used as a screening tool before more in-depth tests are ordered.
• NOTE: For the 1st time India has developed (by National Institute of Virology,
Pune) an indigenous ELISA test for coronavirus.
• HAART is a treatment regimen typically comprised of a combination of three or
more antiretroviral drugs.
• HAART may also be called Anti-Retroviral Therapy (ART) or combination
antiretroviral therapy (cART).
• This combination therapy is primarily indicated to treat Human
Highly Active Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) infected patients.
Antiretroviral • A key feature of HAART is the co-administration of different drugs that inhibit
Therapy (HAART) viral replication by several mechanisms so that propagation of a virus with
resistance to a single agent becomes inhibited by the action of the other two
agents.
• NOTE: Though HAART’s primary goal is to reduce the transmission of HIV-1,
HAART is also utilized in the treatment of HIV Type-2. But currently, there is no
specific guideline of recommendations for HIV-2 treatment. Instead, HIV-2
management is under HIV-1 guidelines with some modifications.
2. POLIO
• It is a highly infectious viral disease which invades the nervous system and can cause irreversible paralysis
within hours.
• There are three individual and immunologically distinct wild poliovirus strains: Wild Poliovirus Type1
(WPV1), Wild Poliovirus Type 2 (WPV2) and Wild Poliovirus Type 3 (WPV3).
Oral polio vaccine: • It consists of a mixture of live attenuated strains of polioviruses of three (now only
two OPV 1 and OPV 3) different types of serotypes.
Inactivated • This protects people against all three types of poliovirus.
Poliovirus Vaccine • IPV does not contain a live virus, so people who receive this vaccine do not shed
(IPV): the virus and cannot infect others and the vaccine cannot cause disease.
Polio Status in India:

• India launched the Pulse Polio Immunization Programme in 1995 brought down polio cases from 50,000-
100,000 each year in the 80s to zero in 2012.
• In January 2014, India was declared polio-free after three years on zero cases.
• India introduced the injectable polio vaccine in the Universal Immunization Programme to reduce chances
of Vaccine Derived Polio Virus (VDPV), which continues to happen in the country.
GLOBAL POLIO ERADICATION INITIATIVE

• Public-private partnership to eradicate polio worldwide

• It has five partners, the WHO, Rotary International, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
UNICEF, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and GAVI, the vaccine alliance.
3. ZIKA VIRUS
• Zika is a viral infection spread by Aedes aegypti mosquito.
• In most cases, there are no symptoms. In a few cases, Zika can trigger paralysis (Guillain-Barré Syndrome).
• In pregnant women, it may cause subsequent birth defects. When present, symptoms are mild and last less
than a week. They include fever, rash, joint pain and red eyes.
• There's no vaccine or specific treatment. Instead, the focus is on relieving symptoms and includes rest,
rehydration and acetaminophen for fever and pain.
• Aspirin and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen should be avoided.
4. DENGUE
• Dengue is a viral disease transmitted mainly through female mosquitoes of the species Aedes Aegypti,
which thrives in tropical climates.
• Symptoms include high fever, headache, rash and muscle and joint pain.
• The disease may develop into the life-threatening dengue hemorrhagic fever, resulting in bleeding, low levels
of blood platelets and blood plasma leakage.
• Recently, Spanish health authorities confirmed the world’s first case of dengue being transmitted through
sex.
• Treatment includes fluids and pain relievers. Severe cases require hospital care. Medication example,
Analgesic.
5. JAPANESE ENCEPHALITIS (JE)

• Japanese encephalitis is a virus spread by the bite of infected mosquitoes. It's more common in rural and
agricultural areas.
• Caused by a Flavi Virus that affects the membranes around the brain.
• A major cause of Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES) in India transmitted to humans through bites from
infected mosquitoes of the Culex species.
• Treatment involves supportive care. A vaccine is available.
• JE vaccination is also included under the Universal Immunization Program.
6. FLU/INFLUENZA
• A common viral infection that can be deadly, especially in high-risk groups.
• The flu attacks the lungs, nose and throat. Young children, older adults, pregnant women and people with
chronic disease or weak immune systems are at high risk.
• Symptoms include fever, chills, muscle aches, cough, congestion, runny nose, headaches and fatigue.
• Treatment: Flu is primarily treated with rest and fluid intake to allow the body to fight the infection on its
own.
• There are four species of Influenza Virus viz. Influenza-A, Influenza-B, Influenza-C, and Influenza-D.
• Human influenza A and B viruses cause seasonal epidemics of disease (known as the flu season).
• Influenza type C infections generally cause mild illness and are not thought to cause human flu epidemics.
• Influenza D viruses primarily affect cattle and are not known to infect or cause illness in people.
• The common Influenza outbreaks caused by Influenza-A strains include
1. H1N1 (Swine Flu)
2. H5N1, H5N8, H2N9 (Bird Flu)
7. NIPAH
• Zoonotic virus (it is transmitted from animals to humans)

• Transmission: Nipah virus can be transmitted to humans from animals (such as bats or pigs), or
contaminated foods and can also be transmitted directly from human-to-human.
• Symptoms: (similar to that of influenza) fever, muscle pain, and respiratory problems.
• Inflammation of the brain causing disorientation.
• There are currently no drugs or vaccines specific for Nipah virus infection.
8. CORONA
• Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses that circulate among a range of animals, such as bats, cats, and
birds.
• The virus causes respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms in humans with infectious diseases ranging
from the common cold to more severe diseases such as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS),
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) and CoVID-19.
NOTE:
• The SARS coronavirus is thought to have evolved from bats to civet cats to humans in the Guangdong
province of southern China in 2002.
• The MERS coronavirus evolved from bats to camels to humans in Saudi Arabia in 2012.
• The CoVID-19 virus was first identified in Wuhan (Hubei province), China in 2019
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)

• COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by a newly discovered coronavirus. COVID-19 is a Zoonotic
disease.
• Symptoms: mild to moderate respiratory illness and recover without requiring special treatment. Older
people and those with underlying medical problems like cardiovascular disease, diabetes, chronic
respiratory disease, and cancer are more likely to develop serious illness. (WHO)
• Vaccine: Currently under development. Few approved drugs include Pfizer (USA), Covaxin, Covishield
(India).
9. HEPATITIS:
• Hepatitis refers to an inflammatory condition of the liver.
• It's commonly caused by a viral infection, but there are other possible causes of hepatitis. These include
autoimmune hepatitis and hepatitis that occurs as a secondary result of medications, drugs, toxins, and
alcohol.

• Hepatitis B and C can cause chronic hepatitis and are responsible for 96% of overall hepatitis mortality.
• Hepatitis A and E usually cause acute hepatitis.
• Note: Hepatitis D infections occur only in those who are infected with Hepatitis B Virus.
• There are vaccines to prevent Hepatitis A, B and E. However, there is no vaccine for Hepatitis C.
• Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology, 2020 for the discovery of the Hepatitis C virus- Harvey J Alter,
Charles M Rice and Michael Houghton.
National Viral Hepatitis Control Program

• It aims to reduce morbidity and mortality due to viral hepatitis.
• Vision: Ending viral hepatitis as a public health threat by 2030 in the country.
10. EBOLA
• Also called Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever, caused by Ebola virus that causes severe bleeding, organ failure and
can lead to death.
• Humans may spread the virus to other humans through contact with bodily fluids such as blood.
• Initial symptoms include fever, headache, muscle pain and chills. Later, a person may experience internal
bleeding resulting in vomiting or coughing blood.
• Treatment is supportive hospital care like oxygen therapy, IV fluids.
• Medication: Blood transfusion.
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES CAUSED BY PARASITE
1. MALARIA:
• Malaria is a disease caused by a plasmodium parasite, transmitted by the bite of infected female Anopheles
mosquitoes.
• Symptoms are chills, fever and sweating, usually occurring a few weeks after being bitten.
• Treatment includes antimalarial drugs.
RELATED INFORMATION
• World’s first vaccine against a parasitic disease: Mosquirix
• Recently, Algeria and Argentina have been officially recognized by the WHO as malaria-free.
• WHO’s E-2020 initiative: It is part of the Global Technical Strategy for Malaria 2016-2030 endorsed by
WHO which aimed to dramatically lower (or eliminate) the global malaria burden over these 15 years.
2. KALA AZAR/BLACK FEVER

• It is a neglected tropical disease affecting almost 100 countries including India, caused by infection with
Leishmania parasites.
• Also known as Dumdum fever. It spread through sandfly bites.
• Symptoms: some people have no symptoms. For others, symptoms may include fever, weight loss and
swelling of the spleen or liver.
• There are three types of leishmaniasis:
1. Visceral leishmaniasis, which affects multiple organs and is the most serious form of the disease.
2. Cutaneous leishmaniasis, which causes skin sores and is the most common form.
3. Mucocutaneousleishmaniasis, which causes skin and mucosal lesions.
• Visceral leishmaniasis which is commonly known as Kala-azar in India is fatal in over 95% of the cases if
left untreated. This type of leishmaniasis affects the internal organs, usually the spleen, liver and bone
marrow.
• Medication exists to kill the parasites. If left untreated, severe cases are typically fatal.

NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES (NCDs)

• NCDs also known as chronic diseases tend to be of long duration and are the result of a combination of
genetic, physiological, environmental and behaviours factors.
• The main types of NCDs are:
Ø Cardiovascular diseases (like heart attacks and stroke),
Ø Cancers,
Ø Chronic respiratory diseases (such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma)
Ø Diabetes.
• NCDs disproportionately affect people in low and middle-income countries where more than three-quarters
of global NCD deaths occur - WHO
NCDS AND INDIA:

• According to Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) report titled “India: Health of the Nation’s States”:
1. Contribution of NCDs to total death in the Country was 61.8% in 2016, as compared to 37.9% in 1990.
2. In the States of Kerala, Goa and Tamil Nadu, due to epidemiological transition, fewer deaths are
recorded for Communicable, maternal, neonatal and nutritional diseases, thereby raising the share of
NCDs in total deaths.
3. Risk factors for NCDs inter alia include ageing, unhealthy diet, lack of physical activity, high blood
pressure, high blood sugar, high cholesterol and overweight.
• According to ‘National Non-communicable Disease Monitoring Survey (NNMS):
1. Two in five adults have three or more risk factors for NCDs in India.
2. Overweight or obese: More than 1 in every 4 adults and 6.2% of adolescents
3. Raised blood pressure: Almost 3 out of 10 adults
4. Raised blood glucose: 9.3%.
5. Insufficient physical activity: More than 2 in 5 adults and 1 in 4 adolescents.
6. One in every three adults and more than one-fourth proportion of men used any form of tobacco and
consumed alcohol in the past 12 months respectively.
HEALTH MISSIONS
• One of the largest public health programs in the world started in 1985 in a
phased manner.
Universal • India’s Universal Immunization Programme (UIP) provide free vaccines against
Immunization 12 life-threatening diseases, to 26 million children annually.
Programme (UIP): • The UIP provides life-saving vaccines to all children across the country free of
cost to protect them against- Tuberculosis, Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus, Polio,
Hepatitis B, Pneumonia and Meningitis due to Haemophiles Influenzae type
b(Hib), Measles, Rubella, Japanese Encephalitis (JE) and Rotavirus diarrhea.
• Launched by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, GOI on Dec 25, 2014.
• Aims to fully immunize more than 89 lakh children who are either unvaccinated
or partially vaccinated under UIP by 2020.
• It targets children under 2 years of age and pregnant women for immunization.
Mission • It provides Vaccination against 12 Vaccine-preventable diseases (VPD).
Indradhanush: • Earlier the increase in full immunization coverage was 1% per year which has
increased to 6.7% per year.
• Intensified Mission Indradhanush (IMI) was launched on Oct 8, 2017, to
improve immunization coverage and to ensure full immunization to more than
90% by Dec 2018.
Ayushman Bharat: Flagship initiative for comprehensive need-based health care service.
Two-pronged approach: - Creation of health and wellness centers, Pradhan

mantra Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY).
1. Wellness centers will provide comprehensive primary health care, covering
both maternal and child health services and non-communicable diseases,
including free essential drugs and diagnostic services.
2. PMJAY: provides insurance of 5 lakh per family for secondary and tertiary care
to beneficiaries identified by the latest Socio-Economic Caste Census,
2011(SECC-2011) data.
The insurance cost is shared by the centre and states in the ratio of 60:40.
National Health Agency has been constituted as an Autonomous entity for effective
implementation of PMJAY.
STUDENT NOTES:

5. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
BASICS OF CELLULAR NETWORK

• Mobile communication involves transmitting voice or data using wireless radio transmission.
• Mobile generations refer to change like mobile wireless communication network speed, technology, data
capacity, frequency, latency etc.
EVOLUTION TIMELINE:
5G:
• 5G is the next-generation cellular technology that will provide faster and more reliable communication
with ultra-low latency.
• Latency is a measure of delay. In a network, latency measures the time it takes for some data to get to its
destination across the network.
4G:
• 4G mobile technology provides wireless mobile broadband internet access in addition to voice and other
services of 3G.
• Applications include improved web access, Internet Protocol (IP) telephony, Video Conferencing, Cloud
Computing, Gaming Services, High-Definition Mobile TV etc.
• 4G uses LTE (Long Term Evolution) technology, which allows voice & data-communication simultaneously.
4G LTE 4G VoLTE
Long Term Evolution Voice over Long-Term Evolution

While accessing Data it uses 4G & voice calls routed to Enables both data & voice over the same 4G network
2G / 3G network
WI-FI (WIRELESS FIDELITY) 6:

• Wi-Fi 6 is the sixth generation of WIFI, working on the same principal as other wireless devices- It uses radio
frequencies to send signals between devices.
• Wi-Fi is just a type of WLAN.
1. Higher data rates

Key benefits of Wi-Fi 2. Increased capacity
CERTIFIED 6 technology: 3. Performance in environments with many connected devices
4. Improved power efficiency
Wi-Fi 6 caters the need of improved network connection and speed which is required for the Internet of Things
(IoT).
INFLIGHT WIFI
• Recently the Indian government approved to provide inflight Wi-Fi service.
• It works based on any one of the following two methods:
1. Air-to-ground Wi-Fi System: Similar to cell phone connectivity.
2. Satellite-based Wi-Fi System
BLUETOOTH
• It is a wireless technology standard used to exchange data between fixed and mobile devices over short
distances using Radio waves.
• Bluetooth 5.2 is the latest version.
HOTSPOT
• A hotspot is a physical location where people can access the Internet, via a wireless local area network
(WLAN) with a router connected to an Internet service provider.
WEARABLE TECHNOLOGY
• These are smart electronic devices designed to be worn on the user's body.
• Ex: Smart jewelry, Wristbands, watches etc.
• These devices detect, analyze, and transmit information.
• Wearable technology is evolving into an important category of the Internet of things, with life-changing
applications in medicine and other fields.
NEAR-FIELD COMMUNICATION (NFC)

• NFC is a short-range contactless
communication technology based on a Radio
Frequency (RF) field using a base frequency of 13.56
MHz
• NFC-enabled devices must be either physically
touching or within a few centimeters of each other for
data transfer to occur.
RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID)

• RFID technology uses radio waves to passively identify
a tagged object.
• An RFID tag consists of a tiny radio transponder; a radio receiver and transmitter.
• Unlike a barcode, the tag doesn't need to be within the line of sight of the reader, so it may be embedded in
the tracked object.
Aspect NFC RFID Bluetooth Wi-Fi

Maximum Coverage 10 cm 3m 100 m 100 m
Frequency of operation 13.56MHz Varies 2.4GHz 2.4 – 5 GHz
Communication Bidirectional Unidirectional Bidirectional Bidirectional
Applications Card payments Toll pass, Items Communication, Wireless Internet
tracking Data transfer
INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)

• IoT is the interlinking of digital devices, people, machines,
appliances, & other objects with one another through wireless
networks.
• It allows machines & people to be connected and communicate
as well.
• IoT Applications are many including works of daily life,
Industry, Agriculture, Healthcare, Transportation, Governance
etc.
IoT and India

• IoT is part of Digital India mission.
• The National Digital Communications Policy, 2018 to aid its development.
• 100% FDI is allowed in the Telecom sector.
• The government has set a target of USD 15 billion for the IoT market by the year 2020. This would be 5 to 6%
of the global IoT industry.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

• AI refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines that are programmed to think like humans and
mimic their actions.
• AI is a self, adaptive learning system.
• Applications: Industrial automation, Space science, self-driven cars, Healthcare sector, weather forecasting
etc.
• According to the ‘Global AI Report’ 2019, AI will add 957 billion dollars to India’s
AI & INDIA GDP by the year 2035 boosting India’s annual growth by 1.3% points.
• India stood at the 9th position in terms of the number of AI specialists working.
• The US, China & the UK topped the list.
• In 2018-19 budget, the government-mandated NITI Aayog to establish the
National Program on AI
• AIRAWAT - Artificial Intelligence Research, Analytics and Knowledge
Steps were taken by Assimilation Platform by NITI Aayog.
the Government • National Strategy for AI, 2018 focuses on 5 sectors:
1. Healthcare
2. Agriculture
3. Education
4. Smart Cities & Infrastructure

5. Smart Mobility and Transportation.

National Artificial • A joint initiative of National e-Governance Division of Ministry of Electronics and
Intelligence Portal IT and NASSCOM.
• It will work as a one-stop digital platform for AI-related developments in India
RAISE (Responsible • Organized by Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) to use
AI for Social AI for Social Empowerment.
Empowerment) 2020
SUPERCOMPUTERS
• These are large systems that are specifically designed to solve complex scientific & industrial challenges.
• The performance of a supercomputer is measured in Floating-Point Operations per Second (FLOPS).
• The top five Supercomputers in the world:
1. Fugaku (Japan)
2. Summit (USA)
3. Sierra (USA)
4. Sunway Taihu Light (China)
5. Tianhe-2 (China)
• India has 4 supercomputers in the list of world’s top 500 supercomputers with Pratyush & Mihir being
the fastest super-computers in India.
• Application areas: Climate Modeling, Computational Biology, Atomic Energy Simulations, National Defence,
Disaster management etc.
NATIONAL SUPERCOMPUTING MISSION (NSM):

• Launched in 2015
• NSM is jointly steered by the MeitY and Department of S&T (DST) &
• Implemented by the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), Pune & the IISc, Bengaluru.
• Objective: to connect national academic and R&D institutions with a grid of over 70 high-performance
computing facilities.
• These will be networked on the ‘National Supercomputing Grid’ over the National Knowledge Network
(NKN).
• ParamShivay: India’s first supercomputer was installed in IIT (BHU),

followed by Param Shakti and Param Brahma at IIT-Kharagpur& IISER,
Achievements: Pune, respectively.
• Rudra: an indigenous server.
• SHAKTI: India’s first indigenously developed microprocessor (by, IIT
Madras)
QUANTUM COMPUTING
• Quantum computers are machines that use the properties of quantum physics to store data and perform
computations.
• A classical computer performs operations using classical bits, which can be either 0 or 1.
• Quantum computer uses quantum bits or Qubits, which can be both 0 and 1 at the same time.
• Major advantages: Faster, Accurate, & Energy efficient.
• SYCAMORE: it is Google’s Quantum Computer, which recently claimed Quantum Supremacy.
• It reportedly did a task in 200 seconds that would have taken a supercomputer 10,000 years to complete.
• Quantum Supremacy: refers to quantum computers being able to solve a problem that a classical computer
cannot.

QUANTUM COMPUTING AND INDIA

• There are no quantum computers in India yet.
• In 2018, the Department of Science & Technology unveiled a programme called Quantum-Enabled Science
& Technology (QuST) to accelerate research on Quantum computing.
OPEN API:
• API: is a computing interface that defines interactions between multiple software intermediaries.
• Open API is a publicly available Application Programming Interface (API) that provides developers with
programmatic access to a proprietary software application or web service. Example: Aarogya Setu
• Swagger is one of the tools to implement Open API specification.
API Web Services

Not every API is a web service Every web service is an API
Can be online or offline Online
Easy to hack More secure
DEEP WEB AND DARKNET

• The Deep Web is that part of the Internet which cannot be accessed through traditional search engines like
Google or Yahoo.
• It is used to provide access to a specific group of people.
• The Dark Net is a part of the Deep web in which, content is kept in an encrypted form or deliberately hidden.
• This content is accessible only by special software like TOR (The Onion Ring) or I2P (Invisible Internet
Project).
OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION (OFC)

• It is a method of transmitting data/information in the form of light.
• OFC works based on Total Internal Reflection (TIR) of light.
• Examples of TIR: Diamond, Mirage.
• Total Internal Reflection (TIR) occurs when the light rays travel from a more optically denser medium to
a less optically denser medium.
• Conditions for TIR to occur: The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle + The light ray
moves from a denser medium to less dense medium.
News
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands connected with submarine OFC (from mainland Chennai) recently.
• Submarine optical fiber cable to 11 islands of Lakshadweep with Kochi by 2023.
• Dark Fiber: It is an unused optical fiber that has been laid but currently not used for communication.
DTH vs OTT
DTH OTT
‘Direct To Home’ service ‘Over The Top’ service
Digital satellite service for Television content on-demand via the internet
Requires dedicated set-up like an antenna, cable Compatible with multiple devices. Requires an only
broadcast internet connection.
Content is more social Content is very personal
Ex: Dish TV, D2H Ex: Netflix, Zee5

IN NEWS
• In November 2020, the government has brought “Over the Top” (OTT) platforms under the ambit of
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
• Currently, no law or autonomous body is governing digital content.
• Self-regulatory code: Drafted in January 2019 by 8 OTT service providers to self-regulate content on their
platforms.
Bandwidth Throttling
• It is Intentionally slowing or lowering speed of an internet service by an internet service provider (ISP).
• It is a reactive measure in communication networks to regulate network traffic and minimize bandwidth
congestion.
NET NEUTRALITY
• It keeps the internet free & open.
• Also, enables anyone to share and access information of their choosing without interference.
• India is committed to the principles of Net Neutrality.
• It firmly rejected Facebook’s ‘Internet.org’ or ‘Free basics’, Barthi Airtel’s ‘Airtel Zero’ etc., in India.
• ‘Prohibition of Discriminatory Tariffs for Data Services Regulations’, 2016 by Telecom and Regulatory
Authority of India (TRAI) prohibit ‘Telecom Service Providers’ from charging different tariffs from
consumers for accessing different services online.
CLOUD COMPUTING
Cloud computing is the delivery of the different services through the internet. These resources include tools and
applications like data storage, servers, databases, networking and software.
EDGE COMPUTING
• Edge computing is a distributed information technology architecture in which client data is processed at
the periphery of the network
• Data is analyzed locally.
Cloud Computing Edge Computing

Computation is not done at the source Computation is done near-source
Preferred to process normal data Preferred to process time-sensitive data.
Latency is more Reduced latency
Less secure More secure

BIG DATA & DATA MINING

• Big Data constitute a large volume of structured or
ATM SKIMMING
unstructured data.
• It is a type of payment fraud.
• Big data are so huge that the traditional data processing • Debit/Credit card details being cloned
system is inadequate to process. at ATM using skimmers.
• Data mining is a process used to extract usable data from a • A skimmer is a device designed to
larger set of any raw data capture and store card details & PIN.
• By analyzing this data, a useful decision can be made in
various cases such as:
1. Tracking Customer Spending Habit, Shopping Behavior
2. Smart Traffic System
3. Auto Driving Car
4. Virtual Personal Assistants
5. Internet of Things etc.
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY
• Blockchain technology is a structure that stores transactional records (also known as block), of the public
in several databases, known as the “chain”, in a network connected through Peer-to-peer(P2P) nodes.
• This storage is referred as ‘digital ledger’.
• Every transaction in this ledger(storage) is authorized by digital signature of owner, which authenticates
the transaction and save it from any tampering.
• Blockchain Key characteristic features include decentralization, persistency, and anonymity.
• Blockchain technology discards the need for any third-party or central authority for peer-to-peer
transactions.
RELATED INFORMATION
• National Informatics Centre (NIC) has set up the Centre of Excellence (CoE) in Blockchain Technology in
Bengaluru, Karnataka.
• National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS) intended to develop AI, IoT,
Blockchain technologies in India.
CRYPTOCURRENCY
• A cryptocurrency is a digital/virtual currency created and stored using Blockchain technology.
• Examples: Bitcoin, Libra (by Facebook), Ethereum etc.,
• In many countries, cryptocurrency is unregulated & they are not a legal tender payment system.
Advantages: • Difficult to counterfeit as compared to hard currency.

• Less/Nil transaction fee
• A high potential of being an investment fraud (Ponzi scheme).

Issues: • Anonymous nature makes it suitable for illegal activities.
• Energy consuming
• Undermines the macroeconomic and financial stability of the country.
CRYPTOCURRENCY & INDIA

• Yet they are not legal in India.
• In 2017-18 Dinesh Sharma Committee & Subhash Chandra Garg committee suggested the Government
to ban it.
• In 2018 RBI circular directed all Banks, Financial service providers to stop any relation with
Cryptocurrency.
Banning of Cryptocurrency & Regulation of Official Digital Currency Bill, 2019

• The draft Bill seeks to prohibit mining, holding, selling, trade, issuance, disposal or use of cryptocurrency in
the country.
• In 2020, the Supreme Court has set aside RBI’s 2018 circular banning regulated financial institutions from
trading in cryptocurrency.
DIGITAL INDIA MISSION

• Aimed to transform India into digital empowered society and knowledge economy.
• It was launched in 2015 | under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeiTY)
• Focus Areas:
1. To provide digital infrastructure as a source of utility to every citizen.
2. Governance and services on demand.
3. Digital empowerment of every citizen.
• Broadband Highways
• Universal Access to Mobile Connectivity
• Public Internet Access Programme
• e-Governance: Reforming Government through Technology
The Nine Pillars of Digital • e-Kranti: Electronic Delivery of Services
India: • Information for All
• Electronics Manufacturing
• IT for Jobs
• Early Harvest Programmes
NATIONAL BROADBAND MISSION (NBM):

• Launched in 2019
• Objective: to provide universal & equitable access to broadband services across the country, especially
in rural and remote areas by 2022.
• To increase tower density from 0.42 to 1.0 tower per thousand of the population by 2024.
• To develop ‘Broadband Readiness Index (BRI)’.
• Funded by Universal Service Obligation Fund (USOF)
Broadband Readiness Index (BRI): measures the availability of digital communications infrastructure
&conducive policy ecosystem within a State/UT.
BHARATNET PROJECT:

• It was launched as the ‘National Optical Fiber Network (NOFN)’in 2011 and renamed as Bharat Net Project
in 2015.
• Implemented by the Bharat Broadband Network Ltd (BBNL) a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) under the
Ministry of Communications.
• Objective: to connect all Gram Panchayats with high-speed broadband connectivity to deliver online
services.
CYBERSECURITY
• Cyberspace is the online world of computer networks, especially the Internet.
• Cyber Security protects the cyberspace from the following:
1. Cyber Attacks
2. Damage to Cyberspace
3. Misuse of Cyberspace
4. Economic Espionage
• Malware, or malicious software, is any program or file that is harmful to a computer user.
• Virus: It can execute itself and spread by infecting other programs or files.
• Worm: is a code that replicates itself without a host program.
• Trojan: It is a malicious program that is designed to appear as a legitimate program.
Once installed Trojans carry out the designed functions. Ex: Event Bot is a mobile
banking Trojan.
• Spyware: these are designed to spy over people/government sensitive data. Ex:
Pegasus
• File less Malware: it doesn’t install anything initially, instead, it makes changes to
the files that are native to OS. E.g., Astaroth.
• Adware: tracks user surfing activity, serves unwanted advertisements, erosion of
user’s privacy. e.g., Fireball.
Types of Malware: • Rootkits: gives hackers remote control of a victim’s device. E.g. Zacinlo.
• Urban legends: viral emails that includes urban legends usually warn of threat and
compel recipients to forward the mails to others.
• Keyloggers: monitors users’ keystrokes. E.g. Olympic vision
• BOT: A software capable of compromising the victims’ machine and using it for
further malicious activities.
• RANSOMWARE: A type of malware that threatens to publish the victim's data or
perpetually block access to it unless a ransom is paid. Ex: Maze, Locky & Wanna Cry
Ransomware.
• PHISHING: a type of cyber-attack where criminals impersonate legitimate
organizations via email, text message, advertisement or other means to steal
sensitive information.
CYBERSECURITY & INDIA:
• Established in 2004, CERT-IN function under Department Of IT.

CERT-IN: Indian Computer • Mandated under the Information Technology Amendment Act
Emergency Response Team. 2008to serve as the national agency in charge of cybersecurity.
• Since 2012, DG of CERT-IN is called the National Cyber Security
Coordinator (NCSC)

NATIONAL CYBERSECURITY POLICY, 2013: To build secure and resilient cyberspace for citizen, businesses
and Government.
• Established in 2020, under ‘Cyber and Information Security (CIS)’

THE INDIAN CYBERCRIME division of the Ministry of Home Affairs. HQ: New Delhi.
COORDINATION CENTRE • The I4C will assist in centralizing cybersecurity investigations,
(I4C): prioritize the development of response tools and bring together private
companies to contain the menace.
NATIONAL CRITICAL INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION CENTRE (NCIIPC):

• Established under Information Technology Act, 2000 to secure India’s critical information infrastructure.
• NCIIPC has broadly identified the following as ‘Critical Sectors’:
1. Power & Energy
2. Banking,
3. Financial Services & Insurance
4. Telecom
5. Transport
6. Government Strategic & Public Enterprises
DATA SECURITY COUNCIL OF INDIA:

• It is a not-for-profit premier industry body on data protection in India.
• It has been setup by NASSCOM.
The National Association of Software and Service Companies (NASSCOM)

• NASSCOM is a trade association of Indian Information Technology (IT) and Business Process Outsourcing
(BPO) companies.
• Established in 1988, as a non-profit organization.
• Focused on building the architecture integral to the development of the IT, BPO sector through policy
advocacy.
• This initiated a program called '10,000 Startups' in 2013
DATA LOCALIZATION:
• Data localization is a concept that the personal data of a country’s residents should be processed & stored
in that country.
• It may restrict flow entirely or allow for conditional data sharing or data mirroring (in which only a copy
has to be stored in the country).
RELATED INFORMATION
• In 2018 RBI directed payment system providers to store entire payments data in a system only in India.
• CLOUD (Clarifying Lawful Overseas Use of Data) Act of US seeks to de-monopolize control over data from US
authorities & allows tech companies to share it with foreign governments.
General Data Protection Regulation (GPDR) of the European Union allows cross-border movement of data
but requires the destination country to have stringent cyber-security rules.
DATA PROTECTION & INDIA:

• Currently, India does not have a dedicated legal data protection framework.
• But, some provisions under different acts protect data in general. These include the Copy Right Act 1957, IT
Act 2000, & the Consume protection Act 2015 etc.,

In 2018, B.N. Srikrishna committee constituted to look after data protection provisions in India.
• The Personal Data Protection Bill, 2019 which was introduced in Lok Sabha on this regard is yet to become
an Act.
DIGITAL SIGNATURE CERTIFICATES (DSC):

• DSC are the digital equivalent (that is electronic format) of physical or paper certificates.
• Certificates serve as a proof of identity of an individual.
• DSCs can be presented electronically to prove identity, to access information or services on the Internet or
to sign certain documents digitally.
Digital Quality of Life Index 2020

• Prepared by Surfshark, a virtual private network (VPN) provider based in the British Virgin Islands
• It seeks to rank countries on internet affordability & quality, electronic infrastructure, security and
government.
• Top 3 countries: Denmark à Sweden à Canada
• India ranked 57 out of 85 countries.
STUDENT NOTES:

6. NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
NANOSCIENCE:
• It is the study of structures and materials on an ultra-small scale (in range of 1-100 nanometers).
• and the unique and interesting properties these materials demonstrate.
NANOTECHNOLOGY:
• It is the manipulation of matters at atomic level in order to produce novel materials and devices with new
extraordinary properties.
• Basic concept of nanotechnology: Behavior of matters changes significantly when the surface area to
volume ratio increases dramatically.
• Properties of materials are size dependent i.e. melting point, electrical conductivity, magnetic and chemical
properties vary at nano scale range and follow “the laws of quantum physics”.
• Example: Some Polymers being insulators in the bulk form, they act like semiconductor in nanoscale.
• Nanoscience is studying nanomaterials and their properties.

Difference: • Nanotechnology is using those materials and properties to create something new or
different.
• The development of nanoscience can be traced back to 5th Century B.C.
Origination: • Nobel laureate Richard Feynman introduces the concept of Nanotechnology in 1959
during a lecture entitled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom”.
• Richard Feynman - Considered as Father of Modern Nanotechnology.
CARBON BASED NANOMATERIALS:
• Also known as BUCKY BALL or Carbon 60.

• Carbon atoms connected to three others carbon atoms by covalent bonds in
FULLERENCE: pentagons and hexagons pattern giving spherical shape.
• Bucky balls used in Composites to strengthen materials.
• Being a good electron acceptors, used in increasing efficiency of solar cells in
transforming sunlight into electricity.
• CNTs are rolled graphene sheets in a cylindrical
shape.
CARBON • Strongest and stiffest materials on earth in
NANOTUBES terms of tensile strength.
(CNT): • Forms in either a seamless cylinder, known as
Single-Walled CNTs or many cylinders stacked
one inside the other, known as Multi-Walled
CNTs.

• CNTs can carry 1000 times more electric current than equivalent copper and silver
wire.
Significance:
• Highest strength to weight ratio, used in light weight spacecrafts and ideal for
bullet proof jackets.
• Flexible Electrical resistance, used in developing chemical vapours detection
sensors.
• Easily penetrates cell membranes, helps in targeted drug delivery.
• Extracted from graphite, an allotrope of carbon.
• Graphene is one single layer of graphite; a layer of sp2 bonded carbon atoms
arranged in a honeycomb(hexagonal) lattice.
• Important properties: very good conductor of
GRAPHENE: electricity and heat.
• 200 times stronger than steel, light-weight,
• Perfectly transparent, Impermeable to gases
• Allotropes: are different structural forms of
same element and can exhibit quite different physical and chemical properties.
• Diamond, graphite and fullerenes are allotropes of carbon.
• Crystalline Alumino-silicates.
Zeolites or • Properties: Adsorption and Ion exchange.
Molecular sieve: • The unique structure allows the water of crystallization to be removed, leaving a
porous crystalline.
• Used in petroleum industry to catalyse oil refinement.
• Dendrimers polymer consists of
molecular chains branched out from a
common center (tree like structure).
Dendrimers: • “dendritic box” used as vehicle for
targeted drug delivery.
• Also used in environmental clean-up as
they can trap metal ions.
APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY:
• Targeted drug delivery in destroying the cancer cells without harming healthy
cells,
• Nano sponges (polymer) for absorbing toxins and removing them from
Health & Medicine: bloodstreams.
• Gold nano cells for location and elimination of cancer cells.
• Antiviral Nano coating on Face mask and PPE kits.
• Nano robotics can acts as miniature surgeons.
• CNTs membrane used for water desalination, nanoscale sensors for identifying
Environment: water contaminations.
• Nano fabric “Paper-towel” used in oil for clean-up applications.
• Iron nanoparticles for remediation of contaminated ground water.
• Titanium dioxide nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents.
Food and Agriculture: • Anti-bacterial Silver nanoparticles in food packaging to increase shelf-life.
• Bio indicators to detect the bio magnification of pesticide and fertilizers.

IMPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY:
Risks to Human Health: Nano particles being slowly degradable, may accumulate into human body and
affect regulatory mechanisms, compromise immune system response.
Environmental Issues: Nano pollution created by toxic wastes from nano material manufacturing.
Greater bioavailability and greater bioactivity may introduce new toxicity risk.
GREY GOO: A hypothetical situation where self-replicating nano robots go out of control, and consumes all
matter on the earth.
NANOTECH FIBRE:
• It is a new carbon nanotube (CNT) based fiber that looks and acts like textile thread but is able to conduct
heat and electricity.
• Behaves like both metal wires and strong carbon fibers.
• Used in field of aerospace, automotive, medical and smart-clothing markets.
SMART MATTER/ SMART DUST:

• Is the use of tiny wireless sensors and transponders to communicate the information they sense.
• Made by Hitachi, have GPS capabilities, they can be sprayed on us and absorbed or taken in foods, drinks and
even injected to monitor health and activities.
SEMICONDUCTORS
• These are materials which have a conductivity between conductors (generally metals) and non-conductors
or insulators (such as ceramics).
• Its resistance falls with rise in temperature, opposite to metals.
• Semiconductors acts like an insulator at Zero Kelvin.
• E.g.: pure metals such as silicon or germanium or compounds such as gallium arsenide or cadmium
selenide.
Types of Semiconductors
Material made to be very pure chemically. It possesses a very low conductivity level
Intrinsic material: having very few number of charge carriers, namely electrons and holes(in equal
quantities). E.g.: germanium, silicon.
Extrinsic material - Electrical conductivity is higher than Intrinsic material.
In this a small amount of impurity has been added to the basic intrinsic material.
This creates either an excess or shortage of electrons. In this way, two types of
Extrinsic material: semiconductors are available:
• N-type: has excess of electrons. Free electrons are available within the lattices
and their overall movement in one direction under the influences of potential
differences result in an electric current flows.
• P-type: has shortages of electrons, i.e. there are ‘holes’ in crystal lattice.
Plasmonic Semiconductor Nanomaterials

• PSN are metal-like materials with free electrons on the surface that oscillate collectively when hit by light.
• It uses solar light to increase the photocatalytic efficiency to degrade pollutants as well as generate renewable
hydrogen.
• PSN can easily absorbs toxic ions like arsenic and fluoride, helps in remove water contamination.
Applications of • Used in Transistors and Electric circuits.

Semiconductors: • In calculators, solar plates, computers and other electronic devices,

• In microchips and self-driving cars,

• 3-D printing machines,
• To make temperature sensors.
NUCLEAR SCIENCE
• An Atom is made up of a Nucleus (Protons + Neutrons) and Electrons revolving around the nucleus.
• Atomic number (Z) = number of Protons.
• Atomic mass number (A) = number of Protons + Neutrons.
• Isotopes: an element with same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons in each atom. Ex:
Hydrogen has 3 types of isotopes, Protium (light water), Deuterium (heavy water) & Tritium and
Uranium-238, Uranium-235 etc.
• Nuclear Force: Acts between protons and neutrons of atoms and binds the protons and neutrons in a
nucleus together. So, nuclear force is strongest in nuclei and weak between electrons and nuclei.
RADIOACTIVITY:
• Radioactive decay is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation.
• It was discovered by Henri Becquerel in 1896.
• A material containing unstable nuclei is considered radioactive in nature.
• Three of the most common types of decay are alpha decay, beta decay, & gamma decay, all of which involve
emitting one or more particles or photons.
• Half-life refers to the time for half the radioactive nuclei in any atom to undergo radioactive decay.
TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS:

1. Nuclear Fission
2. Nuclear Fusion reactions.
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

Definition Fission is the splitting of a large atom into Fusion is the fusing of two or more lighter
two or more smaller ones. atoms into a larger one.
Natural Does not normally occur in nature. Yes. occurs in stars, such as the sun.
occurrence
By-products Produces many highly radioactive particles Few radioactive particles are produced
Takes little energy to split atoms Extremely high energy is required to bring
Energy two or more protons close enough that
Requirement nuclear forces overcome their electrostatic
repulsion.
Energy Lower than Fusion reaction but higher than Higher than Fission reaction
Released other chemical reactions
Usage In nuclear power generation, Atom bombs In experimental stage for future power
generation.
NUCLEAR REACTOR:
• A nuclear reactor is a reactor where the nuclear chain reactions occur that produces energy.
• These are used at nuclear power plants for electricity generation & in nuclear marine propulsion.
NUCLEAR ENERGY
• Nuclear reactors convert the energy released by controlled nuclear fission into thermal energy for further
conversion to mechanical or electrical forms.

NUCLEAR FUEL
• Nuclear fuel is the fuel that is used in a nuclear reactor to sustain a nuclear chain reaction.
• U-233, U-235 & Pu-239 are fissile in nature i.e., they exhibit nuclear fission when targeted with a neutron.
• U-238 & Th-232 are fertile in nature i.e., when targeted with neutrons instead of breaking down, they
change into new element. (U238àPu239, Th232àU233).
URANIUM ENRICHMENT:
• The Natural Composition of Uranium extracted from earth is that 99.3% is U-238, which is fertile and
remaining is U-235, which is fissile.
• When the percentage of U-235 is increased in mixture i.e., described as Uranium enrichment.
• For this purpose, most commonly used technology is of Centrifuges.
• On the basis of enrichment, two types of Uranium: 1) Low Enriched uranium (LEU), 2) High enriched
Uranium (HEU).
Ø LEU is use for peaceful purposes like fuel in nuclear reactors (Kudankulam (1.5%) & Jaitapur (5%)
required enriched Uranium.
Ø HEU is weapon grade uranium used for conducting nuclear test and nuclear weapons.
U-233 (not found naturally) is produced in Thermal breeder reactors where Thorium-232 absorbs a neutron to
form U-233 which is fissile.
Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT):

• Proposed International agreement that would prohibit the production of two main components of nuclear
weapons: highly enriched uranium (HEU) and Plutonium.
• FMCT would provide new restrictions for the five recognized nuclear weapon states (US, Russia, UK, France,
China) and the four states that are not NPT members (Israel, India, Pakistan, & North Korea).
MODERATORS:
• Moderators are generally atoms with lighter nuclei and does not absorb neutron.
• Hence, these are used in nuclear reactors to slow down the neutron in a controlled chain reaction.
• Generally Ordinary Water, Heavy Water and Graphite rods are used as moderators.
CONTROL RODS
• There are used in nuclear reactors to control the fission rate of uranium or plutonium.
• Control rods are made of neutron poisons & therefore absorb neutrons. This action results in fewer
neutrons available to cause fission & reduces the reactor's power output.
• Control rods absorb neutrons but do not release energy in the process.
• Their compositions include chemical elements such as Boron, Cadmium, Silver, or Indium, that are capable
of absorbing many neutrons without themselves fissioning.
NUCLEAR REACTOR & ITS TYPES:

• The commercial power plants have several types of design. They vary depending on the type of heat transfer
fluid that is used and other design elements.
• Fusion reactors: increasingly seen as the future of energy security due to following factors:
1. Abundance of fuel (Hydrogen)
2. Clean source of energy as it involves no release of CO2
3. Elimination of risk from nuclear waste.
• But these Fusion reactors are still in experimental stage due to their complexity in its operational handling.
• Different types of fission reactors are as listed in the table below.

Reactor Type Coolant Moderator Fuel Comment

Light Water-Graphite Light Water Graphite Enriched
reactor Uranium
Boiling Water Reactor Light Water Light Water Enriched Steam from boiling water
Uranium fed to turbine.
(BWRs don’t
have any steam generator)
Pressurized Water Light Water Light Water Enriched Steam generated in
Reactor Uranium secondary loop.
Pressurized Heavy Heavy Water Heavy Water Natural D2O helps in better
Water (D2O) Uranium moderation & sustain chain
(CANDU)Reactor reaction
Fast Breeder Reactors liquid sodium No moderator used U-238 produce more fuel than they
consume
(Breed)
Gas Cooled Reactors CO2 Graphite Natural /
Enriched
Uranium
Why India Prefers Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR)?

• FBRs are designed to produce more fissile material (plutonium) than they consume (Thorium Th-232).
• Enrichment and Re-processing technology (ENR) are not easy and costly, and FBRs Effectively utilizes the
natural uranium (nearly 80%).
• Consumes the depleted fuel discharged from thermal reactors, FBRs is important from Waste management
and environmental considerations.
• FBR technology can use Thorium (as fertile material) which gets converted to U-233, a fissile isotope. This
holds great promise as India has one of the world’s largest deposit of Thorium (450,000 tons) in form of sand
dunes in Kerala and Chhatarpur coast of Orissa.
INDIA’S THREE STAGE NUCLEAR PROGRAM:

• India has consciously proceeded to explore the possibility of
tapping nuclear energy for the purpose of power
generation and the Atomic Energy Act was framed and
implemented with the set objectives of using two naturally
occurring elements Uranium & Thorium having good
potential to be utilized as nuclear fuel in Indian Nuclear
Power Reactors.
• The 3-stage nuclear programme is developed with the
aim of utilizing the vast Thorium reserves in India (about
25% of the world) as India is a Uranium scarce country.
Stage-1: PHWRs using:

Pressurized Heavy • Natural UO2 as fuel matrix (contains 99.3% U-238 and 0.7% U-235)
Water Reactor • Heavy water as moderator and coolant.
Stage-2: Fast • Primarily based on Plutonium which was obtained from the first stage reactor
Breeder Reactor operation, as the fuel core.

• A blanket of U-238 surrounding the fuel core will undergo nuclear transmutation
to produce fresh Pu-239 as more and more Pu-239 is consumed during the
operation.
• Besides a blanket of Th-232 around the FBR core also undergoes neutron capture
reactions leading to the formation of U-233.
• U-233 is the nuclear reactor fuel for the third stage.
• Fuel: U-233 is obtained from the nuclear transmutation of Th-232 in stage-2
Stage-3: programme.
Breeder Reactor • Since India has abundant Thorium reserves in the form of monazite sand, the 3rd
stage is critical for India’s nuclear energy basket.
NUCLEAR POWER IN INDIA:

• Currently India has 22 nuclear reactors operating in 7plants
generating about 6780 MW of power.
• Nuclear power contributes to 1.8% of the total energy basket
of India.
• India’s nuclear energy target set at 63000MW of power by
2032.
NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY REGULATION IN INDIA:
DEPARTMENT OF ATOMIC ENERGY (DoAE):

• It is apex body under the direct charge of Prime Minister
working toward development & regulation of nuclear
technology in India.
• Atomic Energy Commission is the governing body of DoAE.
ATOMIC ENERGY REGULATORY BOARD (AERB):

• The Board was constituted on 15 November 1983.
• AERB is the regulatory authority responsible for safe operations of nuclear reactors as well as regulation
at all other nuclear facilities in India.
• It derives its powers from Atomic Energy Act, 1962 &the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986.
NUCLEAR WEAPON TESTS OF INDIA

• Smiling Buddha (Pokhran I) was a single nuclear test conducted in 1974. (Mrs. Indira Gandhi period)
• Shakti (Pokhran II) was a group of 2 nuclear tests conducted in 1998 (Mr. Atal Bihari Vajpayee period)
• Under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 NPCIL is responsible for design,
construction, commissioning and operation of nuclear power reactors
Nuclear Power Corporation of in India.
India Limited (NPCIL): • The Atomic Energy (Amendment) Act, 2016 empowers NPCIL to
form joint ventures with any government company to produce,
develop, control, & use atomic energy.
• Wholly owned Enterprise of Government of India under the DoAE,
Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut situated at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu
Nigam Limited (BHAVINI): • BHAVINI, implements Fast Breeder Reactors programme in the
country.

Atomic Minerals Directorate • Its prime mandate is to identify and evaluate Uranium resources
for Exploration and Research: required for the successful implementation of Atomic Energy
Programme of the country.
India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement

• Also known as the 123 Agreement signed between the United States & India in 2008
• Under this agreement, India agreed to separate its Civil & Military nuclear facilities and to place all its civil
nuclear facilities under IAEA
• With this India was also granted the waiver from the NSG protocols to get Nuclear supply & technologies.
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
• International organization to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy,

and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons.
THE INTERNATIONAL • Also known as the world’s “Atoms for Peace”.
ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY • India is a member country of IAEA.
(IAEA) • Established through the IAEA Statute, the IAEA reports to both the United
Nations General Assembly and Security Council.
• WANO is a not for profit, international organization with a mission to
THE WORLD maximize the safety and reliability of the world’s commercial nuclear
ASSOCIATION OF power plants.
NUCLEAR OPERATORS • It was established on 15 May 1989 following the nuclear accident at
(WANO) Chernobyl (Ukraine).
• HQ: London, UK
• India is a member country of WANO.
IMPORTANT NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION TREATIES
PARTIAL TEST BAN TREATY (PTBT):

• PTBT is the abbreviated name of the 1963 Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in
Outer Space and Under Water, which prohibited all test detonations of nuclear weapons except for those
conducted underground.
• The PTBT was signed by the governments of the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, & the United States
in Moscow on 5 August 1963.
• Since then, 123 other states have become party to the treaty. Ten states have signed but not ratified the treaty.
NON-PROLIFERATION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS TREATY (NPT), 1968:

• NPT is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons & weapons
technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of
achieving nuclear disarmament.
• Signed by 191 countries, the treaty restricts nuclear non-weapon states (countries which had no nuclear
weapon till1968) from developing or acquiring nuclear weapons.
• 5 states recognized as nuclear-weapon states include the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France,
and China.
• Four UN member states that have never joined the NPT are: India, Israel, Pakistan & South Sudan.
• North Korea had signed the NPT in 1985 later in 1993 it unilaterally withdrew from NPT.
Note:
• Though India is not a part of NPT, it has signed the Comprehensive Safeguards Agreement IAEA in 2009.
• Accordingly, India has kept 20 of its 22 civilian nuclear facilities under IAEA safeguards
COMPREHENSIVE TEST BAN TREATY (CTBT):

• CTBT was negotiated at the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva and adopted by the United Nations
General Assembly in 1996.
• The Treaty intends to ban all nuclear explosions- everywhere, by everyone.
• So far it has been signed by 184 states, of which 168 have ratified the treaty. However, the treaty has not
come into force yet.
Note:
• China, Egypt, Iran, Israel, &USA have signed but not ratified the NPT.
• India, Pakistan and North Korea haven’t signed the NPT.
EXPORT CONTROL REGIMES
The NUCLEAR SUPPLIERS GROUP (NSG):

• NSG is a multilateral export control regime& a group of nuclear supplier countries that seek to prevent
nuclear proliferation by controlling the export of materials, equipment & technology that can be used to
manufacture nuclear weapons.
• The NSG was founded in response to the Indian nuclear test in May 1974.
• It is a 48-member export-control regime that regulates export of nuclear technology and fuel.
• Nuclear non-weapon states who have signed NPT can have access to items listed in NPT.
Note:
• Though India is not a member of NSG, in 2008 India was granted a special waiver by NSG for supply of
nuclear fuel and technology to India.
• Thus, India became the first & only non-NPT signatory to have this privilege.
AUSTRALIA GROUP(AG):
• Was established in response to Chemical Weapon use in Iran-Iraq war in 1984.
• There are around 43 members at present including India, USA.
• Objective: is to control exports of biological & chemical agents used as weapons.
MISSILE TECHNOLOGY CONTROL REGIME (MTCR):

• The MTCR is a multilateral export control regime. Established in 1987by the G-7 industrialized countries.
• It is an informal political understanding among 35 member states that seek to limit the proliferation of
missiles & missile technology.
• Accordingly, weapons delivery system carrying more than500 kg payload for over 300 km is restricted
under MTCR.
• In 2018 India joined MTCR, which enabled India to:
1. Increase the range of Brahmos from 290KM to 450KM.
2. Get access to predator drones from different countries
WASSENAAR ARRANGEMENT(WA):
• It is the successor to the Cold War-era Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (COCOM),
and was established on 12 July 1996, in Wassenaar, the Netherlands.
• Objective: is to contribute to regional and international security and stability by promoting transparency
and greater responsibility in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use goods & technologies.

• Currently, it has 42 members including India, US, Canada, Mexico, Argentina, Australia, Japan, Russia, South
Africa etc.
NATIONAL & INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
• ITER is an international nuclear fusion research & engineering

INTERNATIONAL megaproject, which will be the world's largest magnetic confinement
THERMONUCLEAR plasma physics experiment.
EXPERIMENTAL REACTOR • Headquarters:-Saint-Paul-lez-Durance, France.
(ITER): • ITER was launched in 1985 &is expected to be completed by 2025.
• It is a joint collaboration of 35 countries with the following members
China, the EU, India, Japan, South Korea, Russia & the US.
• It is a branch of non-invasive medical imaging that uses small
amounts of radioactive materials to diagnose & determine the severity
Nuclear Medicine of diseases or treat a variety of diseases including cancers, heart
disease, gastrointestinal, endocrine, neurological disorders etc
• For example, Radio-isotopes such as Cobalt-60, Arsenic-74 are used in
treating Thyroid disorders & various types of Cancer.
ROOPPUR NUCLEAR POWER PROJECT (RNPP):

• This will be a 2.4 GWe nuclear power plant in Bangladesh on the banks of the river Padma, 87 miles (140
km) west of Dhaka.
• RNPP is the collaboration project between the India, Russia & Bangladesh.
• The Hindustan Construction Company of India is being involved in the construction of “Non-critical"
infrastructure.
• The Nuclear reactor & “Critical infrastructure” are being built by the Russian Rosatom State Atomic
Energy Corporation.
USA to Set Up 6 Light Water Reactors in Kovvada, Andhra Pradesh

• Under the agreement, the US Company Westinghouse Electric will sell Six AP-1000 nuclear reactors to
India.
• NPCIL will be responsible for construction and operation of the plant.
• Note: Fuel used here is U-235& ordinary water as coolant and moderator.
GLOBAL CENTRE FOR NUCLEAR ENERGY PARTNERSHIP (GCNEP):

• GCNEP is the World's first nuclear energy partnership center at Kheri Jasaur village of Haryana state in
India.
• GCNEP will help in capacity building, in association with the interested countries & the IAEA, involving
technology, human resource development, education & training and giving a momentum to R&D in enlisted
areas.

7. SPACE AND SPACE TECHNOLOGY
EVOLUTION OF UNIVERSE- BIG BANG THEORY

• It is believed that universe was born about 13.8 billion years ago in an
event called Big Bang. It is most prevailing cosmological model for birth of
the universe.
• Big Bang Theory: it states that at some moment all of space was contained
in a single point of very high-density and high-temperature state from
which the universe has been expanding in all directions ever since.
• After the initial expansion, the universe cooled sufficiently to allow the
formation of subatomic particles and later simple atoms.
• The majority of atoms produced by the Big Bang were hydrogen and
helium along with trace amounts of lithium and beryllium.
• Giant clouds of these primordial elements (hydrogen and helium) later coalesced through gravity to form
stars and galaxies.
DARK ENERGY: Dark energy is an unknown form of energy which is hypothesized to permeate (spread
throughout) all of space, tending to accelerate the expansion of the universe.
DARK MATTER:
• Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter that is thought to account for approximately 85% of the matter
in the universe. Dark energy plus dark matter constitutes 95% of the total content of the universe.
• It is believed that dark matter considered as the factors for unexplained motion of stars in galaxies.
• The majority of dark matter is thought to be composed of some as-yet-undiscovered subatomic particles.
• Dark matter does not appear to interact with observable electromagnetic radiation, such as light, thus
invisible to the entire electromagnetic spectrum, making it extremely difficult to detect.
• Dark matter interacts with the rest of the universe only through its gravity.
GOD PARTICLE
• Higgs Boson or God particle is theoretically responsible for mass, without which there would be no gravity
and no universe. So, called as “God particle”.
• The Higgs particle was proposed in the 1960s by British physicist Peter Higgs as way of explaining why other
particles have mass.
• Discovery of Higgs Boson validated the standard Model of physics, also predicted that 60% of the time a
Higgs boson will decay to a pair of bottom quarks.
Standard Model: is a theory of particle physics. It says materials are made up of 12 matter particles (known as
Fermions). The other 11 particles predicted in models have been found. CERN used Large Hadron Collider (LHC)
to find God particle.
LARGE HADRON COLLIDER (LHC)

• The LHC is the world’s largest and most powerful particle accelerator.
• It consists of a 27-kilometre ring of superconducting magnets with many accelerating structures to boost the
energy of the particles along the way.
• LHC started operation in 2008, it is a Global collaboration project led by CERN (the European Organization
for Nuclear Research). Its first research took place in March 2010 & discovered the elusive (difficult to find,
catch, or achieve) Higgs Boson in July 2012.

• The LHC is situated underneath the earth’s surface at a depth of 175 meters on border between France and
Switzerland near Geneva.
• Purpose: LHC was built to study some of the fundamental particles (like proton, Higgs Boson etc.,) and
how they interact and behaved as well as to find answers to other unsolved questions of physics like the
dark matter.
NEUTRINOS
• Neutrinos are the second most widely occurring particle in the universe, only second to photons, the
particle which makes up light.
• These were first proposed by Swiss scientist Wolfgang Pauli in 1930.
• They are elementary weakly interacting subatomic particles.

• They have little mass or are nearly massless.
Characteristics: • They are no-charge particles that only interact with weak nuclear force.
• Least harmful of all elementary particles, as they seldom react with solid bodies.
• Gave astronomical information like beta decay of star or supernova.
• In 2015, the Nobel Prize in physics was awarded to Takaaki Kajita and Arthur B. McDonald for
discovering neutrino oscillations demonstrating that neutrinos have mass.
• There are three types of neutrino namely, electron neutrino (Ve), Muon neutrino (Vμ) & Tau neutrino
(Vτ).
INDIA-BASED NEUTRINO OBSERVATORY (INO):

• INO is a multi-institutional effort aimed at building a world-class underground laboratory with a rock
cover of approximately 1200 m for Non-accelerator based high energy and nuclear physics research in
India. It is situated at Theni (Tamil Nadu).
• It is a mega-science project jointly funded by the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and the
Department of Science and Technology (DST).
• The initial goal of INO is to study Neutrinos.
• Neutrinos hold the key to important and fundamental questions on the

origin of the Universe and the energy production in stars.
Why TO detects Neutrinos? • For Neutrino tomography of the earth, that is a detailed investigation of
the structure of the Earth from core onwards. This is possible with
neutrinos since they are the only particles which can probe the deep
interiors of the Earth.
• Construction of an underground laboratory and associated surface
facilities at Pottipuram in Bodi hills of Theni District of Tamil Nadu.
The INO project includes: • Construction of an Iron Calorimeter (ICAL) detector for studying
neutrinos.
• Setting up of National Centre for High Energy Physics at Madurai, for
the operation and maintenance of the underground laboratory.
Note: Japan is planning to build a Hyper-Kamiokande neutrino detector which will be the world’s largest
neutrino observatory.
STARS AND THEIR LIFE CYCLES:

• Stars are formed in clouds of gas and dust, known as nebulae. Nuclear reactions
Formation: (fusion- hydrogen to helium) at the centre (or core) of stars provides enough energy
to make them shine brightly for many years.
• The exact lifetime of a star depends very much on its size. Very large, massive stars
Lifetime: burn their fuel much faster than smaller stars and may only last a few hundred
thousand years. Smaller stars, however, will last for several billion years, because
they burn their fuel much more slowly.
• When hydrogen fuel that powers the nuclear reactions within stars will begin to run
Phases: out, they enter into the final phases of their lifetime. Over time, they will expand, cool
and change colour to become red giants. The path they follow beyond that depends
on the mass of the star.
• Like the Sun, will undergo a relatively peaceful and beautiful death that sees them
Small stars: pass through a planetary nebula phase to become a white dwarf, which eventually
cools down over time and stops glowing to become a so-called "black dwarf" which
emits no energy.
• Will experience a most energetic and violent end, which will see their remains
scattered about the cosmos in an enormous explosion, called a supernova. Once the
Massive stars: dust clears, the only thing remaining will be a very dense star known as a neutron
star, these can often be rapidly spinning and are known as pulsars. If the star which
explodes is especially large, it can even form a black hole.
CHANDRASEKHAR LIMIT: of 1.4 solar masses, is the theoretical maximum mass a white dwarf star can have
and still remain a white dwarf. Above this mass, electron degeneracy pressure is not enough to prevent gravity
from collapsing the star further into a neutron star or black hole. The limit is named after Nobel laureate
Subrahmanyam Chandrasekhar, who first proposed the idea in 1931.
BLACK HOLE
A black hole is an object in space that is formed after the death of a star (core runs out of fuel) and is so dense
and has strong gravity that no matter or light can escape its gravity pull. Because no light can escape, it is black
and invisible.
Types of Black holes: Steller-mass black holes: Small black holes, have masses about five to 20 times
the mass of the sun.

Super-massive black holes: which are millions to billons time more massive than
the sun. Super-massive black holes are found at the centre of most galaxies. The
super-massive black hole in our own galaxy, Milky way is called Sagittarius A*.
EVENT HORIZON
• The boundary at the edge of black hole is called the event horizon. This is “point of no return”, beyond
which it is impossible to escape the gravitational effects of the black hole.
• Anything that crosses the event horizon, falls to the very centre of black hole and squished into single point
with infinite density, called the Singularity.
• EHT is group of 8 radio telescopes used to detect radio waves from space.
• In 2019, Scientists from EHT project released the first-ever optical image (or
shadow image) of a Black hole located in the center of galaxy Messier 87 in the
Event Horizon constellation Virgo.
Telescope project: • Sagittarius A* is the 2nd black hole to get photographed.
• Nobel Prize in Physics, 2020 – “for the discovery that black hole is a robust
prediction of general theory of relativity” to Roger Penrose and “for the
discovery of supermassive compact object at the centre of our galaxy” to
Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez.
GRAVITATIONAL WAVES
• Gravitational waves are the distortions or ‘ripples’ in fabric of space-time.
• Gravitational waves are produced when objects accelerate, and travels with speed of light.
• The strongest gravitational waves are produced by catastrophic events such as on merger of black holes,
collapse of Steller cores (supernovae), coalescing neutron stars or white dwarf.
• Gravitational waves were first proposed by Albert Einstein, 100 years ago as part of the Theory of
Relativity.
• In 2016, scientists at Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) first detected the
gravitational waves.
• Nobel prize in Physics, 2017 – “for decisive contributions to LIGO detector and the observation of
gravitational waves” to Rainer Weiss, Barry Barish and Kip thorne.
• The gravitational waves can work as sirens to measure the expansion rate of the universe and to
understand the origin and the future of the universe.
• Hubble’s Law: the farther away galaxies are, the faster they are moving away from Earth ― accelerating
expansion of the universe).
• Hubble constant: a unit of measurement that describes the rate at which the universe is expanding.
• World largest gravitational wave observatory for detecting cosmic gravitational

waves and for carrying out experiments.
Laser Interferometer • Comprises of two enormous laser interferometers located thousands of
Gravitational-wave kilometres apart, each having two L-shaped arms of 4km length.
Observatory (LIGO): • Two LIGO detectors are already operational in the U.S, at Livingston and
Hanford.
• The Japanese detector, KAGRA recently joined the international network.
LIGO- India – InDIGO: • LIGO-India project is Indian Initiative in Gravitational wave observations,
expected to be completed by 2025.

• Aims to move one advanced LIGO detector from Hanford to Maharashtra

(Hingoli district), India.
• Project is piloted by dept. of Atomic Energy (DAE) and dept. of Science and
Tech (DST).
• This project will help Indian scientists to be a major player in emerging research
frontier of GW astronomy.
SOLAR SYSTEM AND IT’S PARTS

• The Solar system is the gravitationally bound system of the sun and the objects orbit around it.
• The planets of our solar system are divisible in two groups: Terrestrial planets and Jovian planets.
• Terrestrial planets or inner plants: - lie between sun and the belt of asteroids, Earth like planets made up
of rocks and metals and relatively high densities. E.g., Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars.
• Jovian planets or outer planets: - gas giants or Jupiter like planets, larger size and less dense materials,
have thick atmosphere, mostly of helium and hydrogen. E.g., Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
KUIPER BELT:
• The Kuiper Belt is a ring of icy rocks & dust bodies just outside of Neptune’s orbit, known as Kuiper belt
objects or trans-neptunians.
• Pluto is the largest known Kuiper Belt Object instead of 9th planet of our Solar system.
• There are bits of rock and ice, comets, and dwarf planets.
Planet definition as per International Astronomical Union:

• Orbits around the sun.
• Has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium- a nearly round shape.
• Has removed debris and small objects from the area around its orbit.
ASTEROID BELT:
• Asteroids are remnants of planetary formation mainly composed of refractory rocky and metallic
minerals and some ice, that circle the sun in a zone lying between Mars and Jupiter. The circular chain of
asteroids is called asteroid belt or main asteroid belt.
• The remnants of planetary formation failed to coalesce due to gravitational interference of Jupiter.
• Recently, NASA’s OSIRIS-Rex spacecraft briefly touched down on the surface of asteroid “Bennu” to collect
rock and dust samples. The mission aims to complete by 2023.
• Hayabusa2 – It is an asteroid sample return mission operated by Japanese space agency, JAXA.
PLOONET:
• A celestial object, which are orphaned moons that have escaped the bonds of their planetary parents.
• The researchers explain that the angular momentum between the planet and its moon results in the moon
escaping the gravitational pull of its parent planet.
• A new study finds that Earth’s own Moon is slowly spiraling away from the planet; it may also end up as a
ploonet in some 5 billion years.
EXOPLANET:
• Planets orbiting the other stars (outside our solar system) are called “exoplanets.”
• Exoplanets are hard to see, they are hidden by the bright glare of the stars they orbit.
• Scientists use Gravitational lensing and the “wobbling methods” to detect exoplanets.
• Proxima Centauri b is closest exoplanet to earth and inhabits the “habitable zone” of its star.
• Gravitational lensing: Light around a massive object, such as a black hole, is bent, causing it to act as a lens
for the things that lie behind it.
ARIEL SPACE MISSION:

● Ariel (Atmospheric Remote sensing Infrared Exoplanet Large survey)- By European space agency (ESA),
will be launched in 2029.
● To study the nature, formation and evolutions of over a thousand exoplanets over a period of four years.
● First mission of its kind dedicated to large scale survey of Exoplanets.
GOLDILOCKS ZONE:
● The 'Goldilocks Zone,' or habitable zone – ‘the region around the star where a planet could sustain liquid
water on its surface’.
● Our Earth is in the Sun’s Goldilocks zone. If Earth were where the dwarf planet Pluto is, all its water would
freeze; on the other hand, if Earth were where Mercury is, all its water would boil off.
● Some Earth- size planets like TOI 700 d and Kepler-186f has been discovered in their Goldilocks zone.
ASTEROIDS:
● Big chunks of rocks floats through space and orbit the sun, mostly found in main asteroid belt i.e., between
Mars and Jupiter.
● The biggest one is Ceres (940km wide), as twice as big as Grand Canyon.
METEOROID:
● Smaller rock pieces that break off from asteroid, it floats through interplanetary space.
● Can be as small as grain of sand or as large as a meter across.
METEOR:
● When meteoroid enters into earth atmosphere, it begins to burn up and fall to the ground.
● This burning trail is known as meteor or “falling stars”.
● Meteors and comets both create bright trails through night, but comets are made up of ice and dust, not rock
– like a giant dirty snowball.
METEORITE:
● If a meteoroid rock doesn’t completely burn up as it falls to Earth- the rock left behind is called meteorite.
Asteroids àà Meteoroid àà Meteor àà Meteorite
COMETS:
● Comets are frozen leftovers from the formation of the solar system composed of dust, rock and ices, ranges
from few miles to tens of miles wide.
● Orbits closer to the sun, they heat up and spew gases and dust into a glowing head visible in atmosphere.
● Comets have highly elliptical orbits, unlike planets which have near-circular orbits.
SPACE DEBRIS
● Refers to a natural debris (asteroids, comets and meteoroids) found in solar system or debris from artificially
created objects (artificial satellites and old rockets) in space, especially earth orbit.
● Space debris can be hazardous to spacecrafts and satellites.
● Space debris tracked by radar and optical detectors.
● Project Netra: an early warning system by ISRO in space to detect debris and other hazards to Indian
satellites.
KESSLER SYNDROME: It is a possible effect that if one satellite produces debris that hot another satellite, this
will create a chain reaction that will obliterate every orbiting object in low earth orbit (LEO), and thus creating a
thick cloud of white dots travelling at high speed.
INDIAN SPACE RESEARCH ORGANISATION (ISRO)

● Nodal space research agency of Government of India
● Founded on 15th August, 1969. Headquarter - Bengaluru, Karnataka
● Managed by Department of Space (DOS), which reports directly to PM.
ISRO Commercial Arms:
Indian National space, ● Under Department of space to encourage, promote and hand hold
Promotion & Authorization the private sector for their participation in space sector.
Centre (IN-SPACe): ● Private players will also be able to use ISRO infrastructure through
IN-SPACe.
● A public sector undertaking (PSU) under the department of Space.
New Space India Limited (NSIL): ● It will commercially exploit the research and development work of
space agency.
● Co-produce PSLV and launch satellite through SSLVs.
NOTE:
● Antrix Ltd is another PSU under dept. of Space, that acts as a commercial arm of ISRO and markets the
products and services of ISRO.
● NSIL differs from Antrix Ltd. Antrix will handle ISRO’s commercial deals for satellites and launch vehicles
with foreign customers.
● NSIL will deal with capacity building of local industry for space manufacturing.
ISRO INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION:

● Chandrayaan-1: ISRO maiden mission to Moon, Chandrayaan-1 was the joint mission of ISRO-NASA, to
discovery of water molecules on the Moon surface.
● MEGHA- TROPIQUES: The Indo-French joint satellite mission launched in 2011 for the study of tropical
atmosphere and climate related aspects such as monsoons, cyclones etc.
● Saral (Satellite for ALTIKA and ARGOS): Joint mission with France for studying ocean from space using
altimetry launched in 2013.
● NISAR: NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar, joint satellite mission for earth sciences studies.
● Unnati: ISRO 8-week capacity building programme on nano satellite development, as an initiative of
UNISPACE+50, participants from several countries trained successfully.
TYPES OF ORBITS
• Satellites are generally characterized by the distance from the earth at which they revolve and on basis of
application of the Earth.
• On basis of height-
1. LEO Satellite (Lower Earth Orbit)
2. MEO Satellite (Middle Earth Orbit)
• On basis of application-
1. Geo- Synchronous Earth Orbit
2. Geo- Stationary Earth Orbit
Low Earth Orbit • LEO is commonly used for communication and remote sensing satellite systems,
(LEO) as well as the International Space Station (400km) and Hubble Space Telescope
(560km).

• The satellites in LEO complete multiple revolutions in 24 hours (Lower the orbit,
higher should be the speed).
Medium Earth Orbit • MEO is commonly used for navigation systems, including the U.S. Global
Positioning System (GPS).
• Objects in GSO have an orbital speed that matches the Earth’s rotation, yielding
a consistent position over a single longitude.
• An orbit is called sun-synchronous when the angle between the line joining the
centre of the Earth and the satellite and the Sun is constant throughout the orbit.
Geosynchronous • It enables the on-board camera to take images of the earth under the same sun-
Orbit (GSO) & illumination conditions during each of the repeated visits
Geostationary Orbit • The idea of a geosynchronous orbit for communications spacecraft was first
(GEO) popularized by science fiction author Sir Arthur C. Clarke in 1945, so it is
sometimes called the Clarke orbit.
• GEO is a kind of GSO. It matches the planet’s rotation, but GEO objects only orbit
Earth’s equator, and from the ground perspective, they appear in a fixed position
in the sky.
• GSO and GEO are used for telecommunications and Earth observation.
• To attain geosynchronous (and also geostationary) Earth orbits, a spacecraft is
first launched into an elliptical orbit with an apoapsis altitude in the
Geosynchronous neighbourhood of 37,000 km. This is called a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit
Transfer Orbit (GTO) (GTO).
• The spacecraft then circularizes the orbit by turning parallel to the equator at
apoapsis and firing its rocket engine.
• Polar orbits are 90-degree inclination orbits, useful for spacecraft that carry out
mapping or surveillance operations.
Polar Orbit • Within 30 degrees of the Earth’s poles, the polar orbit is used for satellites
providing reconnaissance, weather tracking, measuring atmospheric conditions,
and long-term Earth observation.
Sun-Synchronous • A type of polar orbit, SSO objects are synchronous with the sun, such that they
Orbit (SSO) pass over an Earth region at the same local time every day.
Highly Elliptical • An HEO is oblong, with one end nearer the Earth and other more distant.
Orbit (HEO) Satellites in HEO are suited for communications, satellite radio, remote sensing
and other applications.

TYPES OF SATELLITES
A satellite is a moon, planet or machine that orbits a planet or star. Thousands of artificial, or man-made, satellites
orbit Earth.
Astronomical Satellites: These satellites are used for the observation of distant stars and other objects
in space. Ex: Hubble Telescope
Communications Satellites: They are used for communicating over large distances. Ex: INSAT series.
These satellites are used for observing the earth’s surface and as a result, they
Earth Observation are often termed geographical satellites. The data is used for several
Satellites: applications covering agriculture, water resources, urban development,
mineral prospecting, environment, forestry, drought and flood forecasting,
ocean resources and disaster management. Ex: OCEANSAT
Navigation Satellites: Used for navigation purposes. Ex: IRNSS (India), GPS (USA)
Reconnaissance Satellites: Also called spy satellites, is an Earth observation satellite or communications
satellite deployed for military or intelligence applications.
LAUNCH VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY

• Launchers or Launch Vehicles are used to carry spacecraft to space.
• Historic launchers: SLV, Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)
• India has two operational launchers: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite
Launch Vehicle (GSLV).
• GSLV with indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage has enabled the launching up to 2 tons class of communication
satellites.
• The next variant of GSLV is GSLV Mk III, with indigenous high thrust cryogenic engine and stage, having the
capability of launching 4 tons class of communication satellites.
• Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, located in Thiruvananthapuram, is responsible for the design and
development of launch vehicles.
• Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre and ISRO Propulsion Complex, located at Valiamala and Mahendragiri
respectively, develop the liquid and cryogenic stages for these launch vehicles.
• Satish Dhawan Space Centre, SHAR, is the spaceport of India and is responsible for the integration of
launchers. It houses two operational launch pads from where all GSLV and PSLV flights take place.

SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE-3 (SLV-3):

• SLV-3was India's first experimental satellite launch vehicle.
• Which was an all solid, four-stage vehicle
• Capable of placing 40 kg payloads in Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
• First successful launch: Rohini Satellite on 18th July 1980 from Sriharikota.
• This made India the sixth member of an exclusive club of space-faring nations.
AUGMENTED SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE (ASLV):

• Designed to augment the payload capacity to 150 kg, thrice that of SLV-3, for Low Earth Orbits (LEO) in 1987.
• ASLV proved to be a low-cost intermediate vehicle to demonstrate and validate critical technologies.
POLAR SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE (PSLV):

• PSLV is the third generation launch vehicle of India, operationalized in 1994.
• It is the first Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with liquid stages.
• PSLV is a 4-stage launch vehicle that uses an alternate combination of liquid and solid-fueled rocket stages.
Ø 1st & 3rd stages are solid-fueled.
Ø 2nd & 4th stages are liquid-fueled.
• PSLV emerged as the reliable and versatile workhorse launch vehicle of India with 39 consecutively
successful missions by June 2017.
• Primarily used to launch remote sensing satellite.
• PSLV can deliver payloads of up to:
1. 3,250kg to LEO (Low Earth Orbit)
2. 1600 kg to SSO (Sun Synchronous orbit)
3. 1400 kg to GTO (Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit)
• Most famous launches by the PSLV:
4. Chandrayaan-1 in 2008 and
5. Mangalyaan/Mars Orbiter Mission in 2013.
6. PSLV-C37 launched 104 satellites on February 15, 2017, the highest number of satellites launched in a
single flight so far
• Currently, PSLV rockets have 4 variants:
1. PSLV-CA (core alone)
2. PSLV-DL (Dual strap-on motors)
3. PSLV-QL (4 strap-on motors)
4. PSLV-XL (6 strap-on motors)
GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE (GSLV):

• GSLV is a 3-stage Launch vehicle with solid fuel in the 1st stage, liquid in the 2nd stage and cryogenic in the
3rd stage.
• It was developed primarily to launch communication satellites (INSAT Series) of 2.5-tonne class in
Geostationary Transfer Orbit and about 4.5 tons class in Low Earth Orbit.
GSLV Mk II:
• This is the largest launch vehicle developed by India, which is currently in operation.
• This fourth-generation launch vehicle is a three-stage vehicle with four liquid strap-ons.
• The indigenously developed Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) forms the third stage of GSLV Mk II.
• Liftoff mass: 4.14 tones.
GSLV Mk III:
• This is a 3-stage heavy-lift rocket with an indigenous cryogenic engine in the 3rd stage.
• GSLV Mk III (ISRO’s Fat boy) is designed to carry 4-ton class of satellites into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit
(GTO) or about 10 tons to Low Earth Orbit (LEO), which is about twice the capability of the GSLV Mk II.
• Most famous launches: injected Chandrayaan-2, India’s second Lunar Mission, into Earth Parking Orbit on
July 22, 2019, from Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR, Srihari kota.
• Further, India’s first human space flight Gaganyaan to be launched using GSLV Mk III in 2022.
SOUNDING ROCKETS:
• These are one or two-stage solid propellant rockets used for probing the upper atmospheric regions and for
space research.
• They also serve as easily affordable platforms to test or prove prototypes of new components or subsystems
intended for use in launch vehicles and satellites.
• The launch of the first sounding rocket from Thumba near Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala on 21 November
1963, marked the beginning of the Indian Space Programme.
• RH-75, with a diameter of 75mm was the first truly Indian sounding rocket.
SMALL SATELLITE LAUNCH VEHICLE (SSLV):

• Designed by ISRO’s Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, to launch payload capacity of 500 kg to Low Earth
orbit&300 kg to Sun-synchronous orbit for launching small satellites.
• Objective: to commercially launch small satellites at a lower price and higher launch rate as compared to
PSLV.
• Unlike the PSLV and GSLV, the SSLV can be assembled both vertically and horizontally.
• The first three stages of the vehicle will use a solid propellant, with a fourth stage being a velocity-trimming
module.
SATELLITE SERIES OF INDIA- EVOLUTION TILL PRESENT

INDIA'S SPACE PROGRAMMES
COMMUNICATION SATELLITES:
• The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) systems are the set of communication satellites launched in Geo-
synchronous orbit at an altitude of about 36,000 km.
• Applications: The INSAT system with more than 200 transponders in the C, Extended C and Ku-bands
provides services to telecommunications, television broadcasting, satellite newsgathering, societal
applications, weather forecasting, disaster warning and Search and Rescue operations.
RECENT LAUNCHES: GSAT-30

• Launched into a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) on January 17, 2020, from Kourou launch base,
French Guiana by Ariane-5 VA-251 vehicle.
• Aims to provide communication services from Geostationary orbit in C and Ku bands.
• Weighing 3357 kg, GSAT-30 is to serve as a replacement to INSAT-4A spacecraft services with enhanced
coverage.
• Lifespan: 15 years.
• Applications: DTH, connectivity to VSATs for ATMs, Stock exchange, Television unlinking and Teleport
Services, Digital Satellite News Gathering (DSNG) and e-governance applications.
REMOTE SENSING (Earth Observation) SATELLITES:

• Starting with IRS-1A in 1988, ISRO has launched many operational remote sensing satellites.
• They are mostly polar, sun-synchronous satellites in low- earth orbit (LEO) at about 800 km from the earth
surface.
• Currently, 13 operational satellites are in Sun-synchronous orbit: RESOURCESAT-1, 2, 2A CARTOSAT-1, 2,
2A, 2B, RISAT-1 and 2, OCEANSAT-2, Megha-Tropiques, SARAL and SCATSAT-1, and 4 in Geo-stationary
orbit: INSAT-3D, Kalpana& INSAT 3A, INSAT -3DR.
• They are commonly called as remote sensing satellites as they collect information of any object on Earth
through the measurement of radiation of the Sun that is reflected and scattered by objects on the surface of
the earth.
• Applications covering agriculture, water resources, urban planning, rural development, mineral
prospecting, environment, forestry, ocean resources and disaster management.
RECENT LAUNCHES
• EOS-01 is an earth observation satellite, intended for applications in agriculture, forestry and disaster
management support. Launch Vehicle: PSLV-C49. From Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Srihari
kota on November 07, 2020.
• RISAT-2BR1 is radar imaging earth observation satellite (placed at 576km altitude). The satellite will
provide services in the field of Agriculture, Forestry and Disaster Management. Launch Vehicle: PSLV-C48
from SDSC, Srihari kota on Dec-11, 2019.
• CARTOSAT-3 will address the increased user’s demands for large scale urban planning, rural resource and
infrastructure development, coastal land use and land cover etc. Launch Vehicle: PSLV-C47. From SDSC,
Sriharikota on Nov-27, 2019.
HYPERSPECTRAL IMAGING(HSI):
(HSI) is a technique that analyzes a wide spectrum of light instead of just assigning primary colors (red, green,
blue) to each pixel.
Hyperspectral Imaging • India’s first hyperspectral imaging satellite.

Satellite (HysIS):
• Placed in Sun-synchronous polar orbit, 636 km above the surface of the

earth. Launch Vehicle: PSLV-C43. From SDSC, Sriharikota on Nov-29,
2018.
• Primary objective: to study the earth’s surface in the visible, near-infrared
and shortwave infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Application: It can be used for a range of activities from monitoring the
atmospheric activity and climate change, studies of Earth’s magnetic field,
agriculture, forestry, water management, coastal patterns, minerals
exploration &military surveillance.
INDIAN REGIONAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM (IRNSS):

• IRNSS (also known as NavIC) is an independent regional navigation satellite system being developed by
India.
• It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India as well as the region extending
up to 1500 km from its boundary.
• IRNSS will provide two types of services, namely:
1. Standard Positioning Service (SPS) which is provided to all the users and
2. Restricted Service (RS), which is an encrypted service provided only to authorized users.
• The IRNSS System is expected to provide a position accuracy of better than 20m in the primary service
area.
• There are currently seven IRNSS satellites (1A to 1G) in orbit.

1. 4 satellites: A, B, F, G - are placed in a Geosynchronous Orbit. (1A is replaced by 1I recently)
2. 3 satellites: C, D, E - are located in Geostationary Orbit
• Terrestrial, Aerial and Marine Navigation

• Disaster Management
• Vehicle tracking and fleet management
Applications of IRNSS: • Integration with mobile phones
• Precise Timing
• Mapping and Geodetic data capture
• Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travelers
• Visual and voice navigation for drivers
SOUTH ASIA SATELLITE (SAS) – The GSAT-9

• SAS is a communication satellite (Ku-band) built by ISRO to provide a variety of communication services
over the South Asian region.
• Launch Vehicle: GSLV-F09.
• From SDSC, Srihari kota.
• Weight: 2230 kg. Into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) on May 05, 2017.
• The initial proposal to name it as “SAARC Satellite” was changed to “South Asia Satellite” following Pakistan’s
refusal.
• SAS/GSAT-9 to boost communication and improve disaster links among India’s six Neighbours has “opened
up new horizons of engagement” in the region and helped it carve a unique place for itself in space
diplomacy.
• SAS covers six SAARC countries namely, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka
(except Pakistan).
INDIAN DATA RELAY SATELLITE SYSTEM (IDRSS)

• It will be a set of satellites that will track, send and receive information from other Indian Satellites in space.
• IDRSS satellites of the 2,000 kg class would be launched on the GSLV launcher to geostationary orbits around
36,000 km away.
• It is primarily meant for providing continuous/real-time communication of Low-Earth-Orbit satellites
including human space mission to the ground station.
• Need for IDRSS:
1. India is dependent on foreign space agencies (like NASA) for information related to satellites in space.
2. To assist ISRO’s 1st human to space project the ‘Gaganyaan’ of 2022.
3. A data relay satellite instead in the geostationary orbit can overcome the need for a large number of
ground-based stations.
• It will be useful in monitoring launches and vital for ISRO which has planned in future several advanced Low
Earth Orbit (LEO) missions such as space docking, space station, as well as distant expeditions to the moon,
Mars and Venus.
SPACE EXPLORATION MISSIONS
CHANDRAYAAN:
• India's first mission to Moon.

CHANDRAYAAN-1 • Launched successfully on October 22, 2008 (G. Madhavan Nair was ISRO
chairman) from SDSC, Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.

• The spacecraft orbited around the Moon at an altitude of 100 km &200 km from
the lunar surface for chemical, mineralogical and photo-geologic mapping of the
Moon.
• Findings: Detection of Water and Hydroxyl (OH), new spinel-rich rock, X-rays.
• The second lunar exploration and 1st lander and rover mission of ISRO | Launcher:
GSLV MK III
• It is the world’s 1st lunar mission to the South Pole of the Moon’s near side.
• The South Pole of the lunar surface remains in shadow is much larger than that at
the North Pole.
• Aims at studying not just one area of the Moon but all the areas combining the
exosphere, the surface as well as the sub-surface of the moon in a single mission.
• The Orbiter will observe the lunar surface and relay communication between
Earth and Chandrayaan 2's Lander Vikram.
CHANDRAYAAN-2 • The lander was designed to execute India's first soft landing on the lunar surface.
• The lander-rover integrated module was supposed to soft-land near South Pole
(about 600 km) of the moon.
• The rover was a 6-wheeled, AI-powered vehicle named Pragyan, which translates
to 'wisdom' in Sanskrit.
• However, a last-minute software glitch led to crash-landing of Vikram and
Pragyan.
PURPOSE:
1. To find traces of Water and Helium-3
2. On-site chemical analysis of the surface
3. To click pictures of the moon via the orbiter.
CHANDRAYAAN-3 Recently ISRO has announced Chandrayaan-3, another attempt to soft landing
mission, after the failure of Vikram Lander under Chandrayaan-2.
MANGALYAAN:
• Also called Mars Orbiter Mission, it is India's 1st interplanetary mission
• Launched using PSLV C-25 on Nov-5, 2013 & reached Mars on 24th Sept 2014.
• It costs 450 crores, weight 1350 kg, travelled for 300 days covered 65 crore km.
• ISRO has become the 4th space agency to reach Mars, after the Soviet space program, NASA, and the
European Space Agency.
• It is the first Asian nation to reach Mars orbit, and the first nation to do so on its first attempt.
• Objective: Exploration of Martian surface features, morphology, mineralogy and atmosphere.
• Important payloads:
1. Atmospheric studies (Lyman-alpha Photometer (LAP), Methane Sensor for Mars (MSM))
2. Particle environment studies (Mars Exospheric Neutral Composition Analyzer (MENCA)),
3. Surface imaging studies (Thermal Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (TIS), Mars Colour Camera (MCC))
NOTE: ISRO is also planning a Lander mission to Mars under Mangalyaan-2 by 2024withthe main objective is
to study the surface geology, magnetic fields and interplanetary dust.
GAGANYAAN:
• India’s 1st Human spaceflight programme (announced in 2018) to be launched by 2022.
• It will make India the 4th country to send manned mission after Russia, USA and China.
• Over the years, the ISRO has developed and tested many technologies that are critical to a human space flight.

• These include a Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE-2007), Crew module Atmospheric Reentry
Experiment (CARE-2014), GSLV Mk-III (2014), Reusable Launch Vehicle- Technology Demonstrator (RLV-
TD), Crew Escape System and Pad Abort Test.
• It will include two unmanned flights to be launched in December 2020 (deferred) and July 2021 and one
human space flight to be launched in December 2021.
• GAGANYAAN expected to carry 3 astronauts to a Low Earth Orbit on board GSLV Mark III vehicle, for at least
7 days.
• ISRO has signed a pact with the Russian firm Glavkosmos to train astronauts (selected from Indian Air Force)
for this project.
• Also, ISRO will receive assistance from the French space agency CNES, in terms of expertise in various fields
including space medicine, astronaut health monitoring, radiation protection and life support.
• Vyoma (space) + mitra (friend) à Vyomamitra

• It is a Gynoid (female humanoid robot).
• ISRO has planned to send Vyomamitra in the unmanned crew module of
VYOMAMITRA Gaganyaan.
• Objective: To test the Environmental Control & Life Support System of
Ganganyaan to detect environmental changes.
• It has been developed by scientists at IISc in collaboration with ISRO.
• It was established by ISRO in 2019 to coordinate with Indian Human
Human Space Flight Spaceflight Programme (HSP) and will be responsible for the implementation
Centre (HSFC) of Gaganyaan Mission.
• The proposed set up comes at Challakere, Chitradurga district of Karnataka.
SHUKRAYAAN:
• ISRO’s planned orbiter mission to Venus by 2023
• Main goals are to study:
1. The atmosphere and its chemistry
2. Surface and sub-surface features
3. Interaction of the planet with solar radiation
ADITYA MISSION:
• India’s 1st first mission to study the Sun to be launched in early 2020 (deferred)
• Its main objective is to study the solar corona.
• Initially, Aditya-1 was meant to observe solar corona only.
• Now additional payloads under Aditya-L1 (L1-Lagrange point orbit) with observing corona, chromosphere
and photosphere.
• It will have 7 payloads onboard to study Sun’s corona, solar emissions, solar winds and flares, and Coronal
Mass Ejections, and will carry out round-the-clock imaging of Sun.
• A Lagrange point is a location in space where the combined gravitational forces

of two large bodies, such as Earth and the sun or Earth and the moon, equal the
centrifugal force felt by a much smaller third body.
LAGRANGE POINT • These points are named after Joseph-Louis Lagrange, an 18th-century
mathematician who wrote about them in the "three-body problem" in 1772.
• The first Lagrange point (L1) is located between the Earth and the Sun, giving
satellites at this point a constant view of the Sun.

IMPORTANT MISSIONS OF NASA
MISSION RELATED INFORMATION

ARTEMIS program NASA will land the first woman and next man on the Moon by 2024
• Mars Rover Mission
CURIOSITY • Launched in 2011
• Goal: Determine if Mars was ever able to support microbial life.
• Aimed at exploring the solar system
• Various missions under the New Frontiers Program are:
1. New Horizons: Launched in 2006 to investigate distant solar system object
NEW FRONTIER’S including Pluto and its moons and Kuiper Belt.
PROGRAM 2. Juno: launched in 2016 to study Jupiter.
3. OSIRIS-REx mission: to collect samples from an asteroid Bennufor further
study.
4. Dragonfly: to be launched in 2026 to study Saturn and its icy moons.
InSights Mission • The first mission to explore Mars' deep interior.
• It is part of NASA’s Discovery Program.
PUNCH (Polarimeter • To image regions beyond the Sun’s outer corona.
to Unify the Corona • It is expected to be launched in 2022.
and Heliosphere) • It is focused on understanding the transition of particles from the Sun’s outer
mission corona to the solar wind that fills interplanetary space.
• It is the only spacecraft to study all four of the solar system's giant planets,
Voyager-2 the Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune at close range.
• Like Voyager 1, Voyager 2 was designed to find and study the edge of our solar
system.
• It is a collaborative mission between the European Space Agency (ESA) and
SOLO (SOLar Orbiter NASA dedicated to solar and helio-spheric physics.
mission) • It will study the origins of the Universe, emergence of life and the fundamental
physics at work in the Universe.
Parker Solar Probe • launched in 2018 with the mission of making observations of the outer corona
of the Sun.
OTHER SPACE AGENCIES
MISSION RELATED INFORMATION

BEPI COLOMBO • A joint mission of ESA and JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) to
Mercury
JUICE (JUpiterICy moons • Orbiter mission to explore Jupiter and three of its icy moons: Europa, Callisto
Explorer) and Ganymede by ESA (European Space Agency)
• 1st non-American outer Solar System mission
• China’s lunar programme.
Chang’e-4 • It is the first mission to land on the far side of the Moon.
• It landed at the South Pole- Aitken Basin.
HOPE/ Emirates Mars • UAE’s 1st Mars mission.
Mission • It was launched in July-2020 from Japan by a Japanese H-IIA rocket.
Hayabusa-2 • It is an asteroid (Ryugu) sample-return mission operated by the Japanese
state space agency JAXA.
TIANGONG-2 • The successor of Tiangong-1 (Chinese Space station)
• Launched in 2016.
• Aims to test capabilities for long-term human presence in space.
• Joint earth observation project of NASA and ISRO.
NISAR (NASA-ISRO • It is the 1st dual-band radar imaging satellite. (L-Band and S-Band).
Synthetic Aperture • Objective: to observe natural processes, including ecosystem disturbances,
Radar) ice-sheet collapse, and natural hazards such as earthquakes, tsunamis,
volcanoes and landslides etc.,
SPACE OBSERVATORIES ON SURFACE AND IN SPACE-IMPORTANT TELESCOPES
• One of the largest multi-wavelength space telescopes.

HUBBLE SPACE • It’s a Joint project of NASA and ESA
TELESCOPE (HST) • 600 km above the surface of the earth.
• Can observe objects in visible, near-ultraviolet, and near-infrared light.
JAMES WEB TELESCOPE • The successor of Hubble Space Telescope to be launched in 2021.
• Times bigger than HST and 6 times more powerful.
• JWST will orbit the Sun. (not earth like HST)
• TMT project is an international partnership between the USA, Canada, Japan,
China, and India.
THIRTY METER • It will allow deeper exploration into space and observe cosmic objects with
TELESCOPE (TMT) unprecedented sensitivity.
• Installation site: Mauna Kea in Hawaii.
• TMT has been developed by close collaboration between the 2020 Physics
Nobel Laureate Prof. Andrea Ghez and Indian astronomers.
THE GIANT • An array of 30 fully steerable parabolic radio telescopes of 45-metre
METERWAVE RADIO diameter.
TELESCOPE • Located near Pune, India.
• Can scale deep space objects such as a galaxy, neutron star, pulsar, etc.

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UDAAN

Quick and Comprehensive Revision Series

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Sr. CHAPTER Pg. No

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COLOR CLASSIFICATION OF BRANCHES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY:

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA):

RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA):

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA:

• Every cell in the body is enclosed by a cell (Plasma) membrane.

ORGANELLE AND ITS FUNCTION

NOTE: Organelles are found only in plant cells.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL:

Plant Cell Animal Cell

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Centrosome absent Centrosome present

Growing Human Organs in Animal Body

Source of Stem Cells:

Adult stem cells include:

Hierarchy of Cell Potency:

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Short Tandem Repeats (STRs):

How does genome edit work?

• CRISPR stands for ‘Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short

Zinc-Finger Nucleases (ZFN):

• Gene silencing is the regulation of gene expression in a cell to prevent the

THREE PARENT BABY

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EMBRYO TRANSFER TECHNOLOGY

HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (HGP)

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• HGP was began in 1990 & completed in 2003.

GENOME INDIA PROJECT (GIP)

The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA):

GM CROPS & ASSOCIATED ISSUES

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BIO-Technology Kisan programme:

Major initiatives of the National Biotechnology Development Strategy

• BRAI is a proposed regulatory body to regulate the use of Genetically

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GEAC is chaired by the Special Secretary/Additional Secretary of

Recombinant-DNA (R-DNA) Technology

R-DNA involves several steps in specific sequence such as:

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Organisation Important Information

Committee Year Purpose

INDIA’S NUCLEAR DOCTRINE

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BALLISTIC AND CRUISE MISSILES

Ballistic Missile Cruise Missile

INDIAN MISSILE SYSTEM

Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP):

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• Astra is an all-weather beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile (BVRAAM)

• One of the fastest cruise missiles currently operationally deployed.

AIR DEFENCE SYSYEMS

INDIAN BALLISTIC MISSILE DEFENCE PROGRAMME:

+91-7007-931-912