SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER

DEEKSHA DEGREE COLLEGE, NIRMAL

AFFLIATED WITH K.U (WARANGAL)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

ABILITY ENHANCEMENTCOMPULSORY COURSE

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

LAXMAN NYAMTABAD
MCA
Dept. of Computer Science

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 1

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER

COMPUTER
The word “computer” comes from the word “compute” which means to calculate. So a computer is normally
considered to be a calculating device that performs arithmetic operations at enormous speed.
More accurately, a computer may be defined as a device that that operates upon information or data .
Now a day’s more than 80 % of the work done by computers today is a non mathematical or non- numerical
nature.
Definition of computers :
A computer is an electronic device which is used to perform operation on raw data as per instruction given by
user. All the Plugged with computer system( e.g. keyboard, mouse, printer,CPU etc) is called hardware, the
language , instruction, data are the called software.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
Every computer varies depending upon its size and capacity but there are many common features or
characteristics due to which the computer performs the input-output processes in an effective way.
They are as follows-
1. Speed
2. Accuracy
3. Storage
4. Versatility
5. Diligence
6. Automation
7. Reliability
8. Power of Remembering
1. Speed – Speed of a computer means the time it takes to complete any given task. The computer works
at a very lightning speed. For example, a computer takes a second to calculate 3 million calculations
rather than a human which takes years. Hence nowadays the speed of the computer is measured in
terms of microseconds, Nanoseconds, and even in Pico seconds instead of seconds or milliseconds.
2. Accuracy – The computers are programmed and designed in such a manner that their results are almost
100% accurate. It performs all the tasks with the same accuracy. There are very few chances of
uncertainty in results and even though an error occurs, it can happen either due to wrong input data or
unreliable programs by a programmer. Such errors are referred to as Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO)
which means, if you provide wrong instructions to the computer then you get wrong results.
3. Storage – A human brain keeps only the knowledge which it thinks is important and removes the rest.
Whereas a computer can store a huge amount of data in its internal memory known as primary storage
and can quickly access the data whenever required. But the internal memory is limited so to store more
data secondary storage devices are used such as DVD, Pen drives, etc. They can be carried from one
computer to another very easily. Thus sections of total data can be brought to the internal memory of
the computer whenever required. The data in the computer can never elapse and will be always
accessible and properly stored in a systematic format. The storage capacity of a computer is measured
in Kilobyte (KB), Megabyte (Mb), Gigabyte (GB), and Terabyte (TB).
4. Versatility – Along with being accurate and diligent a computer is also a versatile device. It can perform
several types of tasks at a time if they are reduced to a certain set of logical steps. A computer can be
used for many purposes at different places such as booking air and rail tickets, weather forecasting,
listening to music, and playing games. Also at a time, one can pay his utility bills and can make a
monthly budget too. It can prepare documents, data sheets and also can make models of houses, dams,
etc.
5. Diligence – The ability of a computer to perform tasks without getting tired is known as diligence.
Computers are highly reliable, they do not get fed up, exhausted, or lack concentration. They can work
for hours and hours unlike humans and can give accurate or error-free results. For example, humans
will start feeling tired after 2 -3 hours and will lack concentration whereas a computer will keep on
working until the results are achieved.
6. Automation – Automation means working automatically. A computer can work on its own without the
intervention of the person using it. Programs can be made for the computer to perform the task and

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 2

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER

based on the sequence it executes the tasks and gives accurate results. In case an error occurs, it gives
error messages too and registers the logs.
7. Reliability – High reliability of a computer depends on low failure rate and easy maintenance. The
results given out by the computer are reliable as the accuracy is almost 100%.
8. Power of Remembering – The computer has the power of storing data or information for several years.
It cannot lose the data on its own. A person can retrieve the data whenever required and the data
remains the same after a number of years also. It gives the freedom to the user to decide on how much
data to store and how much to remove.
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
First Generation (1942-1955)- Vacuum Tubes

✓ This generation computers used Vacuum tubes

✓ These computers were physically large in size and required large rooms for installation.
✓ Magnetic Drums were used for memory
✓ These computers produced large amount of heat due to large consumptions of electricity.
Therefore, these computers required continuous maintenance and proper cooling with the
help of large Air-conditioners
✓ They were relatively unreliable as they could produce inaccurate results some times.
✓ Input was based of punched cards and paper tape
✓ They performed slow input-output operation.
✓ Limited programming capabilities. Only machine and assembly languages were used ,These
computers had limited commercial use
✓ The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices
Second Generation (1955-1964) Transistors

✓ This generation computers used Transistors in place of vacuum tubes

✓ They were much smaller in size and required lesser space for installation.
✓ Magnetic tapes were used as secondary storage.
✓ They consumed lesser power and therefore lesser amount of heat, but stall air conditioning
was required.
✓ They were highly reliable and lesser prone to hardware failures
✓ High-level languages were used to instruct the computers to performing various tasks.
✓ These computers were more versatile than first generation computers
✓ High input/output operations speed than first generation computers.
✓ The commercial production of second-generation computers was limited and costly.
Third Generation (1964 -1975)- Integrated Circuits

✓ Integrated Circuits were used

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 3

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER

✓ The size of these computers was small

✓ Magnetic disk used for external storage
✓ Consumed less power, at still conditioning was required.
✓ They were more reliable
✓ They had high processing speed
✓ Monitors and keyboards were used for input/output
✓ Development of standardized High-level languages like PASCAL, BASIC etc.
✓ Maintenance cost of these computers was very less
✓ They were general-purpose machines suitable for best scientific and commercial applications.
✓ Fourth Generation (1975-1989)-Microprocessors

✓ High speed Microprocessors were used. Millions of electronic components were integrated on
a single microprocessor chip
✓ They were much smaller and.
✓ They consumed less power than third generation computers
✓ They were more reliable and less prone to hard ware failures than third generation therefore
their maintenance cost is negligible
✓ They had faster and larger primary and secondary storage
✓ Graphical User Interface enabled new users to quickly learn how to use computers.
✓ Use of standard high-level languages allowed program to be transferred from one computer to
another.
✓ Supports more Input and Output devices
✓ Network of computers enabled sharing of resources like disks, printers etc.
✓ They were general-purpose machines used in application development
Fifth Generation (1989-Present) Artificial Intelligence

✓ Fifth generation computers, based on Artificial Intelligence in development

✓ Portable computers (called notebook) are much smaller and handy than 4 generation
computers
✓ They consume less power
✓ They are much more reliable
✓ They have faster and larger primary and secondary storage
✓ More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features make the systems easier to learn and
use by anyone, including children.
✓ The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language
input (i.e., Human languages like English, Hindi, and French etc.) and are capable of learning
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
There are various methods on which the computers can be classified. The classification may depend
on size, technology, area of application, type of data processed

✓ These computers convert the inputs into binary language of 0's & 1's.

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 4

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER

✓ They carry out operaions on binary data at a very fast rate and generate outputin user
understandable language.
✓ These computers basically work by counting and adding the binary digits.
✓ These computers are more accurate, faster and reliable than analog computers.
✓ They are the most commonly used computers in homes and offices.
✓ The real life example of a digital computer is a digital watch. Now days, computerused for the
purpose of business and education are also example of digitalcomputers.
✓ In digital computers, data flows in the form of clock pulses as shown below:

Digital computers can be further classified into following classifications:

(i) Classification by purpose
(i) Classification by size
(ii) Classification by function
(i) Classification by purpose
✓ There are some needs that are specific to a particular environment or a particularuser.
Depending upon the purpose of use, the computers can be special purpose orgeneral purpose.
(a) Special Purpose Computers
✓ These computers are specially designed to perform a specilic task of a specificenvironment.
That's why these computers are not versatile.
✓ The instructions used by these computers are permanently stored in themachine.
✓ These computers are generally embedded in various automatic devices. Forexample: A
computer that has been designed to count the telephone call pulsesand display the amount
payable can only serve this purpose. It cannot be used for other purposes.
(b) General Purpose Computers
✓ These computers can be used for all general needs of all environments & users.
✓ These are the versatile computers that can perform a variety of jobs for a variety of
environments i.e. general-purpose computers can be used anywhere to solveany problem.
✓ For example: A general purpose computer can be used to calculateaccounts, data, writing
letters, drawing pictures, playing games, listening music,watching movies and accessing
internet etc.
(ii) Classification by size
Computers can be classified by their physical size and appearance. By SIZe We canclassify them into
following types:
(a) Micro Computers

✓ A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive Computer with amicroprocessor as its central

processing unit.
✓ A microcomputer is a computer designed for individual use this is the smallest category of digital
computers, in which, Single microprocessorperforms the function of ALU (Arithmetic logic unit) and
Control unit.
✓ Supported by single useroperating systems.
✓ Home Computers and personal computers are the best examples of Microcomputers
N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 5
SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER

B) Mini Computers

✓ mini Computers are general purpose computers, which are more expensive than the
microcomputers.
✓ The capabilities of mini computers lie somewhat betweenthe mainframes and personal computers.
✓ They can support multiple input-output devices.
✓ They contain less memory and processing capabilitiesthan a mainframe.
✓ A large number of computers can be connected to a network with a mini computer acting as a
server.
✓ Mini Computers can be used for systems like- ticket reservation or banking.
C) Programmable Computers

✓ Programmable computers are the smallest computersthat can be programmed by the user.
✓ Personal Digits Assistants (PDA), latest mobiles andaddress books fall under this category.
✓ These computers have capabilities of keeping track ofappointments, meetings, calls, SMS, image
&video capturing ete.
✓ They also contain accessories like calculator, notepad,MP3 players, Bluetooth communication etc.
(d) Laptop

✓ Laptop computers are so small that they can be placed on our lap.
✓ These computers can work while travelling andeven without any power connection.
✓ These computers are commonly used at homes oroffices to perform commonly used operations
like Word processing, spreadsheets and presentations.
✓ These computers are light weight and compact in Size.
✓ They contain all features of laptops or personal computers.
e) Desktop or Personal Computers (PC)

✓ Personal Computers are the most widely used computers in the world.
✓ These computers are normally placed on the top of the desk, so they are alsoknown as the Desktop
computers.
✓ These computers are equipped with huge volumes of main and secondarymemories.
✓ They are mainly used for managingpersonal data of a Company or anindividual, that's why they are
calledPersonal computers.
N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 6
SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
✓ Number of software’s can be installed onthese computers to perform various kindsof data
processing operations.
✓ we can manage accounts, design graphicsor images, surf internet, write letters andlisten to music
or watch movies on these
✓ The size of desktop computers are greater than laptops.
(f) Mainframe Computers

A mainframe computer is a very large size computer capable of handling andprocessing very large amounts
of data quickly.
✓ Mainframe computers have more main and secondary storage and containmultiple processing
units (CPUs).
✓ These computers are generally used in largeorganizations like government agencies, banks,
✓ Flight scheduling, ticket reservations and insurancecompanies where a large number of people
needfrequent access to the same data which is usuallyorganized into one or more huge databases.
✓ In a mainframe, several computer terminals whichbasically contain keyboard and monitor are
pluggedinto a single mainframe. These terminals act as aninput/output device to the mainframe.
✓ Mainframes computers occupyrequire proper air-conditioning.
✓ A typical mainframe system can Support hundreds of users at the same time.With the
technological advances in personal computers, the need for mainframecomputing has significantly
reduced over the years. The computing power of atypical desktop computer today is greater than
that of a mainframe system.

g) Super Computers

✓ Super Computers are the most powerul computers typically used for scientificand engineering
applications that must handle very large databases or do a greatamount of computation.
✓ Super computers are the fastest and most expensive computers ever built by humans
✓ these computers contain multiple processors that work together to solve a single problem at a
time.
✓ The size of these computers is hundreds of times bigger than a Personal computer.
✓ These computers have huge main memories and secondary storage.
✓ these computers cost in millions of dollars and owned by countries or very large business
organizations.
✓ Supercomputers are used for very complex jobs such as nuclear research orforecasting weather
patterns.
✓ The major difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that aSupercomputer channels
all its power into executing a few programs as fast aspossible, whereas a mainframe uses its power
to execute many programsconcurrently.
(ii) Classification by function
Computers can be classified into following four basic categories based on thefunctions it can perform:
N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 7
SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
(a) Server
✓ Server refers to a computer that is dedicated to provide some services to theother computers
(called clients).
✓ Some servers are committed to a specific task;. Asa result, there are a number or dedicated Server
categories, like database servers,file servers and print servers.
✓ Servers are named depending on the type of service they offer. For example, acomputer dedicated
to a database may be called a database server". A computermanages a large collection ofcomputer
files may be called a "File server".
✓ As servers are commonly used to deliver services that are required constantly, somost of the
servers are never turned off.
✓ They are bit different because high performing servers are set-up with highconfigurationhard
ware’s and software’s.

(b) Workstation

✓ A workstation is a computer intended for individual use i.e. primarily to be usedby one person at a
time.
✓ A high-performance computer typically used for software development,audio/video editing and
scientific applications.
✓ It is mainly designed for business or professional use rather than home use.
✓ A workstation has advanced graphics capabilities, large storage capacity, and apowerful
microprocessor.
✓ Workstations are commonly connected to a local area network and run multiuser operating
systems.
✓ In terms of computing power, workstations lie between personal computers andminicomputers.
(c) Embedded Computers
✓ Embedded computers are fixed inside various electronic devices to automate andcontrol their
working.
✓ Various modern electronic devices like Microwave, washing machine, televisionsand many other
devices contain embedded computers. For examplea small computer fitted in a digital washing
machine controls the washing cycle of themachine.
✓ The user could not program these computers. The manufacturer of theseComputers programs
them.
2.ANALOG COMPUTERS
✓ Analog computers are the computers that work on continuous data.

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 8

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
✓ Analog computers are used to measure the physical quantities like pressure,temperature, speed
etc.
✓ These computers accept input data in the form of signals and convert them tonumeric values. For
example: A thermometer does not perlorm any calculationsbut measures the temperature of the
body.
✓ mainly used for scientific and engineering purposes,because they deal with quantities that vary
constantly.
✓ Analog computers are faster than digital computers but they are not as accurate as digital
computers. That’s why they are less commonly used.
✓ The representation of flow of data in analog computer is shown as:

3.HYBRID COMPUTERS

✓ Hybrid computers employ both the features of digital and analog computers i.e.they can work on
continuous as well as discontinuous data.
✓ These computers are used in those environments, where both digital & analsignals are used in
processing.
✓ The uses of hybrid computers are increasing day by day as there are numberareas in the real world
where we need both analog and digital computers.
✓ Example: In a hospital, there may be number of devices like E.C.G, machine which are used to
measure the patients diet, temperature and other information. This is done by analog computers.
The information received from these analog computers is then supplied to digital computers to
generate reports

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

✓ A typical computer system irrespective of its size, class or type consists of hardware and software,
integrated and synchronized together to perform computational work or data processing.
✓ Computer Anatomy is concerned with the way the various functional units operate and how they
are connected together to form the computer system.
✓ A computer system consists of the following functional units:
a. Input Unit.
b. Memory/ Storage Unit.
c. CPU (Central Processing Unit)
d. Output Unit

Input Unit
N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 9
SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
In brief, an input unit performs the following functions:
✓ it accepts or reads the list of data and instructions from the user
✓ it converts these data and instructions in computer acceptable form
✓ it supplies the converted data and instructions to the computer system for further processing
✓ EX: Key board ,mouse , scanner

Memory/Storage Unit
✓ The basic function of this unit is to store the data, instructions and final results in to the system so
that it can deliver them on demand to the user or other computer units at a later time.
✓ The data and instructions are transferred to other computer units or devices from the main storage
under the supervision of control unit. It also referred as the primary storage
Primary Storage
✓ Primary storage is a direct access storage device, consisting of number o storage locations. Each
location in the storage has a unique number, called storage Address.
✓ The system assigns a unique location to each data element Once the data is assigned to the
location, the system accesses it directly by means of the address of the particular Storage locations.
✓ The various types of primary storages are
a. RAM (Random Access Memory)
b. Cache Memory
Secondary Storage
✓ The data and instructions in primary storage (RAM) are temporary in nature and they are erased
automatically as soon as the power is Switched off
✓ The secondary storage is used to store the data permanently. The user can access the data from
secondary storage whenever required.
✓ Some commonly used secondary storage devices that are used to store the data permanently are:
I. ROM (Read Only Memory)
II. Virtual Memory
III. Floppy Disk
IV. Hard Disk
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
✓ CPU is considered as the Brain of the computer". It is also called as microprocessor. It is the latest
and costly unit of the computer system. All major calculations and comparisons are made inside the
CPU.
✓ CPU converts all the supplied input into required output as per the instructions supplied by the
user. The performance and the speed of the computer mainly depend upon the type of
microprocessor installed in it.
✓ Within CPU, there exists a temporary storage location known as registers. These are used for
storage of smaller data (up to 64 bits). Registers are being used for faster data supply to processor
tor processing. The number, size and capacity of register in a CPU can affect the processing power.
✓ Components of CPU .The CPU further contains two units
I. ALU (Arithmetic and logical Unit)
II. Control Unit
✓ A Control unit is a major component of the computer which helps in the Functioning of the central
processing unit and turns the whole computer

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 10

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
✓ Control Unit works as a supervisor or monitor in the system. it supervises or controls all the
activities of various functional units o the computer
✓ It fetches (transfers) the required instructions from the main memory, interprets them and then
sends them to ALU for processing
✓ It controls the execution of instructions in a sequential order.
✓ It works as a central nervous system f or the computer. it controls the flow of data to and from the
main memory It sends and receives control signals from various peripheral devices
✓ It ensures that data reaches the correct place at the correct time.
ALU (Arithmetic & Logical Unit)
✓ The function of ALU is to perform the actual calculations in the computer. It performs arithmetic
(addition, subtraction, multiplication & division) and logical comparisons or decisions) calculations
in the computer.
✓ Under the control of the control unit, the data and instructions stored in the primary storage are
transferred to ALU for processing
✓ ALU performs calculations and sends intermediate and final results to the main memory ie. No
processing is done in the primary storage unit.
✓ ALU has internally two temporary resisters into which the incoming data from memory is loaded
and then operated inside ALU.
Output Unit
✓ In brief, an output unit performs the following functions:
✓ It accepts the results produced by the computer that are in binary form
✓ It converts these binary coded results to human acceptable form.
✓ Finally, it supplies the converted results to the user.
✓ It offers ample features to analyze data using charts, graphs, year-to-year
✓ Comparisons and much more, with only the click of a button.
✓ Ex: printer, plotter, speakers

COMPUTER MEMORY
✓ Memory is the storage area of computer where all the inputs (data as well as instructions) are
stored before processing and the outputs are stored after processing of inputs.

✓
✓ The memory of a computer can be divided into two broad categories:
1. Primary storage/internal memory
2. Secondary storage/External memory
1. PRIMARY STORAGE
✓ Primary storage, also known as main storage or main memory or internal memory is a direct
access storage device, consisting of a number of storage locations.

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 11

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
✓ Each location in the storage has a unique number, called Storage Address. The system assigns a
unique memory location to each data element. Once the data element is assigned to the location,
the system accesses it directly by means of the address of the particular storage location.
✓ The various types of primary storage are:
(i) RAM (Random Access Memory)
(ii) ROM (Read Only Memory
(ii) CACHE Memory
iv) Virtual Memory

RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY)-VOLATILE MEMORY

✓ RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it canhold.
✓ Whenever user enters any kind of data into the computer system, it moves into primary memory
for storage.
✓ It is the most randomly access storage type among all types of storage.
✓ The word "random" refers to the fact that any piece of data can be returned quickly,
✓ RAM is volatile in nature i.e. once the system is switched off, the contents ofRAM will
automatically be deleted.
✓ RAM stores the data purely on temporary basis i.e. user can remove the previousdata and write
new information into it whenever required.
✓ RAM is also referred as read and write memory of Computer i.e. user can readthe data from RAM
as well as write the data into RAM.
✓ RAM is a semi conductor memory so it isVery costly. Still many people use largeamount ol RAM in
order to increase he speed of the computer.

Types of RAM
There are mainly two types of RAM:
(1) Static RAM
(2) Dynamic RAM
Static RAM
✓ The word "static" indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains applied,
unlike dynamic RAM (DRAM) that needs to be periodically retreshed.
✓ Data are lost when the circuit gets powered down,however, which makes static RAM a volatile
memory.
✓ The Static RAM consumes more power.
✓ Static RAM is more expensive and holds less data than dynamic RAM.
Dynamic RAM
✓ The term "dynamic" indicates that the memory must be constantly refreshedbecause Dynamic
RAM (LDRAM) locsess its stored information in a few millisecondseven though its power supply is
ON.
✓ It stores information in the form of charge on a capacitor, which leaks away in Avery short time.
Therefore its contents must b e periodically refreshed after everytwo milliseconds.
✓ Consumes less power and is cheaper than the Static RAM.
ii) ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY) - NON-VOLATILE MEMORY

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 12

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
✓ ROM is "built-in" computer memory also known as firmware. Instructions that are required all the
time in the system torunning the computer are stored in the ROM.
✓ It consists of small chip located near CPU Of the motherboard.
✓ It is the read only memory i.e. user can only read the instructions but cannot write into it.
✓ The instructions stored in it are permanent to the nature and are usually designed by the
manufacturer of the computer.
✓ ROM is non-volatile in nature i.e. data doesnot get erased when the computer's power isSwitched
off.

Types of ROM
✓ There are mainly three types of ROM:
a. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
b. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
c. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
✓ It is also the read only memory like ROM. The only difference between ROM and PROM is that the
instructions in ROM are designed by the manufacturer of the computer where as in PROM, the
instruction are programmed by the user himself according to his requirement,
✓ PROM is also known as one-time programmable non-volatile memory.
✓ In PROM, user can design the instructions only for once; he cannot change the instructions later
whenever required.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
✓ Although, PROM is not a flexible memory, as the instructions in it cannot bechanged. EPROM is
designed to overcome the drawback of PROM.
✓ In EPROM, the user can program the instructions himself according to hisrequirement and later on,
he can also erase the instructions by using Ultra-Violet Rays (UV Rays) and reprogram the new
instructions in it.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
✓ It also the read only memory and user can Program/reprogram the instructions according to his
requirement, but here the instructions will be reprogrammed through special electrical pulses.
✓ EEPROM such as Flash memory allow the entire ROM to be electrically erased then written to
without taking them Out of the computer.
CACHE MEMORY

✓ The processor accesses the main memory to read the instructions. The speed atwhich the processor
executes the instruction is much faster than the speed at whichthe instructions are transferred
from the main memory. In order to make it compatible,a small very high-speed memory is used
between main memory (RAM) and processor. This type of memory i s called Cache
Memory/Buffers.

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 13

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
✓ Cache memory is small, fast and expensive type of storage that is placed between the CPU and the
main memory.
✓ The CPU transfers the instructions from the cache memory towards its processing area at the very
high speed, thus it improves the processing speed. Hence, instead of every time reading from the
main main memory, now CPU first check the cache memory for the required data and if CPU finds
the data there, it is called CacheHit and if the required data is not present in cache, CPU then reads
it from main memory. This state is CacheMemorycalled Cache Miss.
✓ The advantage of cache memory is that the CPU doesnot have to use the motherboard's system bus
for datatransfer. Whenever data must be passed through thesystem bus, the data transfer speed
slows to themotherboard's capability. The CPU can process datamuch faster by avoiding the
bottleneck created by theProcessor(CPU)
VIRTUAL MEMORY

When the computer is to process a large amount of data, some times the size of main memory or RAM
becomes inadequate or not sufficient to store that data,. To overcomethis problem the technique of virtual
memory is used, in this case, operating system approaches to the secondary storage (hard disk
andborrows the required amount of memory from it and utilizes it as a main memory for processing the
data. This borrowed or shared memory is called virtual memory.Processor (Virtual Memory)
When virtual memory is being used, the system allows the users to carry on workingwithout worrying
about the availability of data storage or memory saturation. It is oftenaddressed as logical memory and
allows users to access a larger volume of memory,allowing them to use more applications simultaneously.
Secondary storage
✓ The secondary storage or External memory is used to store the data permanently, the user can
access the data from secondary storage when ever required
✓ The second Storage devices offer huge volumes with high speed and reliability
✓ the various types of secondary storages are
❖ Magnetic storage
❖ Optical storage
❖ Solid state storage
Magnetic storage
✓ A storage medium, in which different patterns of magnetization are used to represent stored bits or
bytes of information, is called magnetic storage. Magnetic storage consists of
❖ Magnetic tape
❖ Magnetic disk

Magnetic Tape

✓ Magnetic tapes provide a compact and inexpensive method of storing data and programs.
Magnetic tapes are mainly used for backup of data.
✓ Magnetic tape is half-inch wide tape of Mylar material, coated with magnetic material.
✓ Magnetic tapes have much higher data transfer rate and are preferred for high speed applications.
✓ Magnetic tape is as same as playing an audio cassette in a tape recorder.
✓ Whenever we like to hear a particular Song from an audio cassette, we need to rewind or forward
the tape for that particular song.

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 14

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
✓ Data is stored as binary digits (i.e. O and 1) in magrietic tape, which represents the presence and
absence of magnetic field.
✓ Magnetic tapes are portable in size .e. we can carry this storage device easily carry from one place
to another
✓ Magnetic tape is reversible i.e. data can be erased from the tape and new data can be stored onto
it.
✓ It is a multipurpose medium i.e. it can be used for input, output and storage.
✓ Magnetic tape is very economical device.
✓ The life of magnetic tape is very high as compared to some other storage devices.
✓ Magnetic tape is sensitive to dust, temperature, moisture and other environmental factors.
Magnetic Disk

✓ Magnetic disks are the most popular medium of data storage in these days. It is like gramophone
record, which is made of a plastic like material called Mylar.
✓ The data is stored in the same way as in magnetic tape.
✓ The read/write heads are small electromagnets that are capable of reading, writing data and
erasing the data stored the form of magnetic spots.
✓ Data is randomly stored and retrieved from these disks i.e. the drive can access any portion or data
directly.
✓ To store data on magnetic disks it should be formatted. Formatting is a process of creating tracks
and sectors on thee surface of disk so that the data can be stored
✓ Tracks are concentric circles and sectors are the portions created by dividing the disks into number
of portions. these sectors are often grouped into clusters.
Types of Magnetic Disk
On the basis of read/write mechanism, the magnetic disks are classified into twotypes:
(a) Floppy disk/ Removable disk. (b) Hard disk/Fixed disk.
✓ Floppy Disk / Removable Disk

✓ Floppy disk is one of the most popular data storage medium, used for permanent data storage and
data transfer before the invention of compact disks.
✓ Floppy disk basically consists of a round, flat piece of plastic, coated with a magnetic material.
✓ The two principal sizes or dimensions of floppy disk are 3.5 inch and 5.25 inch.
✓ Floppy disks are portable i.e. we can easily carry this storage device from one place to another 1or
data storage.
✓ Floppy disks are slower to access than hard disks and have less storage capacity.
✓ Data stores on a floppy disk in tracks, which is further divided into small segments, called sectors.
✓ The storage capacity of a 3.5-inch floppy disk is 1.44 MB and 5.25 inch floppy disk is 1.2 MB.
✓ floppy disks are reusable i.e. we can write the new data on a floppy disk after erasing the previous
one.

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 15

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
✓ Floppy disks allowed sequential as well as random access of data.
✓ Floppy disks were not very much durable. It could be used for 3-4 times only. People used to carry
same
✓ data in multiple floppies so that in case of damage of one floppy, the other one could be used.
✓ Floppy disk is sensitive to dust, temperature, moisture and other environmental factors.
Hard Disk/Fixed Disk

✓ Hard disk is another type of magnetic disk on which we can store data and information
permanently.
✓ A hard disk contains a number of platters of aluminium coated with magnetic material.
✓ Each of these platters is divided into tracks and sectors. All the platters are arranged on a spindle.
This spindle is attached to a motor that can rotate at a speed of 5600 rotations per minute (rpm) or
7200 rpm. The main features of hard disk are:
✓ Hard disks hold more data than floppy disk. Its storage capacity comes in Gigabyte (GB) and now
also in Terabytes (TB). (1 TB=1024 GB)
✓ Hard disk stores the data permanently.To store data on hard disks, it should be formatted.
Formatting is a process of creating tracks and sectors on the surface of disk so that the data can be
stored.
✓ Tracks are concentric circles and Sectors are the portions created by dividing the disks into number
of portions. These sectors are often grouped into clusters.
OPTICAL DRIVERS

➢ An optical disk drive (ODD) uses a laser light to read data from or write data to an optical disc. These include
CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. This allows you to play music or watch movies using pre-recorded discs.
Computer software also often comes on one of these discs, so you need an optical drive to install software.
Most modern drives allow you to write to an empty disc, so you can create your own music CDs or create a
backup copy of important data.
➢ An optical disk drive uses a laser to read and write data. A laser in this context means an electromagnetic
wave with a very specific wavelength within or near the visible light spectrum. Different types of discs
require different wavelengths. For compact discs, or CDs, a wavelength of 780 nanometers (nm) is used,
which is in the infrared range. For digital video discs, or DVDs, a wavelength of 650 nm (red) is used, while
for Blu-ray discs a wavelength of 405 nm (violet) is used.
➢ An optical drive that can work with multiple types of discs will therefore contain multiple lasers. The
mechanism to read and write data consists of a laser, a lens to guide the laser beam, and photodiodes to
detect the light reflection from the disc.
➢ The optical mechanisms for reading CDs and DVDs are quite similar, so the same lens can be used for both
types of discs. The mechanism for reading Blu-ray discs, however, is quite different. An optical drive that
works with all types of discs will therefore have two separate lenses: one for CD/DVD and one for Blu-ray.

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 16

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
USB FLASH DRIVERS

➢ A USB flash drive -- also known as a USB stick, USB thumb drive or pen drive -- is a plug-and-play portable
storage device that uses flash memory and is lightweight enough to attach to a keychain. A USB flash drive
can be used in place of a compact disc. When a user plugs the flash memory device into the USB port, the
computer's operating system (OS) recognizes the device as a removable drive and assigns it a drive letter.
➢ A USB flash drive can store important files and data backups, carry favorite settings or applications, run
diagnostics to troubleshoot computer problems or launch an OS from a bootable USB. The drives support
Microsoft Windows, Linux, MacOS, different flavors of Linux and many BIOS boot ROMs.
➢ The first USB flash drive came on the market in 2000 with a storage capacity of 8 megabytes (MB). Drives
now come in capacities ranging between 8 gigabytes (GB) and 1 terabyte (TB), depending on manufacturer,
and future capacity levels are expected to reach 2 TB.
➢ The memory within most USB flash drives is multi-level cell (MLC), which is good for 3,000 to 5,000 program-
erase cycles. However, some drives are designed with single-level cell (SLC) memory that supports
approximately 100,000 writes.

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which has made it an
integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for −
▪ Payroll calculations
▪ Budgeting
▪ Sales analysis
▪ Financial forecasting
▪ Managing employee database
▪ Maintenance of stocks, etc.
Banking
Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.
Banks provide the following facilities −
▪ Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits and overdrafts,
checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
▪ ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.
Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. Insurance companies, finance
houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing −
▪ Procedure to continue with policies
▪ Starting date of the policies
▪ Next due installment of a policy
▪ Maturity date
▪ Interests due
▪ Survival benefits
▪ Bonus

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 17

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
Education
➢ The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.
➢ The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based Education).
➢ CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
➢ Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
➢ There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to educate the
students.
➢ It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out on this basis.
Marketing
➢ In marketing, uses of the computer are following −
▪ Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and
print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
▪ Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use of computerized catalogues that
provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
Healthcare
➢ Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being used in
hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different
diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines.
➢ Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.
▪ Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of illness.
▪ Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by computer.
▪ Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac
Arrest, ECG, etc.
▪ Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry dates, harmful side effects, etc.
▪ Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.
One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and modification of images. Some of
the fields are −
▪ Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships, buildings, budgets, airplanes,
etc.
▪ Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and improvement of integrated
systems of people, materials, and equipment.
▪ Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings, determining a range of
buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.
Military
Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also employs computerized
control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are −
▪ Missile Control
▪ Military Communication
▪ Military Operation and Planning
▪ Smart Weapons
Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received and understood clearly
and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this category are −
▪ E-mail
▪ Chatting
▪ Usenet
▪ FTP
▪ Telnet
N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 18
SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
▪ Video-conferencing
Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this category are −
▪ Budgets
▪ Sales tax department
▪ Income tax department
▪ Computation of male/female ratio
▪ Computerization of voters lists
▪ Computerization of PAN card
▪ Weather forecasting

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

➢ An input/output device, often known as an IO device, is any hardware that allows a human operator or other
systems to interface with a computer. Input/output devices, as the name implies, are capable of delivering
data (output) to and receiving data from a computer (input).
An input/output (I/O) device is a piece of hardware that can take, output, or process data. It receives data as
input and provides it to a computer, as well as sends computer data to storage media as a storage output.
➢ There are many IO Devices available, some of them are:
INPUT DEVICES
KEY BOARD

The keyboard is the most frequent and widely used input device for entering data into a computer. Although there
are some additional keys for performing other operations, the keyboard layout is similar to that of a typical
typewriter.
Generally, keyboards come in two sizes: 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but currently keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys
are also available for Windows and the Internet.
Types of Keys
▪ Numeric Keys: It is used to enter numeric data or move the cursor. It usually consists of a set of 17 keys.
▪ Typing Keys: The letter keys (A-Z) and number keys (09) are among these keys.
▪ Control Keys: These keys control the pointer and the screen. There are four directional arrow keys on it.
Home, End, Insert, Alternate(Alt), Delete, Control(Ctrl), etc., and Escape are all control keys (Esc).
▪ Special Keys: Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, NumLk, Tab, etc., and Print Screen are among the special function
keys on the keyboard.
▪ Function Keys: The 12 keys from F1 to F12 on the topmost row of the keyboard.
MOUSE

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 19

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
➢ The most common pointing device is the mouse. The mouse is used to move a little cursor across the screen
while clicking and dragging.
➢ The cursor will stop if you let go of the mouse. The computer is dependent on you to move the mouse; it
won’t move by itself. As a result, it’s an input device.
➢ A mouse is an input device that lets you move the mouse on a flat surface to control the coordinates and
movement of the on-screen cursor/pointer.
The left mouse button can be used to select or move items, while the right mouse button when clicked
displays extra menus.

JOYSTICK

➢ A joystick is a pointing device that is used to move the cursor on a computer screen. A spherical ball is
attached to both the bottom and top ends of the stick. In a socket, the lower spherical ball slides. You can
move the joystick in all four directions.
➢ The joystick’s function is comparable to that of a mouse. It is primarily used in CAD (Computer-Aided Design)
and playing video games on the computer.
LIGHTPEN

➢ A light pen is a type of pointing device that looks like a pen. It can be used to select a menu item or to draw
on the monitor screen. A photocell and an optical system are enclosed in a tiny tube.
➢ When the tip of a light pen is moved across a monitor screen while the pen button is pushed, the photocell
sensor element identifies the screen location and provides a signal to the CPU.

SCANNER

➢ A scanner is an input device that functions similarly to a photocopier. It’s employed when there’s
information on paper that needs to be transferred to the computer’s hard disc for subsequent manipulation.
Scanner collects images from the source and converts them to a digital format that may be saved on a disc.
Before they are printed, these images can be modified.

OCR

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 20

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
➢ OCR stands for optical character recognition, and it is a device that reads printed text. OCR optically scans
the text, character by character, turns it into a machine-readable code, and saves it to the system memory.
BAR CODE READER

➢ A bar code reader is a device that reads data that is bar-coded (data that is represented by light and dark
lines).
➢ Bar-coded data is commonly used to mark things, number books, and so on. It could be a handheld scanner
or part of a stationary scanner.
➢ A bar code reader scans a bar code image, converts it to an alphanumeric value, and then sends it to the
computer to which it is connected.
WEB CAMERA

➢ Because it records a video image of the scene in front of it, a webcam is an input device. It is either built
inside the computer (for example, a laptop) or attached through a USB connection.
➢ A webcam is a computer-connected tiny digital video camera. It’s also known as a web camera because it
can take images and record video.
➢ These cameras come with software that must be installed on the computer in order to broadcast video in
real-time over the Internet. It can shoot images and HD videos, however, the video quality isn’t as good as
other cameras (In Mobiles or other devices or normal cameras).

OUTPUT DEVICES
MONITOR
Monitors, also known as Visual Display Units (VDUs), are a computer’s primary output device. It creates images by
arranging small dots, known as pixels, in a rectangular pattern. The amount of pixels determines the image’s
sharpness.
The two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors are:
(1) Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT):
Pixels are minuscule visual elements that make up a CRT display. The higher the image quality or resolution, the
smaller the pixels.

(2) Flat-Panel Display Cathode-Ray Tube Monitor:

In comparison to the CRT, a flat-panel display is a type of video display with less volume, weight, and power
consumption. They can be hung on the wall or worn on the wrist.
Flat-panel displays are currently used in calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computers, and graphical
displays.

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 21

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER

PRINTERS
Printers are output devices that allow you to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers:

(a) Impact Printer:

▪ Characters are printed on the ribbon, which is subsequently crushed against the paper, in impact printers.
The following are the characteristics of impact printers:
▪ Exceptionally low consumable cost.
▪ Quite noisy
▪ Because of its low cost, it is ideal for large-scale printing.
▪ To create an image, there is physical contact with the paper.
(b) Non-Impact Printers:
▪ Characters are printed without the need for a ribbon in non-impact printers. Because these printers print a
full page at a time, they’re also known as Page Printers. The following are the characteristics of non-impact
printers:
▪ Faster
▪ They don’t make a lot of noise.
▪ Excellent quality
▪ Supports a variety of typefaces and character sizes
NUMBER SYSTEM
➢ A number system is defined as a system of writing to express numbers. It is the mathematical notation for
representing numbers of a given set by using digits or other symbols in a consistent manner. It provides a
unique representation of every number and represents the arithmetic and algebraic structure of the figures.
It also allows us to operate arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction and division.
The value of any digit in a number can be determined by:
❖ The digit
❖ Its position in the number
❖ The base of the number system
Types of Number System
There are various types of number systems in mathematics. The four most common number system types are:
1. Decimal number system (Base- 10)
2. Binary number system (Base- 2)
3. Octal number system (Base-8)
4. Hexadecimal number system (Base- 16)
1. Decimal Number System (Base 10 Number System)
➢ The decimal number system has a base 10 because it uses ten digits from 0 to 9. In the decimal number
system, the positions successive to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands
and so on. This system is expressed in decimal numbers. Every position shows a particular power of the base
(10).

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 22

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
Example
The decimal number 1457 consists of the digit 7 in the units position, 5 in the tens place, 4 in the hundreds position,
and 1 in the thousands place whose value can be written as
(1×103) + (4×102) + (5×101) + (7×100)
(1×1000) + (4×100) + (5×10) + (7×1)
1000 + 400 + 50 + 7
1457
2. Binary Number System (Base 2 Number System)
➢ The base 2 number system is also known as the Binary number system wherein, only two binary digits exist,
i.e., 0 and 1. Specifically, the usual base-2 is a radix of 2.
➢ The figures described under this system are known as binary numbers which are the combination of 0 and 1.
For example, 110101 is a binary number.
➢ We can convert any system into binary and vice versa.
Example
Write (14)10 as a binary number.
Solution:

∴ (14)10 = 11102
3. Octal Number System (Base 8 Number System)
➢ In the octal number system, the base is 8 and it uses numbers from 0 to 7 to represent numbers. Octal
numbers are commonly used in computer applications. Converting an octal number to decimal is the same
as decimal conversion and is explained below using an example.
Example: Convert 2158 into decimal.
Solution:
2158 = 2 × 82 + 1 × 81 + 5 × 80
= 2 × 64 + 1 × 8 + 5 × 1
= 128 + 8 + 5
= 14110
4. Hexadecimal Number System (Base 16 Number System)
In the hexadecimal system, numbers are written or represented with base 16. In the hex system, the numbers are
first represented just like in decimal system, i.e. from 0 to 9. Then, the numbers are represented using the alphabets
from A to F. The below-given table shows the representation of numbers in the hexadecimal number system.

Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
NUMBER SYSTEM CHART

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 23

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
In the number system chart, the base values and the digits of different number system can be found. Below is the
chart of the numeral system.

Number System Chart

Number System Conversion
Numbers can be represented in any of the number system categories like binary, decimal, hex, etc. Also, any number
which is represented in any of the number system types can be easily converted to other. Check the detailed lesson
on the conversions of number systems to learn how to convert numbers in decimal to binary and vice versa,
hexadecimal to binary and vice versa, and octal to binary and vice versa using various examples.
With the help of different conversion procedures explained above, now let us discuss in brief about the conversion
of one number system to the other number system by taking a random number.
Assume the number 348. Thus, the number 349 in different number systems are as follows:
❖ The number 349 in the binary number system is 101011101
❖ The number 349 in the decimal number system is 349.
❖ The number 349 in the octal number system is 535.
❖ The number 349 in the hexadecimal number system is 15D
Number System Examples
Example 1:
Convert (1056)16 to octal number.
Solution:
Given, 105616 is an hex number.
First we need to convert the given hexadecimal number into decimal number
(1056)16
= 1 x 163 + 0 x 162 + 5 x 161 + 6 x 160
= 4096 + 0 + 80 + 6
= (4182)10
Now we will convert this decimal number to the required octal number by repetitively dividing by 8.
8 4182 Remainder
8 522 6
8 65 2
8 8 1
8 1 0
0 1

Therefore, taking the value of remainder from bottom to top, we get;

(4182)10 = (10126)8
Therefore,
(1056)16 = (10126)8
Example 2:
Convert (1001001100)2 to decimal number.
Solution:
(1001001100)2
= 1 x 29 + 0 x 28 + 0 x 27 + 1 x 26 + 0 x 25 + 0 x 24 + 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 0 x 20
= 512 + 64 + 8 + 4
= (588)10
Example 3:
Convert 101012 into an octal number.
Solution:
Given,

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 24

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
101012 is the binary number
We can write the given binary number as:
010 101
Now as we know, in octal number system,
010 → 2
101 → 5
Therefore, the required octal number is 258
Example 4:
Convert hexadecimal 2C to decimal number.
Solution:
We need to convert 2C16 into binary numbers first.
2C → 00101100
Now convert 001011002 into a decimal number.
101100 = 1×25+1×23+1×22
=32+8+4
=44
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGICAL GATES
➢ Logic gates are an important concept if you are studying electronics. These are important digital devices that
are mainly based on the Boolean function.
➢ Logic gates are used to carry out logical operations on single or multiple binary inputs and give one binary
output. In simple terms, logic gates are the electronic circuits in a digital system.
Types of Basic Logic Gates
There are several basic logic gates used in performing operations in digital systems. The common ones are;
1. OR Gate
2. AND Gate
3. NOT Gate
4. XOR Gate
➢ Additionally, these gates can also be found in a combination of one or two. Therefore we get other gates
such as NAND Gate, NOR Gate, EXOR Gate, EXNOR Gate.
OR Gate
In OR gate the output of an OR gate attains the state 1 if one or more inputs attain the state 1.

The Boolean expression of OR gate is Y = A + B, read as Y equals A ‘OR’ B.

AND Gate
In AND gate the output of an AND gate attains the state 1 if and only if all the inputs are in state 1.

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 25

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
The Boolean expression of AND gate is Y = A.B
NOT Gate
In NOT gate the output of a NOT gate attains the state 1 if and only if the input does not attain the state 1.

The Boolean expression is Y = A

, read as Y equals NOT A.
➢ The three gates (OR, AND and NOT), when connected in various combinations, give us basic logic gates such
as NAND, NOR gates, which are the universal building blocks of digital circuits.
NAND Gate
This basic logic gate is the combination of AND and NOT gate.

NOR Gate
This gate is the combination of OR and NOT gate.

Exclusive-OR gate (XOR Gate)

In XOR gate the output of a two-input XOR gate attains the state 1 if one adds only input attains the state 1.

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 26

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
The Boolean expression of the XOR gate is
Exclusive-NOR Gate (XNOR Gate)
In XNOR gate the output is in state 1 when its both inputs are the same that is, both 0 or both 1.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
➢ In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or commands that tells a computer what
to do. Or in other words, the software is a computer program that provides a set of instructions to execute a
user’s commands and tell the computer what to do.
➢ For example like MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc. The chart below describes the types of software:
➢

System Software
➢ System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and provides the basic
functionality to the users as well as to the other software to operate smoothly. Or in other words, system
software basically controls a computer’s internal functioning and also controls hardware devices such as
monitors, printers, and storage devices, etc. It is like an interface between hardware and user applications, it
helps them to communicate with each other because hardware understands machine language(i.e. 1 or 0)
whereas user applications are work in human-readable languages like English, Hindi, German, etc. so system
software converts the human-readable language into machine language and vice versa.
Features
▪ System Software is closer to the computer system.
▪ System Software is written in a low-level language in general.
▪ System software is difficult to design and understand.
▪ System software is fast in speed(working speed).
▪ System software is less interactive for the users in comparison to application software.
Types
It has two subtypes which are:
1. Operating System:
It is the main program of a computer system. When the computer system ON it is the first software that loads into
the computer’s memory. Basically, it manages all the resources such as memory, CPU, printer, hard disk, etc., and

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 27

SEMISTER-II FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
provides an interface to the user, which helps the user to interact with the computer system. It also provides various
services to other computer software. Examples of operating systems are Linux, Apple macOS, Microsoft Windows,
etc.
Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the human-readable language into a machine
language and vice versa. So, the conversion is done by the language processor. It converts programs written in high-
level programming languages like Java, C, C++, Python, etc(known as source code), into sets of instructions that are
easily readable by machines(known as object code or machine code).
2. Device Driver:
A device driver is a program or software that controls a device and helps that device to perform its functions. Every
device like a printer, mouse, modem, etc. needs a driver to connect with the computer system eternally. So, when
you connect a new device with your computer system, first you need to install the driver of that device so that your
operating system knows how to control or manage that device.
Application Software
➢ Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much more than the basic operation
of the computer is known as application software. Or in other words, application software is designed to
perform a specific task for end-users. It is a product or a program that is designed only to fulfill end-users’
requirements. It includes word processors, spreadsheets, database management, inventory, payroll
programs, etc.
Features
▪ An important feature of application software is it performs more specialized tasks like word processing,
spreadsheets, email, etc.
▪ Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requires more storage space.
▪ Application software is more interactive for the users, so it is easy to use and design.
▪ The application software is easy to design and understand.
▪ Application software is written in a high-level language in general.
Types
There are different types of application software and those are:
General Purpose Software:
This type of application software is used for a variety of tasks and it is not limited to performing a specific task only.
For example, MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
Customized Software:
This type of application software is used or designed to perform specific tasks or functions or designed for specific
organizations. For example, railway reservation system, airline reservation system, invoice management system, etc.
Utility Software:
This type of application software is used to support the computer infrastructure. It is designed to analyze, configure,
optimize and maintains the system, and take care of its requirements as well. For example, antivirus, disk
fragmenter, memory tester, disk repair, disk cleaners, registry cleaners, disk space analyzer, etc.
Difference between system software and application software
System Software Application Software
It is designed to manage the resources of the computer It is designed to fulfill the requirements of the user for
system, like memory and process management, etc. performing specific tasks.
Written in a low-level language Written in a high-level language
Less interactive for the users More interactive for the users
System software plays vital role for the effective Application software is not so important for the
functioning of a system. functioning of the system, as it is task specific.
It is independent of the application software to run. It needs system software to run.

N. LAXMAN(ASN COACHING,NIRMAL 9963640581) Page 28

SEMISTER-II FUMDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

FIRMWARE

The firmware is a block of program instructions for specific purposes, recorded in non-volatile memory (ROM,
EEPROM, flash, etc.), which establishes the lowest level logic that controls the electronic circuits of a device of any
type . Being integrated into the electronics of the device is partly hardware, but it is also software, as it provides
logic and is available in some type of programming language. Functionally, the firmware is the intermediary
(interface) between the external commands that the device receives and its electronics, since it is in charge of
controlling the latter to execute correctly said external orders.We find firmware in ROMs of systems of various
peripheral devices, such as video monitors, disk drives, printers, etc., but also in the microprocessors themselves,
main memory chips and in general in any integrated circuit.Many of the firmwares stored in ROM are protected by
Copyright

MIDDLEWARE
Middleware is software that assists an application to interact or communicate with other applications, software,
networks, hardware and / or operating systems. This simplifies the work of programmers in the complex task of
generating the connections that are needed in distributed systems. This process is also called middleware
engineering. This provides a solution that improves the quality of service, security, message sending, service
directory, etc. 1It functions as a distributed software abstraction layer, which sits between the application layers
and the lower layers (operating system and network). The middleware abstracts from the complexity and
heterogeneity of the underlying communications networks as well as the operating systems and programming
languages, providing an API for easy programming and management of distributed applications. Depending on the
problem to be solved and the necessary functions, different types of middleware services will be useful. Generally
the client-side middleware is implemented by the Operating System, which has the libraries that execute all the
functionalities for the communication through the network.

N.LAXMAN (ASN COACHING 9963640581) Page 29