Booklet Phonology Diction II Trad Lecturer Martinez Salatin

INSTITUTO SUPERIOR PARTICULAR INCORPORADO Nº 9123
“SAN BARTOLOMÉ”
PHONOLOGY & DICTION II
Carrera: Traductorado en Inglés
Espacio curricular: Fonología y Dicción II
Cantidad de horas semanales: 4 hs.
Curso: 2º Año
Profesora Titular: Diana Martínez Salatín

I.S.P.I. Nº 9123 'San Bartolomé'
Phonology & Diction II
Teacher: Diana Martínez Salatín
REVISION WORKSHEET
A. Complete the spaces writing the names of the organs of speech. Use the words given
in the box.
B. Complete the spaces writing in the places of articulation.

REVISION WORKSHEET
C. Say whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE. Justify your choice.
1. Plosives are continuant sounds. ___________

2. The production of plosives involves two stages: closure and release. ___________
3. Fricatives are continuant sounds. ___________
4. All vowels are voiced. ___________
5. /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ and /l/ have many elements in common with vowels. ___________
6. /m/ is the alveolar nasal. ___________
7. Weak forms are commoner than strong forms. ___________
8. /ə/ and /ɜː/ are produced in the same area. ___________
9. Long vowels are clipped when they are in open syllable. ___________
10. A phoneme carries meaning in itself. ___________
11. In order to articulate a nasal consonant the soft palate must be raised. ___________
12. /w/ and /j/ are phonetically like consonants and phonologically like vowels. ___________
D. Complete:
1. A vowel is ______________________________________________________
2. The criteria for classifying vowels are ________________________________
3. A consonant is ___________________________________________________
4. The criteria for classifying consonants are _____________________________
E. Read the dialogues and fill in with the auxiliary verbs that are missing. Then,
transcribe the sentences.
REVISION WORKSHEET
F. Transcription Practice
Set 1
1. And then, there is a knock at the door at ten o’clock in the morning.
2. I had no idea who the man in black was.
3. I’m really sorry you had to suffer through all that.
4. No one knew what he was trying to get at.
5. We can never be as certain about the future as we are about the past.
6. Try to see which of the alternatives fits your needs and your resources.
7. Without saying a word he ran upstairs to his room.
8. An increasing number of journeys are being made by air.
9. Her success must have made her parents feel wonderful.
10. Who is the man talking to?
Set 2
Set 3
ADULT ESOL LESSON PLAN
PHONEMIC AWARENESS INFUSION
LCP C - HIGH BEGINNING
Standard 18.0- Obtaining Employment Student Activity

Competency 18.03 Handout B
Standard 34.0 - Pronunciation
Competency 34.02
A Job Interview
Anna Tanner is looking for a job. She fills out an application

form for a job at a bank. Anna has an interview at 10:30 this
morning with the bank manager, Mr. Jones. Anna walks into his
office and sits down. She is ready to answer questions.
“Where did you work?” Mr. Jones asks.
“I worked at Union Bank in Lake Mary,” Anna answers.
Mr. Jones asks, “How many years did you work there?”
“I worked there for 13 years,” Anna says.
“When did you begin?” Mr. Jones asks.
Anna says, “I began in 1990.”
Mr. Jones asks, “What position did you have?”
“I was a supervisor in the loan department,” Anna answers.
“How much money did you earn?” Mr. Jones asks.
“I earned $14.00 an hour,” Anna answers.
“How much money do you want?” Mr. Jones asks.
Anna answers, “I want $15.00 an hour.”
Mr. Jones says, “When can you begin?”
“On Monday,” Anna says.
“Good,” Mr. Jones tells her. “Can you be here at 8:40 on Monday?”
“Oh, yes!” Anna says. “I can be here at 8:40. Thank you.”
Reading Infusion by: Mirtha O. Martinez (7/04)

Revised 5/10/06
Seminole Community College English Language Studies Department

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Standard 18.0 - Obtaining Employment Student Activity

Competency 34.01
What Does Ann Do?
Ann Sims is a fire fighter. At the fire station, she waits for calls
from 911. She fights fires. She drives a truck to homes and buildings.
Then she puts out fires. She uses hoses and other equipment. She rescues
people and saves lives. Ann works 12 hours a day 3 days a week. She works
the night shift. She goes to work at the fire station at 6:00 in the evening.
She gets off at 6:00 in the morning. Sometimes she changes her shift.
Then she works during the day. Ann likes working as a fire fighter.
What Does Tim Do?
Tim Mays is a police officer. He drives a police car around the city.
He protects the people in the city. He watches out for trouble and keeps
the streets safe. Tim works 8 hours a day 5 days a week. He works the day
shift. He goes to the police station at 7:00 in the morning. He gets off
work at 3:00 in the afternoon. Tim enjoys working as a police officer.

Revised 5/10/06

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Standard 18.0- Obtaining Employment Student Activity

Competency 34.01
What Did You Do in Your Country?
I worked in my family’s restaurant in my country. My family owned

the restaurant. First, I washed dishes. Then I cleaned the tables and
waited on customers. Later, I became a chef and cooked meals. My father
retired, so I managed the restaurant. I listed inventory, ordered food and
wine, and managed the employees. I also greeted customers. I enjoyed
working at the restaurant.
What Did You Do in Your Past Job?
I studied nursing for four years, and I worked in a hospital as a nurse

for five years. I cared for patients in the emergency room. I followed the
doctor’s instructions and treated patients. I checked each patient’s blood
pressure and temperature. I listed medicines for each patient, and I
watched them for any allergic reaction. I liked working as a nurse very
much.

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Standard 20.0 – Career Advancement Student Activity

Competency 34.01
Two Employees
Andy and Tom are employees at the Stanton Tool Company.
They have been working there since June, 2003. After one year,
Andy and Tom’s job performance is evaluated. They just got
their performance evaluations from their supervisor,
Mr. Samson. Andy is very happy with his evaluation. Mr. Samson
thinks Andy is a motivated and cooperative employee. Andy is
punctual and has good attendance. Mr. Samson wants to give him
a promotion. Andy is happy because he’ll get a big raise in his
salary. Tom, on the other hand, is not happy. His evaluation is
not good. Mr. Samson wrote about Tom’s problem with
punctuality. The supervisor wants to see Tom have better
cooperation with other employees. Tom doesn’t have any
motivation. He will not get a big raise in his salary this year.
Andy and Tom are two very different employees.

Revised 5/10/06

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Standard 24.0 – Health and Nutrition Student Activity

Competency 34.01
The Emergency Room
Mr. Herman is cutting a tree, and he injures his arm. His
wife doesn’t know where to go. Where can she take her husband?
Can she go to the health department, a clinic, a nursing home, or a
hospital? Mrs. Herman asks her neighbor, Mrs. Marley. Her
neighbor explains. She takes him to Mercy Hospital. Mrs.
Herman drives him to the hospital on Farley Street. She walks in
the front door and asks a nurse for help. Mrs. Herman doesn’t
know where the emergency room is located. The nurse gives her
directions. Mr. Herman arrives at the emergency room. He
faints and falls into the doctor’s open arms. Mrs. Herman knows
what to do in an emergency. She calls an ambulance so they can
go to the hospital faster.

Revised 5/10/06

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Competency 34.02
Read the Label
Ted and Dan are sick today. Ted is looking for an over-the-
counter medicine at the pharmacy. Dan is getting a refill of his
prescription tablets. The men read the directions on the labels.
First, they read the correct dosage. Ted takes one tablespoon of
his medicine with every meal. Ted gets seventy (70) tablets.
The label has an expiration date of 7/21/05. Dan takes two
tablets daily on an empty stomach. Dan gets seventy (70) tablets
in a plastic medicine bottle. Dan’s medication has an expiration
date of 8/29/05. Ted and Dan read all of the labels. The labels
have a warning, too. Both medicines make you dizzy. They don’t
drive home. Ted and Dan take a taxi together. Now they feel
better.

Revised 5/10/06

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Competency 34.01
A Visit to the Health Department
The Turner family is visiting the county health department.
Mr. and Mrs. Turner are attending health education programs.
The children are getting their immunizations at the health
department. Immunizations provide protection against mumps,
rubella, and chicken pox. Mr. Turner is getting information about
good nutrition. The information helps him with his diabetes.
Mrs. Turner is looking for information about heart disease
prevention. Her women’s organization wants to know about heart
disease. She wants to present this information at a meeting.
The health department helps the Turner family with education,
information, and immunizations.

Revised 5/10/06


Standard 20.0 Career Advancement Student Activity

Standard 34.02 – Pronunciation
Taking a Test
Violet and Abel are taking a test today in Mrs. Tate’s class. They are
studying together. They are talking about the test.
Violet says, “I took a test last week in Mrs. Tate’s class.”
Abel asks, “Was it difficult?”
“No,” says Violet. “It was a multiple-choice test.”
“I hope we have an answer sheet today,” says Abel. “I like to fill the
bubbles.”
“Yes. I like that type of test, too,” says Violet.
“I don’t like a short answer test,” says Abel. “I don’t like to write
sentences.”
“I don’t like true and false questions on an exam,” says Violet. “They
are difficult.”
“They are easy,” says Abel. “I like true and false questions.”
“Remember to read all of the directions,” says Violet.
“Yes. That’s a good test-taking strategy,” says Abel.
“Good luck to you,” says Violet.
Good luck to you, too,” says Abel.

Revised 5/10/06


Competency 24.03B Handout B
Competency 34.02
The Doctor’s Office
Many people are in Dr. Sneed’s office today. Jane has a

cold. She is sneezing, and she has a fever. Tim has a sore throat,
and he has a headache. Bryan has a broken finger. It hurts a lot.
Ken has a swollen knee. It hurts very much. Ellen has a cut on
her hand, and she is crying. Brenda has an earache. Miss
Swanson has the flu. Mr. Snow has a backache, and it hurts a lot.
Mr. Brent wants to see Dr. Sneed today. Mr. Brent calls the
doctor’s office. He has allergies, and he is not happy.
Mr. Brent asks, “What should I do?”
Dr. Sneed’s office has many people. Dr. Sneed looks at the
people.
Dr. Sneed smiles and says, “You should take an aspirin and
call me in the morning.”

Revised 5/10/06



Standard 34.01 – Pronunciation
Personal Hygiene
Mrs. Park has two sons, Ben and Pete. She’s teaching the
boys about basic personal hygiene. They write a shopping list for
hygiene products. Ben needs a new toothbrush, a tube of
toothpaste, mouthwash, and dental floss. Pete needs shampoo,
soap, and conditioner. Mrs. Park writes on the list, too. She
takes Ben and Pete shopping. They buy the hygiene products at
Penn’s Store. At home, the boys sit together at a table. Mrs.
Parker gives them a pen and a big sheet of paper. Ben and Pete
write a basic personal hygiene routine.
I should take a bath every day.

I should brush my teeth with toothpaste.
I should use dental floss and mouthwash.
I should brush or comb my hair.
Mrs. Park reads Ben and Pete’s paper. She

smiles at the boys. They forgot one important step. Mrs. Park
writes on the paper. Then she takes out something from the bag.
Ben and Pete look at it.
“Please use deodorant every day,” Mrs. Park says.
The boys read the paper again.
I should use deodorant after taking a bath.
Mrs. Park smiles at the boys.

Revised 5/10/06

TRANSCRIPTION PRACTICE: SET 1
TEXT 1
At Denver, a great many passengers joined the east-bound Boston and Maine train. In one
coach, there sat a very pretty young woman. She was beautifully and richly dressed.
Among the new-comers were two men. The younger one was good-looking with a bold,
honest face and manner. The other was a large, sad-faced person, roughly-dressed. The
two were handcuffed together.
As they passed down the aisle of the coach, the only empty seat was one facing the young
woman. Here the linked pair seated themselves. The woman quickly glanced at them with
disinterest. Then with a lovely smile, she held out a little grey-gloved hand. When she
spoke, her voice showed that she was used to speaking and being heard.
TEXT 2
Just as there are right and wrong ways of writings letters, the sending of messages via the
Internet is also governed by certain rules and customs. The essence of electronic mail is
speed. The language of the Internet is brief, and makes more use of abbreviations,
symbols and acronyms than the traditional or snail mail does. E-mail is also less formal,
though this should not be achieved at the expense of politeness. Introductory salutations
such as ‘Dear Siegfried’ can often be omitted, and as the sender’s e-mail address and the
date and time of sending usually appear automatically at the top of the message on the
receiving end, these too are omitted. It is, however, important to sign off with your name,
as your e-mail address may not be sufficient to inform the recipient of who you are.
When communicating there are two things to avoid: SHOUTING, or the use of upper case
letters to make a point; and ‘spamming’, the sending of junk e-mail to advertise some
commercial venture. Spamming is known as the ultimate e-mail faux pas and you’ll have
people flaming you if you persist. Flaming, incidentally, is when critical comments about
you are displayed on the Internet for all to see.
TEXT 3
One night a woman went out for drinks with her friends. At the end of the night she got in
her car and drove onto the deserted motorway. She noticed a pair of headlights in her
rear view mirror, approaching at a pace just slightly quicker than hers. As the car pulled up
behind her she saw that it has its indicator on –it was going to pass – then suddenly it
swerved back behind her, pulled up dangerously close and flashed its headlights.
She began to feel nervous. The lights dimmed for a moment and then they flashed again.
The frightened woman struggled to keep her eyes on the road and didn’t dare look at the
car behind her. Finally, she reached her turning but the car continued to follow, flashing
its lights periodically.
Through every red light and turn it followed her until she arrived home. She decided that
her only hope was to make a mad dash into the house and call the police. As she jumped
from the car so did the driver in the car behind her –and he shouted, ‘Lock the door and
call the police!’
When the police arrived the horrible truth was finally revealed to the woman. The man in
the car behind her had been trying to save her. As he pulled up behind her and his
headlights illuminated the car, he saw the silhouette of a man with a butcher’s knife rising
up from the back seat to stab her, so he flashed his headlights and the figure crouched
back down.
TEXT 4
Employers should consider how to limit passive smoking at work. There are various
methods of preventing or limiting exposure to smoke. Every workplace is different, and
there is no universal solution. Full in-depth consultation with employees and / or their
representatives is highly desirable for the smooth implementation of policies designed to
limit exposure to tobacco smoke. A policy is very much more likely to be accepted by all
employees if they feel they have been properly consulted. It is important to take time and
make sure that details of restrictions on smoking are worked out and agreed between
management and employees, and if necessary arrange a transitional period or a step-by-
step approach.
TEXT 5
A summary is a shortened or condensed version, in your own words, of something you
have read. The most common kind of summary writing in college requires you to read the
work of someone else, to be able to pick out the most essential idea, and to put these
ideas into your own words. The summary, therefore, becomes a tool for understanding
what you read; it forces you to read critically, differentiating between main ideas and
minor points. Summary writing also forces you to write clearly because you cannot waste
any words.
The first aim of the summary is brevity: your job as a summary writer is to convey in as
few words as possible the information contained in the piece of writing. Because the
summary is concerned with stating the ideas of someone else, the second aim of the
summary is objectivity. This is not the place to respond to a writer's ideas but to
demonstrate your understanding of them. The third aim of the summary: completeness is
the most crucial. Both objectivity and brevity will follow from your ability to isolate and
concentrate on the main idea contained in the selection you are summarizing.
DICTION CHECKLIST
 General impression
 Clarity
 Chunking
 Rhythm
 Fluency
 Linking features
 Sound dropping
 Word Stress
 Sentence Stress
 Weak and strong forms
 Intonation
 Aspiration
 Lenis plosives
 Voiced fricatives
 Consonantal clusters
 Vowel contrasts
 Conflict areas /b/ vs /v/ /d/ vs /ð/
 Mispronounced words
READING ALOUD
When breaking down a text - anything from voice over copy, to
an advertising presentation, to a film script, to a
Shakespeare monologue, you need to know where to breathe. The
breaths will help you to phrase the ideas, lift out key (operative)
words and keep the thoughts going. These are quick breaths, also
called "catch" breaths. Ideally the breath is taken so quickly from
the centre of the body (not tensing the upper body or shoulders)
that no one knows you have taken a breath. Your audience hears
the ideas or intentions in a clear and interesting way. You don't
have to rush to get to the end of the thought because you have
breath support throughout the thought.

BREATH GROUPS
BREATH-GROUPS, SENSE-GROUPS
Pauses are continually made in speaking. They are made chiefly (1)
for the purpose of taking breath, (2) for the purpose of making the
meaning of the words clear.
It is usual to employ the term breath group to denote a complete

sentence that can conveniently be said with a single breath, or, in
the case of very long sentences, the longest portions that can
conveniently be said with single breaths.
Pauses for breath are normally made at points where pauses are
necessary or allowable from the point of view of meaning.
Sentences are usually divisible into smaller sequences between

which pauses may be made, though they are not essential. The
shortest possible of such sequences (i.e. sequences which are not
capable of being further subdivided by pauses) are called sense
groups. Each sense-group consists of a few words in close
grammatical connexion.
VOCAL WARM-UP
My Favourite Vocal Warm Up

by Susan Berkley
http://www.greatvoice.com/yes-susan-sign-me-up
Do you warm up your voice? If you don't, you should. Good speech takes muscle. And just as
your leg muscles work better if you warm them up before a run, so will your speech muscles
work better if you warm them up at the start of your day. Your voice will sound better,
stronger. Your articulation will become clearer and crisp. You'll be easier to understand. And as
you strengthen your speech muscles, you'll be able to talk longer without vocal fatigue.
While warming up the voice is important for those who speak a lot, it's also important for
those who don't. Some people have solitary jobs where they hardly speak at all, such as
computer programmers, artists or writers. If the vocal chords are underused, they may actually
begin to weaken and atrophy.
So that your voice stays as healthy as possible, I include a short version of my favourite vocal
warm up below. Here's how it works. The sentences in the warm up have been designed to
work many of the vowel and consonant sounds in the English language. Saying them properly
can actually strengthen your articulator muscles. Before you begin, drink a glass of warm
water. Then, read each sentence aloud slowly, pronouncing each word as carefully and
properly as you can. These are not tongue-twisters. DO NOT RACE. While doing the warm up,
if your throat becomes sore or your voice feels strained, stop immediately. Work up gradually
until you can comfortably do the entire exercise. And of course, if you have persistent
hoarseness, weakness or any kind of throat or voice problem, please see your doctor.
Eat each green pea.
Aim straight at the game.
Ed said get ready.
It is in Italy.
I tried my kite.
VOCAL WARM-UP
Oaks grow slowly.
Father was calm as he threw the bomb on the dock.
An awed audience applauded Claude.
Go slow Joe, you're stepping on my toe.
Sauce makes the goose more succulent.
Up the bluff, Bud runs with the cup of love.
Red led men to the heifer that fell in the dell.
Maimed animals may become mean.
It's time to buy a nice limeade for a dime.
Oil soils doilies.
Flip a coin, Roy, you have a choice of oysters or pork.
Sheep shears should be sharp.
At her leisure, she used rouge to camouflage her features.
There's your cue, the curfew is due.
It was the student's duty to deliver the Tuesday newspaper.
He feels keen as he schemes and dreams.
Much of the flood comes under the hutch.
Boots and shoes lose newness soon.
Ruth was rude to the youthful recruit.
Vivid, livid, vivifying. Vivid experiences were lived vicariously.
Oddly, the ominous octopus remained calm.
The pod will rot if left on the rock.
Look, you could put your foot on the hood and push.
Nat nailed the new sign on the door of the diner.

VOCAL WARM-UP
Dale's dad died in the stampede for gold.
Thoughtful thinkers think things through.
Engineer Ethelbert wrecked the express at the end of Elm Street.
LIPS EXERCISES
a) Stretch your lips into a wide grin. Open your mouth slightly and stretch your lips
sideways. Imagine your are grinning from ear to ear. Relax.
b) Bring your lips in slowly and gradually push them forward as if you’re going to kiss the
air in front of you. Pucker them and pout like a child.
c) Move your lips slowly from the extreme grin to the extreme pout ten times.
JAW EXERCISES
a) Give a big yawn and move your jaw around.

b) Drop your jaw open gently so that it is in its most open and tension-free position.
Open and close your mouth gently about ten times.
c) If your jaw is still stiff, make exaggerated chewing movements and then repeat b).
Use these pictures to help you follow the sequence above:

VOCAL CHORDS WARM-UP
VOCAL CHORDS WARM-UP
SOURCE:
SEMINARIOS DE VOZ Y COMUNICACIÓN – FGA. MÓNICA SESSA – MAT. 207
A PRONUNCIATION EMERGENCY TOOL KIT
for Students at Teacher Training College
Graciela C. Moyano – Cinthia P. Smith
Learning English pronunciation is a real challenge for the Spanish speaker.

Students at Teacher Training College (TTC) receive intensive training in this area
in order to develop awareness of the sounds that must be improved to achieve
good pronunciation. Having in mind intelligibility and correctness in the oral
performance of future teachers of English, in this paper they will find a
compilation of tips and suggestions with a methodology based on a prediction,
perception and production model. Students are expected to take control of their
pronunciation learning process aided by comprehensible explanations of the
material accompanied by a friendly summary in the form of a table.
“Improvement begins with I.” Anonymous
INTRODUCTION
First year students at Teacher Training College (TTC) of English as a Foreign Language
(EFL) have spoken English for several years. They are fluent and can easily communicate in
English. However, when they begin their English Pronunciation Laboratory Practice (Lab) at
TTC, they find out that a simple expression such as This is a cat has a number of sounds
they had never thought would be difficult to articulate. It so happens that greater priority has
usually been given to grammar and vocabulary rather than pronunciation. In fact,
pronunciation has often been called the “Cinderella” area of English language teaching
(Kelly, 1969 in Celce Murcia et al., 1996). Learners can memorize structures and new words
all the time but it is challenging for them to monitor their own sounds if they do not engage in
proper training.
Learning pronunciation demands modifications that need the learner’s willingness to change.
As in any other skill, some old habits have to give way to new ones so as to adapt to some
new articulatory changes. To facilitate this, students count on descriptions of sounds, their
diagrams and articulation. They try to imitate phrases and correct them, but learning
pronunciation is a complex process. Some of the reasons for this complexity are:
 acquiring the theory behind sounds and processes
 motivation
 the fear of taking on a new identity if your pronunciation changes
 time available for practice and correction based on teacher’s feedback
 the student's mother tongue
Considering the complex aspects of the process of learning correct pronunciation, from here
on we will be addressing each individual student. We look forward to providing simple
descriptions and explanations, and also to encouraging and stimulating practice with useful
material for self-improvement.
2
As a student of English Pronunciation Laboratory Practice, a great challenge awaits

you. You will undergo gradual training which involves constant changes of your previous
performance. Through remedial work on your part and regular feedback, a positive
transformation in your pronunciation will take place. However, if for any reason that feedback
is not immediately available, you can resort to the Pronunciation Emergency Tool Kit (P.E.T.
Kit) developed in these pages, which contains tips and resources that will assist you in your
learning process.
This P.E.T. Kit has been devised to help you focus on some of the most important sounds
and processes that students at TTC show as a common set of pronunciation difficulties. It
includes a compilation of tips from the pronunciation teaching experience of different
colleagues at TTC, with a friendly presentation that has reduced technical vocabulary, and
highlights the voice of the teacher suggesting, advising and guiding.
Learning pronunciation as a whole is multisensory. It involves almost all senses: sight, touch
and hearing. These tips and suggestions cater for all learning styles (visual, auditory, tactile,
kinesthetic) and they will help you develop awareness and guide your practice to build better
sounds. Remember that pronunciation also permeates all four skills – listening, speaking,
reading, and writing – and all aspects of human life. Therefore what you gain by improving
your pronunciation should show in Phonetics, Language, Grammar, History, and in all your
oral performance.
Now it is time for you to take control of your own pronunciation learning process. Bear in
mind that although speech training constitutes a challenge, everybody can improve and so
can you. In the section below, you will find how to approach the pronunciation practice of a
text, followed by the P.E.T. Kit proper (p. 17), with friendly explanations and theoretical
specifications whenever necessary.
When in your Lab practice, you listen to an audio text, usually in the form of a dialogue, and
you are asked to repeat it in phrases, your sounds are likely to go through the filter of your
mother tongue. This is why your teacher will assess you in reference to the lip and tongue
positions if you are drilling a vowel; or the place, manner, energy and voice if you are drilling
a consonant; or the melody of the phrase, if you are asking or telling. This valuable
information allows you to anticipate what is to come in your oral work and with due
awareness, precise articulation and intensive training you will correct those sounds that need
attention.
According to Dickerson (1995), training begins with predicting difficulties when you deal with
a text, whether it is oral or written. You will take apart phrases, words, sounds, and rebuild,
assemble and put them together. You want to obtain a fine product. Once you spot the
pebbles on the road, that is, the troublesome sounds, you are ready to concentrate on
listening, if you are dealing with an audio text. This involves your perception of the auditory
material. And finally, the whole process will finish with your oral production of the text. If
there is no audio text, the explanations that follow will show you how to gain control of your
production.
In order to go through the three steps of this process when you work with a text, you need
organized information and correct procedure.
Graciela C. Moyano Cinthia P. Smith

July 2020
3
PREDICTION
Materials required
1. A printed version of the text

2. Assorted colour pencils, markers, highlighters
3. A mirror or cell phone on selfie-mode
4. Your audio material
5. A phonemic/phonetic description of the sound, including diagrams and spellings,
and your teacher's tips
6. A pronunciation dictionary
7. A workout routine
8. A recording device
9. Your voice
10. The P.E.T. Kit (p. 17)
Model text
Here is a model text for you to get started. It contains most of the difficulties you will
encounter when dealing with a dialogue. Predict them by taking into account the P.E.T. Kit
(p. 17) below. Later, work with perception and production.
Procedure
1. Read the text, line by line, silently.

2. Look up the spelling/s corresponding to the vowel or consonant and make a note.
Remember that English spelling may deceive your eyes!
3. Spot the difficult sounds according to some convention –colours, circles, crosses.
4. Use the P.E.T. Kit (p. 17) to help you with the basic problems.

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PRONUNCIATION EMERGENCY TOOL KIT (P.E.T. KIT) IN DETAIL
VOWELS
When you work with one vowel or diphthong, as you do with your Lab material, you should
concentrate on the qualities of the target sound in an orderly manner. First, help to
remember the sound by associating it with a colour code, and/or with the aid of a
monosyllabic word – “peg word” - you know you pronounce correctly, a word you will call to
mind every time you want to produce the sound in question.
Having a “peg word” in store allows you to compare and match it with those words in the text
that contain the same sound. In that way you can check that you (re)produce the right quality
given by tongue position and lip spreading or rounding, vowel quantity, i.e. the length of the
vowel and muscular tension in the case of tense vowels  /; or lack of tension in
lax vowels //.
Make sure your “peg word” does not have other troublesome sounds. For instance, if you
are dealing with vowels and diphthongs, use any of the following as initial consonants:
. As final consonants choose among friendly /. Possible choices of
“peg words” if you were practising /for example,would be: fan, man, can, sack.
Some English consonants // are produced with more force than their
corresponding pair /. The former are fortis (strong) and the latter, are lenis
(weak). Fortis consonants affect neighbouring vowels or diphthongs. Let us consider pre-
fortis clipping. This is the process by which the length of (especially) long vowels or
diphthongs is affected if followed by a fortis consonant in the same syllable. Take seat and
seed, for instance. In this pair, the vowel in seat is reduced and that will allow the listener to
perceive it as “a place where to sit” []Seed [], on the other hand, will be decoded by
the unchanged length of the vowel, and not by the final lenis consonant /d/, which will
become devoiced if followed by a fortis consonant or silence. Eg. seed vs. seedcorn:
[].
In the case of /æ/, this vowel remains short before a fortis consonant and it is lengthened
before a lenis consonant: sat, sad [
One important feature is to anticipate vowel lip position before you produce the initial
consonant of a word. In the word tea, first you spread your lips, and then you articulate // +
//. It is very useful to watch yourself while you drill the word.
We invite you to watch the Sounds of English and how they sound here.
Weak vowels / ə, ɪ, ʊ, /
In Standard British English there are three weak vowels, Schwa //, the only one that
has got a name, is the most frequent vowel in English and it is hidden in all kinds of vowel
spellings in unaccented syllables.

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Among the differences you are discovering between Spanish and English, you will see that
in Spanish, every syllable of a word stands out. In English, depending on the length of the
word, only one or two stand out. While one syllable remains prominent and accented, the
other or others are unaccented and weakened. Most of these syllables carry schwa //, and
to a lesser extent // or //. E.g.: teacher, moving, July //. As to /
and //, these are neutralized forms of // and /:/, respectively, which occur only at the end
of unstressed syllables. This means that in unstressed weak syllables there is no contrast
perceived between // and // or between // and //. E.g.: happy [ or thank
you []
In the early moments of your practice, it is advisable to cross out the vowels of the
unaccented syllables. E.g.: written, listen, history  The symbol [ ]
indicates that the vowel has been omitted although its sonority is preserved in the following
consonant (Lecumberri and Maidment, 2014). This process is called syllabicity.
Notice also, that there is a set of words, function or grammatical words (determiners,
pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions and auxiliary verbs), that are very likely to be
weakened in rapid speech. When you pronounce a sequence of weak syllables allow
yourself to mumble or whisper them rapidly, focusing on the prominent syllables rather than
reproducing the weak ones. Check the list of weak forms in your bibliography.
Notice that English diphthongs end in these three weak vowels /:
// where the first element is prominent. Therefore, when you produce
an English diphthong make sure the second element is said weakly, just reduced to a little
sound. This marks a difference from Spanish, where prominence is given to both elements.
Practise /ɪ ʊ /. The second element in the diphthong should be less audible.
Also consult the bibliography for the spelling and description of vowels/diphthongs. As a
learner you have to make use of all possible tools to be a good leader of your learning path.
The more you find out about the target sound, the more confident you will feel in your
performance.
We invite you to visit English pronunciation: Schwa.
CONSONANTS
WHAT TO FOCUS ON
 English vs. Spanish Consonants
The roots of the English language can be traced back to the invasion of Britain by the
Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes during the 5 th century AD. Previously, the Celts as the
early settlers and the Romans, who later invaded the British Isles had left their mark in the
language, too. However, it is the languages of Germanic origin that have permeated English
with strong consonantal sounds. Spanish instead, a Romance language, evolved from Latin.
Consequently, Spanish consonants sound more musical and less vigorous than English

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ones. To some extent, the difficulty in the articulation of some English consonants for River
Plate Spanish speakers is linked with the differences between the languages, which is
mostly shown in the energy given to the consonant, its place or manner of articulation, its
distribution or due to a combination of factors.
Before going on with the discussion of some consonants, one fundamental aspect should be
dealt with at this point. In all languages, words are made up of phonemes (sounds), the
smallest contrastive units that can bring about a change of meaning. In Spanish mido is
different from nido because // and // are contrastive, i.e. they change the meaning of the
word. In the same way, in English, meet is different from neat because // and // are in
contrast. For this reason, in Spanish as well as in English, / and // are considered
phonemes.
However, in Spanish, // and // are not always contrastive. At the end of pan, for example,
some speakers may say [] but others - or even the same speaker on another occasion-
could say []. This shows that either of these versions can be used. Consequently, it can
be stated that in Spanish [] and [] are allophones (variants) that belong to the family of
phoneme //, when this phoneme occurs in final position.
 Aspiration
One important contrast between Spanish and English consonants relates to a feature called
aspiration, which clearly differentiates the articulation of /in both languages. This
feature is felt as an extra puff of air added to these three plosives before a vowel, in
accented syllables: . As this feature does not occur in Spanish, it is advisable
to recognise where it should occur and practise it intensively. Aspiration really consists of the
delayed voice onset time of the following vowel – i.e. a brief period of voicelessness + a
late vowel start: /……/. For further detail and as a reminder, it may be useful to indicate it
as []. E.g.: []. However, there is no aspiration when // precedes /k/.
Compare take vs. steak [].
One way to tell if you are producing aspiration properly is to hold a slip of paper close to your
mouth and make sure it blows when you produce // in isolation.
We invite you to watch how to do aspiration in English (part 1) (part 2)
 Troublesome contrasts
As mentioned above, there are marked differences in the place and manner of articulation of
several consonants. Let us compare:
/d/ vs. /ð/
/d/ for spelling <d> voiced alveolar plosive

/ð/ for spelling <th> voiced dental fricative

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In Spanish, the same consonant letter may represent different types of sounds involving
variations in the place and manner of articulation and yet the meaning will not change. In the
word día, the <d> is a dental plosive //, whereas in mi día it appears intervocalically, so it is
articulated as a dental approximant: /
However, if you say  in English, you will obtain two different words: day and they,
since each of these consonants always has the same corresponding phoneme. Try door,
adore, lord You will be producing an alveolar plosive in all cases since in
English, the distribution of /d/ is initial, medial and final.
Therefore, attention should be given every time <d> appears. First, it is necessary to work
with place of articulation. A diagram is always useful for visualizing the articulators.
Discovering and exploring the alveolar ridge (that little hill upside down behind the upper
teeth) is a real task for the Spanish speaker. You may explore the alveolar ridge by tapping
against it, articulating English 
As to manner of articulation, for // press the tip of the tongue firmly against the alveolar
ridge and release the sound with a burst noise (plosion). This burst noise is a clue to tell you
that the articulation is right.
Another tip that may help is to start with the correct articulation of // and then pass on to //.
Remember that // is an “off” sound (there is no vibration of the vocal folds) while // is
voiced, therefore an “on” sound (Underhill, 2011). To check that you are producing voice,
place your hand gently on the larynx area and turn “on” the sound //. Practice // and //
successively and also try pairs such as  then 
In the case of /ð/, this sound evokes that of Spanish <d> between vowels so it is necessary
to control it by placing the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth or in between
the upper and the lower teeth. If you look at yourself in the mirror or on the selfie screen of
your mobile phone, make sure you show the tip of your tongue when you say the, that,
these, those, there. It is incredible how such a narrow distance between the alveolar ridge
and the back of the teeth renders entirely different sounds.
 Dentalization of 
In connected speech, sounds accommodate so as to make articulation simpler. This

happens to // and // before / or //. To facilitate this articulation the tongue prepares for
the following consonant. In let them or good thoughts, for // and //, the tip of the tongue is
no longer on the alveolar ridge but on the back part of the upper teeth. E.g.:
//. This process is called dentalization. Practise these phrases and check
how the articulation runs more smoothly when // are dentalised before //. As a
reminder, it may help to mark the consonants involved with a little tooth below [ ] which
identifies this particular allophone.

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/b/ vs. /v/
/b/ for spelling voiced bilabial plosive

/v/ for spelling <v > voiced labiodental fricative
This distinction in spelling/sound is not made in River Plate Spanish, therefore this fact
demands the learner’s awareness. We hear bota or vota pronounced alike. For //, press
both lips closely together and release the sound with a burst noise. Also take care of the
distribution – initial, medial and final. This demands control in all occurrences particularly
between vowels so as to avoid friction. E.g.: bee, a bee /
In final position, before silence do not exaggerate //. When you reach // hold the lips
together without voicing it. Remember that monophthongs and diphthongs remain fully long
before a devoiced consonant. Length is an important clue for the listener to indicate that you
are saying lab and not lap. It may help to use [] as a reminder of devoicing
For the articulation of // it is important to remember to bite your lower lip lightly and let the
air escape with friction. It is useful to practise minimal pairs watching both the place and
manner of articulation of these two consonants: ban, van /n/ boat, vote
//, bet, vet //. Please, refer to off-glide below.
We invite you to watch /b/ vs. /v/ and The /v/ sound
/s/ vs. /θ/ - /θ/ vs. /ð/
/s/ voiceless alveolar fricative

/θ/ voiceless dental fricative.
/ð/ voiced dental fricative
In English and Spanish, // is the sound of the letters <s, c, x>, but this consonant is much
stronger in English. To make sure you accompany the articulation with enough energy, tense
the blade of the tongue and even hold a tight fist.
The spelling for the English sound /θ/, is <th> as in thin, thought- //. Yet, this same
spelling can also be pronounced with its voiced counterpart, /ð/. For the pronunciation of /θ/,
you are probably familiar with the sound of <z> in Castilian Spanish when speakers say
zorro, zumo, zoológico. As for /ð/, remember that it is the consonant we use in Spanish for
the spelling <d> between vowels. E.g.: hada, lado.
Although in general, /θ/ occurs in lexical words and /ð/ in function words there are no hard
and fast rules to help learners decide when to use one or the other. Always check the
pronunciation of <th>. To work on the difference between // it is useful to practise minimal
pairs like sin, thin /, sank, thank //.

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/s/ vs. /z/
The letter <s>, as mentioned above, is pronounced // but also //. This voiced alveolar
fricative has the same place of articulation as //, but it is accompanied by voice (with
vibration of the vocal folds). Bring back the practice of “on” and “off” sounds suggested for //
and //. Or imitate the buzzing sound of bees //.
There are pronunciation rules for <s> as /s/ or /z/. As a clue, /z/ appears when the spelling is
<z> – zoo, size – as well as in the formation of plurals after voiced sounds –pens, tables - or
in the 3rd person singular of verbs in the simple present tense when the infinitive ends in a
voiced sound –arrives, goes. There is much more.
 Onglide / Offglide
Onglide
In English, there are many more combinations of consonants than in Spanish. Clusters
(groups of consonants) are a real challenge for the learner. In reference to word-initial
clusters the combination <s> + consonant sl-, sm-, sn-, st-, sp-, sk- should be drilled with
attention to a possible onglide - the insertion of an unnecessary vowel (onglide) before a
consonant. For instance, learners may say *this eschool, instead of this school, where both
// sounds should become only one long // produced with a lot of energy. This may happen
because in Spanish the cluster <s> + consonant is always preceded by a vowel: espera,
estar, escuela, forming a new syllable. The <s> in all these clusters is aspirated in River
Plate Spanish. Additionally, it will demand extra care and effort to pronounce initial // +
consonant in English. Focus on combinations of more complex clusters: metal spoon, it’s
small / /  and once again make sure you link the highlighted
consonants together putting enough energy into //.
Offglide
The production of an offglide - the insertion of an unnecessary vowel after a consonant -

should also be avoided. Remember that in word final position before silence, voiced
consonants partially lose their voice. Make sure you devoice that final consonant so that no
glide occurs. E.g.: lab, good, big [l  ] and not [l
 Clear and dark /l/
/l/ alveolar lateral approximant
Both in English and in Spanish, // is the sound of < l > but in English, its quality varies
depending on the place it takes in the word. Therefore // is realised in two main variants
(allophones). One sounds clear (with a front vowel resonance) before a vowel, and the other
one sounds dark (with a back vowel resonance) before a consonant or before silence. They
are said to be in complementary distribution. This means that every allophone has a

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phonetic environment and where one allophone occurs, the other one does not. Therefore,
in English look, alter, small, milk ] there are different allophones of
// - clear [] and dark []. Compare Spanish lindo, alma, fatal, where the realization of // is
always clear. Knowing this will alert you about its occurrence but you should also work to
obtain the proper quality.
For clear < l > place the tip of your tongue against the alveolar ridge and at the same time
produce //: like //. To obtain dark < l > place the tip of your tongue against the alveolar
ridge but this time make the sound //. Say // for milk.
Now alternate between clear < l > [l] and dark < l > [ɫ]. Feel how the tongue is raised at the
front and stays low at the back for clear [], and how it is lowered at the front and is raised at
the back for dark [ɫ].
Say clear [] and dark [ɫ], one after the other several times. [l] [ɫ] [l] [ɫ] [l] [ɫ] [l] [ɫ].
You may also play with the sound in this way. Utter the word mantel in Spanish, and then
say this same word in English mante[ɫ]. Compare how you say // in these two versions.
We invite you to watch Dark l vs Clear l

 // voiced palato alveolar affricate
This consonant has spellings <j> and <g> as in just / or George // and it also
appears in combinations such as did you, would you /  / /. As you can see the
starting point for this consonant is //, i.e. a voiced alveolar plosive. Remember that the tip
of your tongue should make firm contact against the alveolar ridge. Once your tongue is
properly set, experience how to make the whole phoneme by removing the tongue slowly,
and you will hear how this slow release produces friction.
You may have heard this sound in Spanish for the pronunciation of <y>. This may happen
when a very emphatic speaker says: Venís ¡YA! or ¡YO ahí no voy!.
This consonant resembles the sound of a car brake. Check if this is so by saying /.
 // (voiced) velar nasal
The phoneme // is not strange or unfamiliar to Spanish speakers. It appears in the middle of
banco, vengo, pan con queso, or even in the powder juice Tang, as a variant of //
whenever the letter <n> is followed by <c, q, g>. E.g.: [].
Become aware of the sound by saying tango. When you divide this word into two syllables,
tan-go, you will be saying // for the first syllable in readiness for the second, which starts

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with //. Compare tanto vs. tango; tan lindo vs. tan grande. Notice how // sounds different
from //.
While in Spanish whenever we produce // we also pronounce the // or // that follows, this
does not always happen in English in spelling <ng>. There are rules for this that you will find
below.
Practise the following and make sure you do not pronounce // after //: ding dong /,
ping pong /.
Pay special attention when the voiced velar nasal // is followed by a vowel in an
environment where // should not be pronounced. Take sing, singer, singing
In this case, say sing and then singer /pushing the schwa up into
the nose to finish the word.
Another strategy you can follow is to project the consonant /from the back of the mouth
and to make it last until you reach the following sound or word. E.g.: going on //.
We invite you to watch how to make the ng [ŋ] consonant
 // voiced labio velar approximant
Spanish // occurs in English borrowings like whisky and also in words like hueso. However,
// is never followed by //, as it is in English, for e.g. in woman //. One common error
is to say bu, gu or even alone in wood, woman, would, for instance. Make sure you
produce the right sound by saying ua ue ui uo uu. Notice that in <uu>, there are also two
vowels together, two sounds in this case. That combination equals the English // + //,
as in wood. Now try again ua ue ui uo wood  That is, go from puckered lips to less
puckered lips.

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Use your mirror or selfie mode screen and say good and wood alternatively  You
should see and hear the difference between these two words when you articulate the first
consonant.
We invite you to watch /w/ + // https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sEhx-BL_y0k
 // voiceless glottal fricative
The English sound // is found in spelling <h>. Notice that in Spanish, the letter <h> is mute
but in English it is a voiceless fricative articulated at the glottis, i.e. between the vocal folds.
Make sure not to produce Spanish <j>, which is a voiceless velar fricative. Compare house
vs. jaula. One way to practise this sound is to sigh, and you will produce //. After that,
articulate the vowel that follows. E.g.: hat /
Also, try producing // in front of a mirror or window pane, and notice how it is fogged up with
your warm breath. That is the sound!
We invite you to watch: How to pronounce English /h/ (aitch)
 Silent <r>
/r/ voiced post-alveolar approximant
In some accents of English, the letter <r> is sounded all the time as in rhotic accents like
General American, Scottish English or West Country English). Standard British
English, however, is a non-rhotic accent, this means that the letter <r> is silent when a
consonant or silence follows: for e.g. in park, star  Remember to avoid
pronouncing <r> in these contexts. When you work with a printed text in ordinary spelling,
you can cross out all the silent <r>s , and make sure you do not pronounce them when you
speak or in your reading out practice, when you utter those words.
Bear in mind that // is always followed by a vowel sound, in the same word or in the
following word, e.g.: mirror, far away  When // links words it is called
“linking //”. It is an effective device to link phrases in connected speech.
Now, articulating // before a vowel can be troublesome. Actually, intervocalic <r> is
pronounced as a voiced lenis alveolar tap  as in pero, but in rata, perro, honra there is a
voiced lenis alveolar trill when initial, when doubled or aftereither a single tap
(pero) or a succession of taps (perro) on the alveolar ridge. In English, instead, /r/ is only
prevocalic and it is a post alveolar approximant. Then, there is no contact between the post
alveolar area of the tongue and any part of the roof of the mouth. Take into account this key
aspect and try to imitate an angry dog growling //.
We invite you to watch How to pronounce /r/ and Silent /r/

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LINKING
In texts, words are separated, as part of a convention. However, in speech the words are
linked into longer utterances to build units of sense. Linking takes place by connecting a final
sound at word boundary with an initial sound in the following word. You can make use of this
symbol [  ] to indicate links.
Final consonant + initial vowel: Take a  book

Final vowel + initial consonant: Very difficult
Final // + initial vowel: Father and son
Now you can read out these acronyms:
UK US SBE MP PM BA AM UFO SOS WHO YMCA YHA ATM
And also this short poem by J. Marks:
Work all day /Run away / Boss and me / Can`t agree / Fill a cup / Drink it up / Wait a while /
Walk a mile
CONNECTED SPEECH
You are almost ready for the final step, production. If you happen to find obstacles on the
way here are a couple of strategies to overcome them. One that helps to improve your
performance in general is back chaining. This technique allows you to tackle your practice
material by starting with the last word of a phrase and then build upon it by going from back
to front. E.g.: 1. nap, 2. a nap, .3. take a nap, 4 even take a nap, 5. can’t even take a nap, 6.
we can’t even take a nap, 7. We can’t even take a nap. This practice avoids stopping
before the problem sound or cluster or word as you, little by little, assemble the phrase. In
this way you give yourself time to control sounds and keep the right intonation pattern.
When you feel confident enough because you have rehearsed the material and you feel
happy with your rendering, try shadowing. This is the repetition of a phrase or text in real
time, together with the audio version. This technique will allow you to acquire more fluency
and in this way improve your self-monitored recordings.
We invite you to watch Perfect English! - Speak faster and more naturally with connected
speech
If you followed the above suggestions and marked all the items described in the P.E.T. Kit,
the model text will probably look like this:

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PERCEPTION
How to approach an audio text
When you listen to an audio version you should direct your listening to different objectives.
First, listen for understanding: who, what, where, when, why - what is going on. Try to focus
on the context, the characters, the emotions, the message.
Listen again, this time to spot the prominent word in each phrase. There is usually one
prominent word per phrase - try to spot it because when you articulate the phrase all your
energy should go there to highlight it. In most cases, this is a content word (noun, adjective,
verb or adverb). The monosyllabic function words (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions,
prepositions and auxiliary verbs) should be said weakly and rapidly. This is as important as
minding sounds. Good imitation of prosodic patterns, such as intonation and rhythm
enhances your performance.
I'll knock on the WALL.

It's abSURD.
Next you will direct your attention to the sounds of the text - the drilled vowel, diphthong or
consonant - so as to recognize its characteristics, taking into account the information given
above and your bibliography. Every time you listen to the audio text you will discover more
and more aspects of English pronunciation.
How to approach a printed text
In your Lab pronunciation practice, you will listen to audio texts. Yet, in this article, you have
worked with a printed text. This will prepare you for another task performed in laboratory

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practice, which is reading aloud an English text: first sight reading. Even if you read silently,
your organs of speech work imperceptibly.
PRODUCTION
A person’s voice is a mark of identity. It is as unique as every human being and for the
teacher in particular, the most precious instrument. Oral practice, as well as teaching,
demands great use of your voice. This is why you should ensure correct breathing with no
extra tension on your phonatory system, particularly the vocal folds and larynx. In finding
your “new” English voice do not only look for correct articulation of sounds but also for a
warm pleasant sounding voice, one that will appeal to your listener. Therefore, try to relax
when you do your practice or address a group, avoid shouting or speaking on a higher tone
than that of your listener. If you lower your voice the others will, too. And, do not forget to
drink water during your practice/teaching.
Once you have prepared a text for the practice of pronunciation, you will begin by warming
up your organs of speech. To do so, start with a workout routine. Like an artist or an athlete,
you have to relax and concentrate in order to be ready for exercise. As a speaker, you want
to make sure you do not strain your muscles or make your voice suffer. The procedure
suggested below will facilitate your performance. Do this simple warm-up two or three times:
Just before you are ready to produce your text, remember:
 Use your mirror or mobile phone on selfie mode screen.

 Modulate the different vowels and diphthongs, spreading or rounding lips, tensing or
relaxing your muscles.
 Look for a “peg word”, a monosyllabic word to match other occurrences of the drilled
sound every time you find some difficulty.
 Anticipate vowel lip position. Prepare the articulation of the vowel before you produce
the consonant. For tea, 1. spread your lips, 2. / /, 3. / /> //.
 Clip. Do not forget to clip vowels when needed.
 Control the place and manner of articulation of troublesome contrasts. Do not forget
aspiration, devoicing and dentalization.
 Read silently. Do not hurry to produce voice. Rehearse mentally, listening to your
inner production.

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 Slow down (slow motion articulation). Take a word or short phrase from the text and
begin to practise.
 Say it over and over. At any moment, when you are in the shower or walking along
the street, at different moments, several times a day, just for only a few seconds, say
that syllable or word or cluster that you need to drill.
 Mumble or whisper. When it comes to weak syllables try to make them inaudible so
that prominent syllables stand out: you want the message to get across through the
content words.
 Link. Remember that words must be linked, they should sound as one long word.
Use final vowels or diphthongs or // to sustain the final sound and find it
easier to link to the next one. Practise this at word boundary. E.g.: Our neighbours
are moving out.  /.
 Practise back chaining. If you encounter fluency problems on the road, start with the
last word of the phrase and build up the whole utterance by adding one word at a
time, the last one to include will be the first one.
 Shadow. After thorough practice, try to read along with the model audio text - if you
have it - imitating quality, intonation, rhythm and speed.
 Read aloud. Do not feel embarrassed or uncomfortable if you stumble or hesitate, it
will grow better and better. Practice makes perfect.
 Role-play. Imitate roles as well as sounds and tones. Sound old or young, happy or
sad, angry or calm.
 Take care of your voice. Remember it is a teacher’s dearest instrument. Proper
breathing, muscle relaxation and considerable hydration are your voice’s best
friends.
 Record yourself after every practice, listen and be critical.
 Listen to your new English voice and appreciate it. You have worked laboriously this
far. Keep it up!
You will find a handy version of the P.E.T. Kit on page 17.
CONCLUSION
It takes time to improve pronunciation. Along the way you will feel discouraged because
sounds do not come out as you would like. You will feel angry because you regret not getting
immediate results. You will feel bored after endless repetitions. It may be a good idea to
keep a journal of your work and improvement, to record what works best for you and even
what does not work at all. Remember that as a teacher you also build theory. The road to
correct, intelligible, accurate pronunciation will turn out to be gratifying. Before you know it,
you will realise that you have built pronunciation habits that will stay with you all along your
career as a professional teacher.
Never forget to remain a student while you teach others. – Jerry Corsten

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A PRONUNCIATION EMERGENCY TOOL KIT

for Students at Teacher Training College
VOWELS
Work with one vowel or diphthong at a time.
Use a colour code to identify the vowel in question and/or select a favourite
monosyllabic word that contains it and that you know you can pronounce correctly.
Tip. Compare your “peg word” with the words in the text to check that you (re)produce
the right quality (tongue position and lip spreading or rounding), quantity (length of the
vowel - check pre-fortis clipping below though), and tension in the case of tense vowels
 /; or lack of tension in lax vowels //.
Note that the quantity/length of (especially) long vowels or diphthongs is affected if

followed by a fortis consonant in the same syllable. This process is called pre-fortis
clipping (=length reduction before a fortis – strong - consonant). However, if the vocalic
element is followed by silence or a lenis consonant its length is maintained.
Compare seat vs. seed. The reduced vowel in seat will allow the listener to perceive it is
“a place where to sit”. Seed, on the other hand, will be decoded by the unchanged
length of the vowel, and not by the final lenis consonant /d/, which will become devoiced
if followed by a fortis consonant or silence. E.g.: seedcorn, seed [].
Notice that /æ/ is a “borderline” vowel (neither short nor long) because it is lengthened
before a lenis consonant: sat, sad [
Remember to anticipate the corresponding vowel lip position before you produce the
consonant. For tea, first, spread your lips, then articulate // + //. Watch yourself do it.

Remember that schwa, the most frequent vowel in English, is a weak vowel, and so are
Therefore, in diphthongs // the first element is prominent
and the three weak vowels of the second element should be reduced to a little sound.
Tip. Say: /ɪ ʊ / and make sure you give prominence to the first element and
make the second element less audible.
We invite you to watch the Sounds of English and how they sound here
Weak vowels 
In Spanish, every syllable of a word stands out. In English, only one or two stand out
depending on the length of the word. Unaccented syllables are weakened. Most of them
carry schwa, and to a lesser extent // and //. As to / and //, these are neutralized
forms of // and /:/, respectively, which occur only at the end of unstressed syllables.
Tip. Cross out the vowels of the unaccented syllables. Their sonority is carried by
the /. When you pronounce a sequence of weak syllables allow yourself to
mumble or whisper them rapidly.
CONSONANTS
ENGLISH VS The roots of the English language can be traced back to the invasion of Britain by the
SPANISH Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes during the 5th century AD. On the other hand,
Spanish, a Romance language, evolved from Latin. This marks a difference in the
CONSONANTS production of consonants: they are far stronger in English. In addition, there are marked
differences in the place of articulation of several consonants. E.g.: in Spanish one same
consonant letter may be articulated with variations. Try día, mi día; gato, mi gato. In
English the same letter consonant is always produced in the same place of articulation.
Try baby my baby; dog my dog; girl the girl.

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Tip. Produce more muscular energy in the articulation of fortis (strong) consonants:

Aspiration (it may prove useful to use [] as a reminder), which is felt as an extra puff of
air, really consists of the delayed voice onset time of the following vowel – i.e. a brief
ASPIRATION period of voicelessness + a late vowel start. Make sure you produce aspiration when
you pronounce // in an accented syllable before a vowel.
Tip. Hold a slip of paper close to your mouth and make sure it blows.
Notice though that there is no aspiration if // precedes /.
We invite you to watch how to do aspiration in English (part 1) (part 2)
/d/ vs. //ð/
/d/ for spelling <d > voiced alveolar plosive

/ð/ for spelling <th > voiced dental fricative
Tip. Work on the distinctive places of articulation, taking time to control one and the
other.
T /d/ press the tip of the tongue firmly against the alveolar ridge (that little hill upside down
R C behind the teeth) and release the sound with a burst noise (plosion). It may help to start
with the correct articulation of /t/ and then pass onto /d/. Remember that /t/ is an “off”
O O sound (there is no vibration of the vocal folds) while /d/ is voiced. To check that you are
U N producing voice, place your hand gently on the larynx area and turn “on” sound /t/. You
should obtain /d/. Try also then 
B T
L R Tip. Explore the alveolar ridge by tapping against it, articulating 
E A Watch out for intervocalic occurrence of /d/ and avoid friction: day, a day.
S S /ð/ is the sound of <th> mostly initially as in then, that, these. Mark it in the text.
O T Place the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper teeth or in between the upper
and the lower teeth. Show the tip of your tongue.
M S
E Notice also that // and // accommodate before / or // to facilitate its
articulation so dentalise // and // in that context: let them , good
thoughts. Say // or // preparing for / or //. It may help to mark this
occurrence with a little tooth [ ]. This process is called dentalization. E.g.:
[].
/b/ vs. /v/
/b/ for spelling voiced bilabial plosive

/v/ for spelling <v> voiced labiodental fricative
Tip. For // press both lips closely together and release the sound with a burst noise.
Watch out for intervocalic occurrence and avoid friction. In final position, before silence
hold lips together without voicing  Remember that monophthongs and diphthongs
remain fully long before the devoiced consonant. It may help to use [] as a reminder.
Tip. For /v/ make sure you bite your lower lip lightly and let the air escape with friction.
// vs. /θ/ - /θ/ vs. /ð/
// voiceless alveolar fricative

// voiceless dental fricative
// voiced dental fricative
// for spellings <s, c, x> and combinations > voiceless alveolar fricative
// for spelling <th> voiceless dental fricative
Make English // much stronger than Spanish //. Work on the muscular energy

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accompanying this consonant, especially in initial clusters: /sl-, sm-, sn-, st-, sp-, sk-/.
// occurs in Castilian Spanish when speakers pronounce spelling <z> with this sound:
zorro, zumo, zoológico.
Notice the English spelling <th> for the sound // is the same as for //!
Tip. Make sure you place the tip of the tongue on the back part of the upper teeth or
between the upper and lower teeth as for /ð/. Curiosity: /θ/ in lexical words, /ð/ in
function words but there are no hard and fast rules so pronunciation must be checked.
// vs. /z/
// with spelling <s> is sometimes pronounced //, the voiced alveolar fricative.
Tip. Practise the “on” and “off” opposition as seen above, making sure your vocal folds
vibrate for //.
Tip. For //, imitate the buzzing sound of bees //.
There are spelling rules which will show you when to pronounce /s/ or /z/. Make sure
you check them.
ONGLIDE Onglide. Spanish does not allow word-initial clusters consisting of /s/ + consonant /sl-
sm- sn- st- sp- sk-/. Then, you do not want to insert a vowel (onglide) that does not
OFFGLIDE actually exist: in Spain //.
Tip. Connect the final consonant with the initial cluster beginning with //. E.g.: in
Scotland //.
Tip. Pronounce initial // strongly at the same time you connect words: metal spoon
//, it’s small //.
Offglide. Also, in word final position, do not fully sound voiced consonants because
there will seem to be a glide that does not in fact occur. E.g.: lab, good, big [ /  /
] and not [  / ].
/l/ alveolar lateral approximant
/l/ is the sound of < l > but its sonority varies depending on the place it takes in the word.
It sounds clear (with a front vowel resonance) before a vowel and it sounds dark (with a
back vowel resonance) before a consonant or before silence. Compare Spanish lindo
alma, fatal with English look, alter, small, milk ].
CLEAR
Tip. For clear < l > place the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge and at the same
AND time produce //.
DARK // Tip. For dark < l > place the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge but this time
make the sound //. Say // for milk.
Now alternate between clear < l > [l] and dark < l > [ɫ]. Feel how the tongue is raised at
the front and stays low at the back for clear [l], and how it is lowered at the front and is
raised at the back for dark [ɫ].
Say clear [l] and dark [ɫ], one after the other several times. [l] [ɫ] [l] [ɫ] [l] [ɫ] [l] [ɫ].
Also, play with the sound in this way: utter the word mantel in Spanish, and then say this
same word in English mante[ɫ]. Compare how you say // in these two versions. Clear < l
> is the variant (allophone) we use in Spanish all the time.
We invite you to watch Dark l vs Clear l
  Voiced palato alveolar affricate
First of all, make sure you can produce // correctly, i.e. that you can articulate a voiced
alveolar plosive. Remember that the tip of your tongue should make firm contact
against the alveolar ridge. Once your tongue is properly set, experience how to make

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the whole phoneme by removing the tongue slowly. You will hear how this slow release
produces friction.
Tip. Have you ever heard this sound in Spanish for the pronunciation of <y>? This may
happen when a very emphatic speaker says: Venís ¡YA! or ¡YO ahí no voy!.

Tip. This consonant resembles the sound of a car brake. Try /.
/ // (voiced) velar nasal
The phoneme // is not strange or unfamiliar to Spanish speakers. It appears in the
middle of banco, vengo, pan con queso or even in the powder juice Tang, as a variant of
// whenever the letter <n> is followed by <c, q, g>.
Become aware of the sound by saying tango. When you divide this word into two
syllables, tan-go, you will be saying // for the first syllable in readiness for the second,
which starts with //. Compare tanto vs. tango; tan lindo vs tan grande. Notice how //
sounds different from //.
Practise the following and make sure you do not pronounce // after //: ding dong
/, ping pong /.
When you pronounce the voiced velar nasal // + vowel, do not insert a // before the
vowel. Watch out!: sing, singer, singing 
Tip. Say sing and then, for singer /push the schwa up into the nose to finish
the word.
Tip. Project the consonant /from the back of the mouth and make it last until you
reach the following word. E.g.: going on //.
We invite you to watch how to make the ng [ŋ] consonant
// /w/ voiced labio velar approximant
This consonant occurs in Spanish, in English borrowings like whisky and also in words
like hueso. However, /w/ is never followed by //, as it is in English, for e.g.: woman
//. You should avoid saying bu, gu or even alone in wood, woman, would for
instance.
Tip. Say ua ue ui uo uu. Notice that in <uu>, there are also two vowels together, two
 sounds in this case. That combination equals the English // + /  /, as in wood.
Now try ua ue ui uo wood. That is, go from puckered lips to less puckered lips.
Tip. Look at yourself in the mirror and say good and wood alternatively. You should see
and hear the difference between these two words when you articulate the first
consonant.
/h/ voiceless glottal fricative

//
Do not confuse this fricative which is produced at the glottis, i.e. between the vocal
folds, with the Spanish <j>, which is a velar fricative. Compare house vs. jaula.
Tip. Just sigh when you produce /h/, and think about articulating the vowel that follows.
Tip. Fog a mirror or window pane with your warm breath. That’s the sound!
/r/ voiced post-alveolar approximant
In some accents of English, rhotic accents, the letter <r> is sounded all the time as in
General American, Scottish English or West Country English. Standard British
English, however, is a non-rhotic accent, this means that the letter <r> is silent when a
consonant or silence follows: for e.g. in park, star 

July 2020
21
SILENT // Tip If you are working with a text in ordinary spelling, cross out the <r>s that should not
be pronounced and make sure they become silent when you speak. Spelling can be
very misleading.
Sometimes, you will have to make an exception and pronounce <r> if it is followed by a
word beginning with a vowel, for e.g.: mirror, far away  When // links
words it is called “linking //”.
If you have trouble articulating // before a vowel, try the following.
Tip. Imitate a dog growling // making sure you approximate the post alveolar
section of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, without touching it.
We invite you to watch How to pronounce /r/ and Silent /r/
LINKING
In texts, words are separated, as part of a convention. However, speakers link all the words into one long
utterance (chunk, intonation unit).
Practise the following as if they were single words:
UK US SBE MP PM BA AM UFO SOS WHO YMCA YHA ATM
Read aloud this short poem by J. Marks:
Work all day /Run away / Boss and me / Can`t agree / Fill a cup / Drink it up / Wait a while / Walk a mile
CONNECTED SPEECH
Oral practice as well as teaching demands great use of your voice.
Ensure correct breathing and do not exert extra tension on your phonatory system, particularly the vocal folds
and larynx. Try to relax and do not forget to drink water during your practice/teaching.
Back chaining. If you encounter fluency problems on the road, start with the last word of the phrase and build
up the whole utterance by adding one word at a time, the last one to include will be the first one. For e.g.:
What’s going on? 1. on, 2. going on, 3. what’s going on,. 4. What’s going on? This practice avoids stopping
before the problem sound or word (// + vowel in this case) and allows you to assemble the phrase little by
little. In this way you give yourself time to control sounds and keep the right intonation pattern.
Shadowing. When you feel confident enough because you have rehearsed the material and you feel happy
with your performance, try shadowing. This is the repetition of a phrase or text in real time, together with the
audio version. This technique will allow you to acquire more fluency and in this way improve your self-
monitored recordings.

July 2020
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USEFUL LINKS
 Audio and text materials for Práctica de Laboratorio I y II, Phonetics I. Dictation and
Transcription Practice (for self study). Dialogues for dictation and transcription
practice. Presentation :ordinary spelling, transcription and audio file.
http://labjvg.blogspot.com/p/dictation-practice.html
 British Accent Training: Rhotic Or Non Rhotic?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wt531039LL8
 British Warriors vs Roman Invaders - A History of Celtic Britain - Episode 3 - Preview
- BBC Two. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TXFZvUzoxVI 22.06.2020
 Discover the History of English. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aEH2GkuRIHs
22.06.2020.
 English with Lucy. A site with interesting references to pronunciation difficulties.
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCz4tgANd4yy8Oe0iXCdSWfA. 21.06.2020
 Geoff Lindsey English Speech Services. A site with interesting useful links for
pronunciation problems. https://www.englishspeechservices.com/ 21.06.2020
 History of English. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H3r9bOkYW9s 22.06.2020
 How to Pronounce: /n/ (thin) and /ŋ/ (thing).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y1s9IIH1OoI
 Lab Blog. http://labjvg.blogspot.com/
 NG of king: Speak with a British ENGLISH Accent.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m_oEcgxor3U
 Phonetics II. Dictation and Transcription Practice (for self study). Dialogues for
dictation and transcription practice. Presentation :ordinary spelling, transcription and
audio file. http://labjvg.blogspot.com/p/dictation-practice.html
 Pronunciation with Emma. A site where Emma shows how to articulate English
sounds. https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCNfm92h83W2i2ijc5Xwp_IA.
21.06.2020
 The linking /r/. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wLprxwzWtc4
 Tim’s Pronunciation Workshop at BBC Learning English Pronunciation.
https://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/english/features/pronunciation. 21.06.2020
 Transcription checklist. http://labjvg.blogspot.com/p/coaching-lessons-material.html
 Underhill, Adrian. “Introduction to Teaching Pronunciation Workshop.” uploaded by
Macmillan Education ELT, 4 mar. 2011. Accessed July 20, 2020 at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1kAPHyHd7Lo
 What happens inside you when you speak: MRI. An amazing view of what happens
inside the mouth when you speak,
https://www.englishspeechservices.com/blog/what-happens-when-you-speak/
16.06.2020

July 2020
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Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Phonology Area of the English Department at Instituto Superior
del Profesorado “Joaquin V. Gonzalez” for having invited us to collaborate in providing follow
up to students who take Laboratory English Pronunciation Practice. As retired teachers and
on a pro bono basis we have felt honoured with this responsibility which has derived in a
project intended to help learners.
Our sincere appreciation also goes to Professor Wayne Dickerson, Dr. Hector Ortiz Lira and
Dr. Geoff Lindsey for their academic and pedagogical contributions that shaped a good part
of our teaching practice by providing an insight that made us reflect on the multiple aspects
of the phonological learning process.
We would also like to show our gratitude to Prof. Francisco Zabala and Prof. Daniel Ferreyra
Fernández for welcoming and encouraging the present project.
Special thanks also go to Dr Cristina Banfi and Dr Marina Cantarutti for their advice on the
use of digital online tools and teaching materials. Their collaboration connected us with new
ways of approaching the treatment of pronunciation practice.
We are very much indebted to the teachers of EFL Phonology and English Pronunciation
Laboratory Practice at Teacher Training College. They have contributed across the years
with their expertise in the area of English Pronunciation, discussing and sharing their
findings to widen the scope of knowledge and understanding of our field of practice.
We also owe a debt of gratitude to Clemencia Baraldi de Durán (Clem Durán), in memoriam,
who generously shared with many of us her vast experience and avid interest in the teaching
of pronunciation throughout her entire life. We witnessed her professional competence and
genuine passion for phonology at different moments of our professional development.
Our very special thanks, once again, to Dr. Hector Ortiz Lira for the final editing of our work.
We sincerely appreciate his generosity and invaluable contributions
Finally, we are particularly grateful to our students. They constitute the greatest challenge for
a teacher’s job. They permanently show us how effective and also how sensitive and
empathetic our job should be to accompany their pronunciation learning process.

July 2020
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cantarutti, M. (s.f.). “Oral Practice – How does it work? Phonology I”. Class materials.
Cantarutti, M. (s.f.). “Working with audio files by Prof. Marina N”. Class materials.
Cantarutti, M. “E-portfolios for pronunciation practice and assessment”. In Speak Out,
Newsletter of the IATEFL Pronunciation Special Interest Group. January 2015, Issue 52.
Celce Murcia, M., D. Brinton and J. Goodwin (1996): Teaching Pronunciation. UK: CUP.
Dickerson, W. B. (1994). Empowering students with predictive skills. In J. Morley (Ed.),
Pronunciation pedagogy and theory: New views, new directions (pp. 19-35). Arlington, VA:
TESOL.
Dickerson, Wayne B. (1995). Stress in the Speech Stream. The Rhythm of Spoken English.
Finch, D. & H. Ortiz Lira (1982): A Course in English Phonetics for Spanish Speakers.
UK: Heinemann Educational Books.
Gimson´s Pronunciation of English. (2014). Revised by Cruttenden, A. UK: Arnold.
Jones, D. (2003): English Pronouncing Dictionary. Edited by Roach, P., J. Hartman, and J.
Setter. UK: Cambridge University Press.
Hualde, J.I. (2014). Los Sonidos del Español. UK: Cambridge University Press.
Lecumberri, M. & Maidment, J.A. (2014). English Transcription Course. Routledge.

Marks, J. (2007): English Pronunciation in Use. UK: Cambridge University Press.
Roach, P. (2000): English Phonetics and Phonology. A practical course. 3rd ed. UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Wells, J.C. (2008): Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. UK: Longman
An Intelligent Approach to Teaching Pronunciation by Adrian Underhill | Nov 28, 2011 | 5.
Question & Answer; General Issues |
https://www.adrianunderhill.com/2011/11/28/an-intelligent-approach-to-teaching-
pronunciation/
Underhill, Adrian. “Introduction to Teaching Pronunciation Workshop.” uploaded by
Macmillan Education ELT, 4 mar. 2011. Accessed July, 2020 at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1kAPHyHd7Lo

July 2020
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THE AUTHORS
Graciela Clelia Moyano graduated as a teacher of English at INSP Lenguas Vivas “J. R.
Fernandez”. She holds a BA in Education from Universidad Nacional de Quilmes and
followed courses in Social Sciences at the University of Buenos Aires. She made most of her
career at Teacher Training Colleges in Buenos Aires in the area of Phonetics and
Phonology.
[email protected]
Cinthia Patricia Smith graduated as a teacher of English at ISP ‘Dr J.V.Gonzalez’ and
holds a BA in English from Universidad Nacional del Litoral. She made most of her career at
Teacher Training Colleges in Buenos Aires in the area of Phonetics and Phonology. She is
currently teaching Pronunciation at Universidad del Salvador.
[email protected]

July 2020
CONNECTED SPEECH
Connected speech processes are changes that occur to sounds when words
are put together in groups -that is, when words are in connected form. The way
a word sounds when we say it in isolation may be rather unlike the way it
sounds in connected speech. There are some important points to remember
about connected speech processes:
- They occur at the edges of words, since this is where words 'meet' in
sentences.
- Importantly, connected speech processes are optional.
All languages modify complicated sequences in connected speech in order to

simplify the articulation process -but the manner in which this is done varies
from one language to another. Furthermore, most native speakers are totally
unaware of such simplification processes and are often surprised (or even
shocked!) when these are pointed out to them.
If anyone were to ask a native speaker of English how the word from is
pronounced, the most probable answer would be /frɒm/. This is the form of the
word which is used when the word is said in isolation and not part of a longer
utterance. This form is called the word's citation form. The same form can also
be heard as part of a longer utterance (a piece of connected speech), for
example in the question, Where do you come from?
However, in the answer to this question it is very likely that the word will not be
pronounced /frɒm/, but /frəm/, for example in I come from Manchester. Consider
these forms as well:
Orthographic form: couldn't
Citation forms: /kʊdənt/ or /kʊ /
The speech of speakers of all languages displays this type of feature which can
be explained by reference to a small number of connected speech processes.
Sources:
'Phonetics. A coursebook.' Rachel-Anne Knight. CUP 2014.
'Practical Phonetics and Phonology. a resource book for students.' 2nd Edition. Collins, B. and
Mees, I. Routledge 2008.
'English Transcription Course.' García Lecumberri, M.L. & Maidment, J. Hodder Education
2000.
DIPHTHONGS - SMOOTHING
DIPHTHONGS
Diphthongs are sounds which consist of a movement or "glide" from one vowel
sound to another within one syllable. For example, in the case of /eɪ/, the
tongue moves from the area of RP /e/ to that of RP /ɪ/. A vowel which does not
glide is called a "pure" vowel. Diphthongs may be said to have a first element
(the starting point) and a second element (the point in the direction of which
the glide is made).
Diphthongs can be classified articulatorily and auditorily:
* Depending on the direction of the movement the tongue makes in producing

diphthongs, the English set can be articulatorily classified into CLOSING
/ˈkləʊzɪŋ/ and CENTRING /ˈsent‿ər ɪŋ/.
Closing diphthongs involve a glide towards a closer tongue position.
Centring diphthongs involve a glide towards a central position.
/eɪ/
ENDING IN
/ɪ/
/aɪ/
CLOSING /ɔɪ/
DIPHTHONGS
ENDING IN
/əʊ/
/ʊ/
/aʊ/
/ɪə/
ENDING IN
CENTRING /ə/
/eə/
/ʊə/
* According to the prominence of the elements, diphthongs can be auditorily

classified into FALLING and RISING.
Falling diphthongs are those in which most of the length and stress associated
with the glide is concentrated on the first element, that is to say, the first
element is more prominent that the second.
DIPHTHONGS - SMOOTHING
Rising diphthongs are those in which most of the length and stress is
concentrated on the second element, that is to say, the second element is more
prominent than the first.
All diphthongs are falling, but /ɪə/ and /ʊə/ can be rising in unstressed syllables.
Examples:
influence /ˈɪntf lu‿əns/
experience /ɪk ˈspɪər i‿əns/
In terms of length or quantity, diphthongs, like long vowels, are subject to the
same variations of quantity:
may /ˈmeɪ/ (fully long - the diphthong is in an open syllable)

made /meɪd/ (less long - the diphthong is closed by a lenis voiced sound)
mate /ˈmeɪt/ (shortened or clipped - the diphthong is closed bya a fortis
voiceless sound)
No diphthong occurs before /ŋ/, except where word final /n/ is assimilated to
/ŋ/ in rapid connected speech.
TRIPHTHONGS
A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all
produced rapidly and without interruption. The triphthongs can be looked on as
being composed of the five closing diphthongs with /ə/ added on the end. Thus
we get:
/eɪ/ + /ə/ = /eɪə/
/aɪ/ + /ə/ = /aɪə/
/ɔɪ/ + /ə/ = /ɔɪə/
/aʊ/ + /ə/ = /aʊə/
/əʊ/ + /ə/ = /əʊə/
SMOOTHING OR LEVELLING
All closing diphthongs may be followed by /ə/ (or /ɪ/) as part of the word (as in
fire), as a suffix appended to the root (as in player), or at word boundary (as in
play a trick).
There is a tendency among native speakers to omit, or weaken, the second
element (/ɪ/ or /ʊ/), and lengthen the first. This vowel reduction is called
smoothing or levelling.
/eɪə/ ---> /e: ə/ player /aʊə/ ---> /a: ə/ tower

/aɪə/ ---> /a: ə/ fire /əʊə/ ---> /ɜː ə/ lower
/ɔɪə/ ---> /ɔ: ə/ employer
INDIVIDUAL & GROUP ACTIVITIES: DIPHTHONGS
TASK 1: Read the bibliography about diphthongal vowel glides and complete the chart below. Be
precise, clear and technical.
- Gimson: 8.10 onwards
- Roach: 3.2 Diphthongs
- Lindsey: Ch. 11
GLIDE JAWS LIPS EXAMPLES

/eɪ/
/aɪ/
CLOSING
/ɔɪ/
DIPHTHONGS
/əʊ/
/aʊ/
/ɪə/
CENTRING
/eə/
/ʊə/
TASK 2: Work collaboratively to produce a whole-class chart with the information you completed in
your individual charts.
TASK 3: Send the group chart via webmail.

CONSONANT SYLLABICITY
All syllables must have a nucleus. The nucleus may optionally be preceded
by an onset, consisting of one or more consonants and it may optionally
be followed by a coda, again consisting of one or more consonants.
Sounds which may perform the function of syllable nucleus are said to be
syllabic. Vowels are syllabic, whereas, in most languages, consonants are
not syllabic, that is, they cannot be syllable nuclei.
In English, too, consonants are generally non-syllabic, but there is a

process known as syllabic consonant formation (SCF) which makes
consonants such as /n/ and /l/ syllabic, that is to say, syllable nuclei.
In SCF, a sequence of /ə/ followed by one of the above consonants may

merge so that the vowel disappears, but gives its syllabic characteristic to
the consonant. Syllabic consonants are represented with the diacritic /ˌ/
underneath.
For syllabicity to take place, the sequence /ə/ + /n/ or /l/ must be in the
same syllable. Notwithstanding this restriction, there are other
requirements for SCF to be possible. These conditions are more restrictive
for the nasal than for the lateral.
The alveolar nasal /n/ may become syllabic in the following environments:
* When the sequence is preceded by a consonant, which must be an

obstruent (plosive, fricative, or affricate). Nasal syllabicity is more likely if
the preceding consonant is an alveolar
listen /lɪsən/ ---> /lɪ /
* If the sequence is preceded by more than one consonant, SCF is

sometimes possible but not if one of the preceding consonants is a nasal:
golden /gəʊldən/ ---> gəʊ
BUT NOT
London /lʌndən/ (ONLY POSSIBILITY)
If the sequence /ən/ precedes the stressed syllable (pre-nuclear position),

syllabicity is not very frequent but it is possible:
/kə ˈ e / or / ˈ e / or / ˈ e /
SCF involving the alveolar lateral only requires that the sequence be
preceded by at least one consonant, other than /w, j, r/ (approximants):
handle /hænd /
Notice that if a morpheme starting with a weak vowel is added after the
syllabic nasal or lateral, syllabicity for the consonant may be lost (de-
syllabicity), since the consonant may become the onset of the following
syllable:
listening /lɪ ɪ / OR /lɪsnɪ /
Adapted & Selected from:
García Lecumberri, M. L. & Maidment, J. (2000). English Transcription Course. Hodder

Education.
SYLLABICITY
Transcribe the following text:

ELISION: GENERAL CHART
Elision
Established
evening
In post-nuclear Rules
position
Word internal
Present-day
Rules
VOWELS (SSBE - GB)
In pre-nuclear Special cases
position In weak function
words
At word
boundaries
Established
lamb
Within a syllable
CONSONANTS
Present-day Within a word
At syllable
(SSBE - GB)
boundary
At word boundary
ELISION: FILL-IN ACTIVITY
Elision
Establishe Initially: state - scholar - sample
d Medially: Gloucester - marriage - evening - chimney - courtesy - gooseberry - Salisbury
In a final syllable: time - name - loved
Rule 1: ....
Examples: temperature - temporary - robbery - factory - history - suffering
- natural
In post-
nuclear Rule 2: ....
position Examples: fatalist - easily - family
Rule 3: frequent loss of post-nuclear /ə/ or /ɪ/ in: university -

probably - nobody - yesterday - difficult - national - fashionable -
opportunity
Rule 1: consonant + /ə/ or /ɪ/ + liquid. These elisions in word
initial syllables are more likely when the preceding word,
belonging to the same group, ends in a vowel sound.
Word Examples: .....
Present- NOTE, TOO, STRESS SHIFT TO THE INITIAL SYLLABLE (OR SECOND:
internal cigarette).
day
VOWELS (SSBE -
RULE 2: continuant consonant + /ə/ + consonant (not liquid).
GB)
NOTE, TOO, STRESS SHIFT TO THE INITIAL SYLLABLE.
Examples: ....
In pre-
nuclear RULE 3: elision of /ɪ/ in: geometry - geography
position Special cases: the /ə/ can be elided in the weak forms 'that' or
'was' (only when it's an auxiliary verb) when these forms are
followed by a continuant sound.
Examples: ....
The /ə/ can be elided in the weak forms of function words +
syllabicity.
Examples: than - them - for - from - some
BUT remember the golden rules where /ə/ cannot be elided (!).
At word RULE: ....

boundar
ies Example sentence: Both father and son went down the hill.
More examples: ....
Establis Initially: write - know

hed Medially: fasten - listen - often - castle - nestle
In a final syllable: lamb - comb - hymn - column
Find examples:
- Elision of /t/ in /nʧ/ (/ʧ/ shouldn't be syllable initial): ....
Exceptions: ...
CONSON - Elision of /d/ in /nʤ/ (/ʤ/ shouldn't be syllable initial): ....

Present- Exceptions: ...
ANTS Within a
day
syllable
(SSBE -
GB) - Elision of /p/ in /mps/ or /mpt/: ...
- Elision of /t/ in /nts/: ...
- Elision of /k/ in /ŋks/: ...

ELISION: FILL-IN ACTIVITY
- Elision of /k/ in /skt/: ...
- Elision of /θ/ in: mon(th)s - ....
- Elision of /ð/ in: ...
Within a word:
- Elision of /θ/ in: as(th)ma - is(th)mus
- Elision of /l/ when preceded by /ɔː/ (because of the similarity in resonance):

...
- Elision of /l/ in: on(l)y
- Elision of /t/ or /d/ is possible when they are preceded by a consonant at the
end of the syllable (they should both coincide in voicing), if the next syllable
starts with a consonant (not /h/).
Examples: exactly - coldness
.....
At syllable
boundary
At word boundary (between words):
- Elision of /t/ and /d/ is possible when they are preceded by a consonant at
the end of the syllable (they should both coincide in voicing), if the next
syllable starts with a consonant (not /h/).
Examples: next day - cold weather
....
- Elision of /h/ in pronominal weak forms or in the auxiliary verbs 'have' - 'has' -
'had' (never after a pause).
Examples: ...
- Elision of /t/ in contractive negative forms (not before a pause).

Examples: ...
• Maidment, J. & García Lecumberri, M. L. 2000. English Transcription Course. Hodder Education.
Lesson 6.
• Tench, P. 2013. Transcribing the Sound of English. A Phonetics Workbook for words and discourse. CUP
Chapter 6.
CH AP T ER 6 Phrases
is common in other languages. Other occasional instances in English include

µ /; opens /'əυpənz/ becoming
the possibility of open /'əυpən/ becoming /'əυpm
/'əυpmµz/ and opened /'əυpənd/ becoming /'əυpm µ d/; but opening /'əυpnŋ/
keeps the non-syllabic /n/.
Elision
A second type of simplification involves not an adjustment to a sound, but its
complete removal. This is known as elision; the missing sound is said to have
been elided. Take the name Christmas as an example; it used to be a compound
consisting of Christ and mass, but in the course of time, the /t/ of the first word
has been elided, and nowadays nobody would normally pronounce the name
with a /t/. Similarly, the word handkerchief used to be a compound consisting
of hand and kerchief, but again in the course of time the /d/ of the first word has
been elided.
As it happens, elision mainly affects final /t, d/ if they are preceded by a con-
sonant – as in the cases above – and also followed by a word beginning with a
consonant – again, as in the cases above.
First of all, we will consider the elision of final /d/. Notice what has happened
to the /d/ in these other (formerly compound) words:
6.32 handsome, sandwich, grandfather, grandchildren
Notice too that as /d/ is elided in grandparents, the preceding /n/ is adjacent to
a bilabial consonant and assimilates to /p/ by becoming /m/:
6.33 /'Ǳr{m"pεərənts/
Try and transcribe:

6.34 grandpa _________
grandmother _________
grandma _________
keeping a ‘double’ /m/ for the assimilating /n/ and the /m/ of the second part
of the compound. Transcribe, likewise:
6.35 handbag /'h{m"b{Ǳ/
windbag _________
windmill _________
Transcribe
6.36 handset /'h{n"sεt/
landscape _________
bandstand _________
friendship _________
bend them _________
Now cases where /d/ is preceded by /l/
95
P AR T ONE Words
6.37 wild beasts /'wal 'bi:sts/

old men _________
child protection _________
goldfish _________
fold them _________
The fact that the elision of /d/ makes some of these words identical to others
(while, goal, foal) does not seem to trouble native English speakers, as the
context usually makes it quite clear which word is intended. Occasionally,
there is potential ambiguity as in cold shed/coal shed, but again, usually the
context is clear. Elision is sometimes expressed in ‘popular’ spelling, e.g. Ol’
King Cole, Ole Man River.
Elision, however, does not take place if the following consonant is /h/, such as
in
6.38 hand held /'h{nd "hεld/
grand house _________
wild horse _________
old hand _________
and is optional if the approximants /r, w/ and /l/ follow
6.39 hand rail _________, _________ hand luggage _________, ________
Grand Rapids _________, _________ landlocked _________, ________
old rope _________, _________ old lady _________, ________
wild west _________, _________ wild lily _________, ________
If /j/ follows, assimilation to /dȢ/ usually takes place
6.40: Apply 6.40 land use /'l{ndȢ 'ju:s/

partial coalescence old year _________
Thus, /d/ elision takes place if it is word-final, preceded by a consonant and fol-
lowed immediately by a word beginning with a consonant (but with the above
exceptions). It also takes place if a suffix follows which begins with the right
kind of consonant. Thus /d/ is elided in friends, and may optionally be elided
in friendly. What about these words?
6.41 friendship _________
blindness _________
childless _________
worldly _________
handful _________
child’s play _________
The past-tense suffix <-ed> is pronounced /d/ after voiced consonants other
than /d/ itself (see p. 53). If the immediately following word begins with a con-
sonant that causes elision, then the past tense suffix itself is elided. This means
that the verb actually loses its tense marker; again, native English speakers do
96
CH AP T ER 6 Phrases
not appear to be particularly bothered by this, since there will probably be

enough in the context to indicate which tense is intended. So, for example,
in I warned them, the conditions are right for elision to take place, leaving the
spoken equivalent of I warn them. Naturally, a person may decide to make the
suffix noticeable by articulating the /d/ in an exaggerated way, but this is not
normal in most ordinary, typical, informal colloquial speech. Transcribe the
following as in this informal colloquial style:
6.42 I warned them _________

and called them _________
and told them off _________
*
Now, the elision of /t/. Just as /t/ has been elided in Christmas, and also in
words like castle, listen, whistle, wrestle, soften, it is also elided in postman,
facts, vastness. Some people, but not all, elide the /t/ in often: /'ɒftən, 'ɒfən/.
Otherwise, it appears to parallel the case of /d/ elision, but the preceding
consonant must be voiceless in the case of /t/ elision. Thus, /t/ is elided in
6.43 facts /'f{ks/ but not in faults

instincts /'nstŋks/ but not in intents
vastness 'vɑ:snəs/ but not in pleasantness
Transcribe
6.44 soft spot /'sɒf 'spɒt/

lost cause _________
left foot _________
vast spaces _________
apt remarks _________
Act Three _________
just now _________
best thing _________
As with /d/, elision does not occur if the following consonant is /h/. Note the
difference between West Bromwich and West Ham. Elision does not take place
in
6.45 gift horse /'Ǳft "hɔ:s/

guest house _________
left hand _________
and is optional if the approximants /r, w/ and /l/ follow
6.46 last rites _________, _________ soft landing _________, _________

left wing _________, _________ gift wrap _________, _________
guest list _________, _________ wrist watch _________, _________
If /j/ follows, either elision takes place, or assimilation to /tʃ/
97
P AR T ONE Words
You can apply 6.47 last year /'lɑ:ʃ jÆ:/ or /'lɑ:ʃtʃ jÆ:/
partial coalescence cost unit _________, _________
or lost youth _________, _________
Elision + Assimilation West Yorkshire ________, _________
If a suffix follows which begins with the right kind of consonant, then /t/ is
elided. Thus /t/ is elided in swiftness and may, optionally, be elided in swiftly.
What about these words?
6.48 lifts _________

ghostly _________
listless _________
softness _________
gift’s value _________
The past tense suffix <-ed> is pronounced /t/ after voiceless consonants other
than /t/ itself (see pp. 53–54). If the immediately following word begins with
a consonant that causes elision, then – just like the case of /d/ – the /t/ suffix
is elided. This means that in a case with past tense, like I washed them, where
the conditions are right for elision, then it will sound exactly like the spoken
equivalent of the present tense, I wash them. Transcribe the following in an
informal colloquial style:
6.49 I left my friends _________

crossed the street _________
and passed the shops _________
then lost my way _________
Notice that /t/ does not readily get elided if it would otherwise bring two /s/s
together at the end of a word:
6.50 ghosts /'Ǳəυsts/

costs _________
feasts _________
Nevertheless, /t/ is elided in these other cases:
6.51 first serve /'fÆ:s 'sÆ:v/

most surprising _________
lost soul _________
*
Elision, in English, mainly involves final /t, d/ when preceded by a consonant
(a voiceless one in the case of /t/) and followed immediately by a word begin-
ning with certain consonants. It also happens regularly to the /k/ of ask when
followed immediately by any elision-inducing consonants. All the features of
/t/ elision apply:
6.52 Ask me a question
98
Chapter 7.
OTHER CONSONANT ELISIONS
SOURCE: ELISION - LPD - PROF. WELLS

You can also
apply sequence
of plosives
Apply partial
coalescence
• Maidment, J. & García Lecumberri, M. L. 2000. English Transcription Course. Hodder Education. Lesson 7.
WORDS IN
CONNECTED SPEECH
Words in Connected Speech
Every utterance is a continuous, changing, pattern of sound quality with associated

(prosodic) features of quantity, accent, and pitch. The word (consisting of one or several
morphemes) is, like the phoneme, an abstraction from this continuum and must be
expected to be realized in phonetically different ways according to the context.
If the word is admitted as an abstracted linguistic unit, it is important to note the differences which may
exist between its concrete realization when said (often artificially) in isolation and those which it has
when, in connected speech, it is subject to the pressures of its sound environment or of the accentual
or rhythmic group of which it forms part.
The variations involved may affect the word as a whole, e.g. weak forms in an unaccented situation or
word accentual patterns within the larger rhythmic pattern of the complete utterance; or may affect
more particularly the sounds used at word boundaries, such changes involving a consideration of the
features of morpheme and word junctures, in particular, ASSIMILATIONS, ELISIONS, and LIAISONS.
In addition, it will be seen that the extent of variation depends largely upon the casual or formal nature
of the utterance, the more formal and careful (and probably the slower rate of) the delivery the greater
the tendency to preserve a form nearer to that of the isolate word.
The modifications to dictionary pronunciation once isolated words are

embedded in connected speech are fairly systematic and include:
Assimilation
Elision
Vowel reduction
Strong and weak forms
Liaison
Contractions
Juncture
Assimilation
The process of assimilation is a type of adjustment in connected speech during

which a given sound (the assimilating sound) takes on the characteristics of a
neighboring sound (the conditioning sound). This is often misunderstood as
"lazy" or "sloppy" speech, since the organs of speech involved appear to be
taking the path of least resistance.
However, such a characterization ignores the fact that assimilation is a
universal feature of spoken language. In English it occurs frequently, both
within words and between words; it by no means marks a speaker as
inarticulate or nonstandard.
There are three types of assimilation in English:

(1) progressive (or perseverative),
(2) regressive (or anticipatory), and
(3) coalescent.
 In progressive assimilation the conditioning sound precedes and affects the following sound.
This type of assimilation is relatively uncommon. It may occur when a plosive is followed by a syllabic
nasal and the nasal undergoes assimilation to the same place of articulation as the preceding plosive,
e.g.
 In English, regressive assimilation is more pervasive as a purely phonological process than is

progressive assimilation. In regressive assimilation, the assimilated sound precedes and is affected by
the conditioning sound. It has to do with the instability of final alveolars.
Word-final/t,d,n,s,z/ readily assimilate to the place of the following word-initial consonant whilst
retaining the original voicing. /t, d, n/ are replaced by bilabials before bilabial consonants and by velars
before velar consonants; /s, z/ are replaced by palato-alveolars before consonants containing a palatal
feature.
 The third type of assimilation, coalescent assimilation, is a type of reciprocal assimilation: The
first sound and second sound in a sequence come together and mutually condition the creation of a
third sound with features from both original sounds.
Coalescence of /t, d, s, z/with /j/: The process which has led historically to earlier /t, d, s, z/ + /j/
giving /ʧ, ʤ, ʃ, ʒ/ medially in a word (nature, grandeur, mission,vision) may operate in contemporary
colloquial speech at word boundaries, e.g.:
Assimilation is the natural result of the various speech organs ‘cutting corners’ as they perform their
complex sequence of movements, and this occurs mostly at word boundaries and affects mainly
consonants.
Elision
Since Old English, it has always been a feature of the structure of English words that the weakly
accented syllables have undergone a process of reduction, including loss of phonemes or of vowels.
The same process of reduction, with resultant contraction, may be observed in operation in Present
English.
It is important, however, to distinguish between cases of elision which have been established in the
language for some time and those which have become current only recently. In these latter cases, the
forms exhibiting elision are typical of rapid, colloquial speech, whereas more formal speech tends to
retain fuller form under the preservative influence of the spelling.
Established: initially  state, scholar medially  Gloucester, evening final syllable  time, name
Present Colloquial: temporary, suffering
Apart from word-internal elisions and those associated with weak forms, sounds may be
elided in fast colloquial speech, especially at or in the vicinity of word boundaries.
VOWELS
(a) Allophonic variation: When one syllable ends with a closing diphthong and the next syllable
begins with a vowel, the second element of the diphthong may be elided. Smoothing occurs across
word boundaries and internal in the word
(b) Phonemic elision: when final schwa occurs with following linking /r/ and word-initial vowel, /ə/ may
be elided, e.g. after a while, as a matter of fact, father and son, over and above.
CONSONANTS
In addition to the loss of /h/ in pronominal weak forms and other consonantal elisions typical of weak
forms, the alveolar plosives are apt to be elided. Such elision appears to take place most readily when
/t/ or /d/ is the middle one of three consonants. Any consonant may appear in third position, though
elision of the alveolar plosive is relatively rare before /h/ and /j/.
Thus elision is common in the sequence voiceless continuant + /t/ or voiced continuant + /d/ (e.g. /-st,
-ft, -ʃt, -nd, -ld, -zd, -ðd, -vd/ followed by a word with an initial consonant, e.g. next day, last chance,
first light, west region, just one, left turn, soft centres, left wheel, drift by, soft roes, found five, hold
tight, old man, cold lunch, bold face, world religion, etc.
Elision of final /t/ or /d/ is rarer before initial /h/, e.g. the alveolar stops are more regularly retained in
kept hold, worked hard, East Ham, gift horse, round here, bald head, etc.
Final /t,d/ followed by a word beginning with /j/ are usually kept in a coalesced form, i.e. as /ʧ/ and
/ʤ/, e.g. helped you, liked you, lost you, left you, grabbed you, lend you, told you, etc.
The /t/ of the negative /-nt/ is often elided, particularly in disyllables, before a following consonant, e.g.
you mustn't lose, doesn't she know?, and sometimes before a vowel, e.g. wouldn't he come?, you
mustn't over-eat!
Liaison
It refers to the smooth linking or joining together of words in connected speech. Fully liaised speech is
characterized by a seamless, continuous quality, where final consonants are linked to following initial
vowel sounds. Once again liaison is an essential ingredient of both rhythm and intonation.
Poorly linked speech is typically rather jerky, perhaps stacatto, and the resulting lack of flow
makes it more difficult for the speaker to take advantage of the stress system
and so for the listener to focus on the content of the message.
Some systematic forms of liaison are described as:
Linking ‘r’
Intrusive ‘r’
Intrusive /w/ and /j/
Linking ‘r’
RP introduces word-final post-vocalic /r/ as a linking form when the following word begins with a
vowel. The vowel endings to which an /r/ link may, in this sense, justifiably be added are /ɑː, ɔː/ and
those single or complex vowels containing final /ə/: /ə, ɜː, ɪə, eə, ʊə/ e.g. in far off, four aces, answer it,
Fur inside, near it, wear out, secure everything.
Prescriptivists seek to limit the allowability of linking /r/ to those cases where there is an <r> in the
spelling.
Intrusive ‘r’
Many examples of linking /r/ occur where there is no <r> in the spelling, such /r/'s being labelled as
'intrusive'. Such /r/'s are to be heard particularly in the case of /ə/ endings, e.g.:
Spelling consciousness remains an inhibiting factor in the use of linking /r/ , but the present general
tendency among RP speakers is to use /r/ links, even -unconsciously- among those who object most
strongly.
Linking /w/ and /j/

Vocalic junctures where the first word ends in /iː, ɪ, eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ/ a slight linking /j/may be heard between the two
vowels, e.g.:
But this is not sufficient to be equated with phonemic /j/; indeed, there are minimal pairs which illustrate the difference
between linking [j] and phonemic /j/,
Similarly, a linking [w] may be heard between a final /uː, əʊ, aʊ/ and a following vowel, e.g.:
and minimal pairs illustrating linking [w] and phonemic /w/ can be found, e.g.:
In yet another possibility, the linking [j] or [w] may be replaced by a glottal stop.This is most common before a vowel
beginning an accented syllable, e.g. very angry
Juncture
Despite the fact that the word may have its isolate-form identity considerably modified by its immediate phonemic and
accentual context, both as regards its constituent sounds and its accentual or rhythmic pattern, phonetic features may
be retained in the speech continuum which mark word or morpheme boundaries.
Thus, the phonemic sequence /piːstɔːks/ may mean pea stalks or peace talks according to the situation of the word
Boundaries. In this case, if the boundary occurs between /s/ and /t/, the identity of the words peace and talks may be
established by the reduced /iː/ (in a syllable closed by a voiceless consonant) and by the slight aspiration of /t/; on the other
hand, if the boundary occurs between /i:/ and /s/, this may be signalled by the relatively full length of /iː/ (in an open word
final syllable) and by the unaspirated allophone of /t/ (following /s/ in the same syllable), as well as by the stronger /s/.
Such phonetic differentiation depends upon the speaker's consciousness of the word as an independent entity.
The following examples illustrate various ways in which phonetic cues may mark word boundaries:
The articulatory features that are likely to enable you to distinguish

the phrases are:
the shortening or lengthening of vowel sounds on either side of the
juncture;
the delayed or advanced articulation of consonant sounds on
either side;
variations in the degree of syllable stress on either side of the
juncture
other allophonic variations in the phonemes on either side of the
juncture.
Adapted & summarised from:
 Celce-Murcia, M.; Brinton, D. & Goodwin, J. 2007. Teaching

Pronunciation – A reference for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languages. USA: Cambridge University Press.
 Cruttenden, A. 2001. Gimson’s Pronunciation of English. 6th Ed. New York:
Arnold.
CONNECTED SPEECH
Listen to the songs, movie trailers, and TV series. Decide what features
of connected speech and allophonic variations are being applied by the
singers/actors in the selected stretches of language.
1)
A-HA Hunting high and low:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPAzwUhXnzs
could have seen

To find her again
sweetest love
Do you
got to
CONNECTED SPEECH
2)
Coldplay – Speed of sound:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0k_1kvDh2UA
That you
Chance you
Before I
How it
That you’ll
That you put up
You have to
CONNECTED SPEECH
3)
Love actually - trailer
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cYCkFTyADJ0
you’d have been just his type
invite you
about love
CONNECTED SPEECH
4)
Love is all around:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h3gEkwhdXUE
in my toes
written on the wind
on my love
I always will
CONNECTED SPEECH
5)
You’ve got mail:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCetfaS7GAo
...just call me Joe

I don’t know his name
If you would just go away
CONNECTED SPEECH
6)
https://www.facebook.com/MirandaHartOfficial/videos/284204259379566/
Tuesday
CONNECTED SPEECH
7)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uka7oWNcwIc
Miranda - Episode 6 Season 2 (first 15 minutes, but of course you can watch the whole
episode!)
this year (Miranda)

isn't that such fun (Miranda's mum)
delivery (M)
titles (M)
chocolate (Miranda & Stevie)
best Christmas jumper (Miranda's mum)
Did you eat anything unusual? (doctor)
ten minutes (Stevie)
Tuesday (M)
literally (M)
just friends (Miranda & Gary)
sure (Miranda's dad)
temperature (Miranda's dad)
it's probably (M)
CONNECTED SPEECH
8)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W59U7VWHZ1Y
I think about you
I hate that feeling
I just don't think we can see each other
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ac9w0rKTRPM
What baby! (Hugh Grant)

• Knight, R-A. 2014. Phonetics. A Coursebook. 3rd Printing. CUP. Unit 9.
UNIT 9 ALLOPHONIC VARIATIONS OF VOICE
9.1 Key learning areas

In this unit we will:
* discover that the same phoneme can occur in a number of different forms
* explore how allophonic variation is conditioned by the environment and
relates to coarticulation
* investigate why there is a need for two levels of transcription.
9.2 Introduction
So far we have looked at how individual sounds can be described and how we
can transcribe English words. In this unit, we will see that there are a number of
differences between sounds, which speakers of a language hardly ever notice.
These variations are usually related to the surrounding sounds, and it is
crucially important to know about them when studying phonetics.
9.3 Allophonic variation

Exercise 9.1 a) Make a transcription of the words ‘pin’ and ‘spin’.
b) Are the two /p/s the same?
Comment a) Your transcriptions should be /pɪn/ and /spɪn/.

b) It is very likely that you have commented that the two /p/s are the same, but
your opinion might change once you have completed Exercise 9.2.
Exercise 9.2 Take a single sheet of paper and hold it in front of your mouth. Now say the
word ‘pin’ loudly and watch what happens to your piece of paper around the
time you are producing the /p/. Now, keeping the paper where it is, say the word
‘spin’ loudly and watch the paper again.
Comment You probably found that your piece of paper moved after the /p/ in ‘pin’, but
not after the /p/ in spin, demonstrating that, in fact, the two /p/s are not
identical. This will be easy to observe for speakers of many accents of English,
such as SSBE. However, for some other accents of English, such as some
114
UNIT 9 Allophonic variations of voice
Northern accents, there may have been little difference between the two. In this
case, you might like to ask some friends with different accents to try the same
experiment, to see what happens.
9.4 Aspiration
The effect you observed when the paper moved in ‘pin’ is the result of some-
thing called aspiration. Aspiration is an audible puff of air that occurs after
another sound; it sounds rather like a short /h/. The /p/ in ‘spin’, on the other
hand, is unaspirated. This means that there is no /h/-like friction after the
release of the /p/. We will consider the detailed phonetics of aspiration and
unaspiration shortly.
Aspiration is present in English not only for /p/, but also for the other
voiceless plosives /t/ and / k/. There is a ‘rule’ for when aspiration occurs, which
is related to the position of /p t k/ in the syllable, and the stress of that syllable.
The rule is that aspiration occurs any time a voiceless plosive (i.e. /p t k/) occurs
at the very beginning of a stressed syllable. However, /p t k/ are always
unaspirated when they follow an /s/ in the onset of a stressed syllable – that is,
when they are in an /s/-cluster. Note that these rules are not conscious rules that
speakers deliberately follow, but unconscious rules, stored in their minds, which
they learnt as they acquired English as a child.
Exercise 9.3 Look at the following words and work out from the rules above which voiceless
plosives are aspirated and which are unaspirated when these words are pro-
duced in isolation, and therefore stressed.
tan king spend ski stand pen

Comment ‘king’ has an aspirated /k/, ‘pen’ has an aspirated /p/, and ‘tan’ has an aspirated
/t/. ‘stand’, ‘ski’ and ‘spend’ all contain the unaspirated version of those
consonants, as they come after /s/ in a cluster.
9.5 Diacritics
Now that we know there is a difference between the /p/ sounds in words like
‘pin’ and ‘spin’, we need a way to transcribe this difference. For most differ-
ences of this kind, we will add a small symbol to the symbol that we have
already learnt for the sound. These small additional symbols are known as
diacritics, and there is a special section for them on the full IPA chart. We will
use a large number of diacritics in this book, but they are summarised in
Appendix 3 for ease of reference (page 283). Aspiration is transcribed with a
superscript – (that is, a small, raised)‘h’, and unaspiration is transcribed with a
superscript ‘equals’ sign ‘=’. This is a different level of transcription to that
115
SECTION TWO Putting sounds together
which we have concentrated on so far, in that it shows more detail. For

example, it shows aspiration and unaspiration, rather than transcribing all
/p/s as the same. For this new type of transcription, we will need to use a
different type of brackets, for reasons that will be explained more fully below.
So, ‘pin’ is transcribed as [phɪn] and ‘spin’ is transcribed as [sp=ɪn]. You may
remember that we also learnt how to show more detail for /r/ sounds, using [ɹ]
and [ʋ], back in Unit 3.
9.6 Meaning differences

At this point, you may be feeling a bit confused. You have spent a long time (and
several units of this book so far) learning about the sounds in SSBE, and now it
turns out that there are more differences that you were not even aware of.
Actually this is perfectly normal, particularly if English is your first language. As
native speakers of a particular language, we learn to ignore small difference
between sounds – for example, the difference between aspirated and unaspi-
rated plosives. The reason is that these small differences never make a difference
in meaning, as we shall see now.
Exercise 9.4 Remember that an aspirated /p/ has an audible puff of air before the following
vowel, which sounds a bit like an /h/. An unaspirated /p/ has no puff of air. Try
to swap these sounds around in words that you produce. For example, say ‘spin’
with an aspirated /p/, and ‘pin’ with an unaspirated /p/. This can be done quite
easily with a bit of practice, or you could ask your teacher to say it for you, or to
demonstrate it on a computer by splicing sounds together.
What do you notice about the meaning of the word? Does ‘spin’ still mean
‘spin’ even with an aspirated /p/? And what about ‘pin’? Does its meaning
change when the /p/is unaspirated?
Comment You should have found that, although the words might sound a bit odd, there is
no meaning difference between ‘spin’ or ‘pin’ when they are produced with an
aspirated /p/ or an unaspirated /p/. We will carry this idea further by thinking
about phonemes and allophones.
9.7 Phonemes, allophones and minimal pairs

Phonemes are the smallest units that can make a meaning difference in a
language, but they occur in slightly different forms depending on their envi-
ronment (the other sounds around them, and factors such as stress and their
position in the syllable). We can tell if two sounds are variants of the same
phoneme by replacing one for another in a word and seeing if they make a
116
UNIT 9 Allophonic variations of voice
meaning difference. If they do not, then we know they are different versions of
the same phoneme. These different versions are called allophones. The aspi-
rated and unaspirated sounds we have looked at in ‘pin’ and ‘spin’ are both
allophones of the phoneme /p/, but we could easily have used different examples
for the allophones of phonemes /t/ and /k/. In fact, every time we speak, we are
actually producing allophones. The native listener simply categorises these
according to which phoneme they belong to, and is very unlikely to even notice
that different allophones of a single phoneme exist. This seems quite a sur-
prising idea for many students, but hopefully it will become clearer and less odd
as we work through the next few units.
In terms of transcription, then, we can transcribe the same speech at
different levels of detail (and we will return to this idea in Unit 13). At one
level, we can give a broad transcription, by including only enough detail to
show which phonemes are present, and encase our transcription in slash
brackets / /. We can also make more detailed transcriptions, known as
narrow transcriptions, which we enclose in square brackets [ ]. One type of
narrow transcription, for example, shows which allophones of phonemes are
present, and would indicate, therefore, whether plosives are aspirated or
unaspirated. This type of transcription is known as allophonic transcrip-
tion. So, a broad transcription of ‘spin’ is /spɪn/, and an allophonic tran-
scription is [sp=ɪn]. Both transcriptions represent the same speech, but at
different levels of detail.
Swapping one sound for another to look for meaning differences is a really
useful tool and is referred to as a minimal pairs test. Minimal pairs are pairs of
words that only differ by one sound and mean different things. So, ‘pin’ and
‘tin’ are a minimal pair, as are ‘spin’ and ‘skin’. If a minimal pair can be found,
it demonstrates that the two different sounds ([ph] and [th], or [p=] and [k=]) are
variants of different phonemes, because they make a meaning difference.
As we have already seen, there is no meaning difference when we swap
allophones of the same phoneme, like aspirated and unaspirated /p/, even if the
resulting words sound a bit odd. Thus, it is impossible to find a minimal pair
involving aspirated and unaspirated /p/, because they are allophones of the
same phoneme and never make a meaning difference in English.
Exercise 9.5 What phonemes are illustrated by the following English minimal pairs? For
example, ‘pin’ and ‘tin’ illustrate phonemes /p/ and /t/.
a) ban and man

b) cat and rat
c) tin and tan
d) ram and ran
e) belated and berated
117
Cruttenden, A. 2001. Gimson’s Pronunciation of English. 6th Ed. New York: Arnold.
• Ashby, M. & Maidment, J. 2014. Introducing Phonetic Science. 9th Printing. CUP. Chapter 8.
Knight, R-A. 2014. Phonetics. A Coursebook. 3rd Printing. CUP. Unit 12.
[ h E` `
I m ]
[ h E I p ]
Figure 12.1 Parametric diagrams for velum action in ‘helm’ (upper) and ‘help’ (lower)
[ m { n ]
Figure 12.2 Parametric diagram for velum action in ‘man’
only appears on one side. Consequently, when this word is produced in

isolation, the velum is low throughout.
As with all our diagrams, we should remember that these are only approx-
imations of the actions of the articulators. The exact movements can be affected
by a speaker’s accent, how carefully or quickly he or she is speaking, the degree
of stress put on a word, and a variety of other factors. What is most important,
however, is that we remember that speech is a continuous process, with sounds
affecting one another, rather than each phoneme being produced independ-
ently and identically, regardless of context.
12.4 Pre-fortis clipping
Exercise 12.6 a) Give broad transcriptions of the words ‘meat’ and ‘mead’. Would you
agree that the vowel is the same in each case?
b) Now say these words slowly, out loud, and listen to the vowel in each case.
Does the length of the vowel appear to be the same?
160
UNIT 12 Allophonic variations of vowels
Comment a) A broad transcription of these words would be /mit/ and /mid/. Therefore,
you probably said that the vowels in these words are the same, at least from
a phonemic perspective.
b) You will probably have noticed that there seems to be some difference in
vowel duration between these words. In particular, the vowel appears to be
shorter in ‘meat’, and somewhat longer in ‘mead’. This is a phenomenon
that we call pre-fortis clipping.
Exercise 12.7 Using your knowledge of the English language, and thinking about Exercise
12.6, what do you think the term ‘pre-fortis clipping’ means? ‘Pre-’ and
‘clipping’ are probably quite easy to work out, but what about ‘fortis’?
Comment Pre-fortis clipping means that sounds are shorter (clipped) when they come
before (pre-) a voiceless (fortis) consonant in the same syllable.
There are a couple of points we need to clarify, however, about pre-fortis
clipping. First of all, the term ‘fortis’ is new to us in this book. This term could
be loosely equated with ‘voiceless’, as we have suggested, but then why do we
need another term? Why not just say pre-voiceless clipping? Fortis, in fact,
means ‘strong’ in Latin, and can be contrasted with the term lenis, meaning
‘weak’. One aspect of this strong–weak distinction is to do with voicing, but
there are also other differences between fortis and lenis sounds. For example,
the fortis consonants are often aspirated in languages, as is the case for English.
Fortis consonants are also longer than lenis ones, and have a shortening effect
on preceding sounds, as we have just seen when we compared ‘meat’ and
‘mead’.
One way in which these terms are particularly useful is as alternative terms
for ‘voiced’ and ‘voiceless’. As you will remember (from Unit 9 on allophonic
variation in voicing), those obstruent consonants that we categorised as being
voiced in Unit 2 are often produced without vocal fold vibration – for example,
when they are next to silence or a voiceless consonant. So, the term ‘lenis’ can be
used for these sounds instead of ‘voiced’. This avoids the problem of saying that
‘voiced’ consonants are produced without voicing, which can seem rather odd
and contradictory. We will not use the terms ‘fortis’ and lenis’ very much in
later units, but it is useful for you to know what the terms mean, in case you
come across them in your further reading. What is important here is to
remember that fortis consonants (for example, [s]) trigger pre-fortis clipping,
while lenis consonants do not, even if they are devoiced (for example, [z]). ̊
Exercise 12.8 We have said that vowels are shortened when they occur before a voiceless
(fortis) consonant in the same syllable, and this shortening is also found for any
sonorant consonants. Which sounds are clipped if the words below are said in
isolation?
tattoo candid said saint atlas
161
Comment The /æ/ in ‘atlas’ is clipped because the voiceless /t/ falls in the same syllable,
due to the maximal onset principle. Similarly, in ‘saint’ /eɪ/ and /n/ are
shortened, as they fall in the same syllable as /t/. ‘Candid’ and ‘said’ have no
clipped sounds as they do not contain voiceless sounds. None of the sounds in
‘tattoo’ are clipped because both the /t/s form onsets rather than codas, and
therefore the vowels are not followed by voiceless sounds within the same
syllable.
The diacritic for pre-fortis clipping is [̆ ], placed above the symbol for the
clipped sound. You can find it on your IPA chart (page 281) under
‘Suprasegmentals’ as ‘extra short’. You could show clipping in a parametric
diagram by reducing the width of the column for the clipped sounds, but, in
practice, this tends not to be done and the diacritic is enough to indicate which
allophones are present.
12.5 Additional diacritics for vowels

Looking at the ‘Diacritics’ section of your IPA chart (page 000), you will notice
that there are a number of other diacritics that can help us to describe vowels in
detail. These can be added to cardinal vowel symbols, to provide a more precise
indication of the quality of the vowel in question. For example, in Unit 6 we said
that the English vowel in ‘bed’ is between cardinals 2 and 3, and we chose to use
one of those symbols, /ɛ/, in transcription. A more detailed, narrower, tran-
scription, however, could also add diacritics to indicate the relationship of this
vowel to cardinal 3. For example, we can use a diacritic [˔] to say that the
tongue is more raised than it is for the cardinal vowel.
We can also use diacritics to show allophonic variations of vowels. For
example, we can indicate that /u/ is produced with the tongue in a more central
position before /j/, and could be narrowly transcribed as [ü]. We will not focus
any more on allophonic variation of vowels here, but will revisit vowel variation
when we think more about accent variation in a later unit.
12.6 Diacritics on the IPA chart

Most of the diacritics we have looked at in the last four units are shown in a
special section of the IPA chart, which is shown here in Figure 12.3, and on the
full chart in Appendix 1 (page 281). A few of the symbols we have used (such as
those for labiodental and unaspirated) are not shown here, but come from a
related alphabet, known as the extIPA, which provides symbols primarily for
transcribing disordered speech. It would be worth highlighting those diacritics
that you know on the diacritics section of the main IPA chart, or below, and
checking with a good phonetics dictionary, or a teacher, if you would like to
know more about those we have not covered.
162
• Knight, R-A. 2014. Phonetics. A Coursebook. 3rd Printing. CUP. Unit 10.
UNIT 10 Allophonic variations of place
10.4 Secondary articulations and variations of place

In all the examples we have looked at above, the place of articulation of a sound
is different to that stated in the VPM label that we give by default to the
phoneme. So, those phonemes that we would classify as alveolar can in fact be
realised as postalveolar or dental, according to their environment. Similarly,
velars can be realised with places of articulation near to the uvular or palatal
regions, and bilabials can be labiodental. The labels that we learnt in Unit 3
relate only broadly to the phonetic detail that we now know about.
As you know, the term ‘place of articulation’ refers to the greatest con-
striction in the vocal tract, and this can also be referred to as the primary
articulation. For the allophonic variations we have just considered, the primary
articulation is different to most other allophones of the phoneme in question,
and we can refer to these as primary variations of place.
There is another type of variation of place that does not relate to the location
of the primary articulation, but in which an extra, or secondary, constriction is
added in the vocal tract. This secondary articulation is always of a lesser degree
of stricture than the primary articulation. So, for example, the primary articu-
lation may be a plosive, and the secondary articulation an approximant. We will
refer to these types of variation as secondary variations of place, and will look
at several types.
10.4.1 Labialisation
Labialisation is the technical term for lip-rounding. Any consonant can be
labialised before rounded vowels or before /w/. We use the diacritic [ʷ] to the
right of a symbol to symbolise labialisation, as shown in the ‘Diacritics’ section
of the full IPA chart in Appendix 1 (page 281).
Exercise 10.8 Let us compare ‘teak’ and ‘tweak’, by producing them and thinking about the
initial alveolar in each case.
a) Firstly, see if you can reassure yourself that the primary place of articulation
for /t/ is alveolar in both words.
b) Now try to work out if you can see or feel lip-rounding during the /t/ in
either of the words. It may help to look in a mirror, or to ask someone else
to say the words for you.
c) Now do the same exercise for ‘spoon’ and ‘span’, concentrating on the /p/.
Comment a) You should find that the primary articulation for /t/ is alveolar in both words.
b) However, if you look in a mirror you should see that there is lip-rounding
during the /t/ in ‘tweak’, due to the influence of the following /w/, but not
during ‘teak’.
135
c) In both ‘spoon’ and ‘span’, /p/ is bilabial, but you will likely see lip-
rounding during the /p/ of ‘spoon’, due to the influence of the following
rounded vowel /u/.
In fact, labialisation applies to any consonant when it occurs before a

rounded vowel or /w/, and, as we have said, we use the diacritic [ʷ] to indicate
labialisation in allophonic transcription. Because consonants are affected by the
following sound, this is an anticipatory process. Labialisation does not affect the
primary articulation of the sound, but adds another constriction. This con-
striction is a secondary articulation, because it is less extreme than the other,
primary, articulation. For example, the primary articulation for /t/ in ‘tweak’ is
at the alveolar ridge, and, as it is a plosive, this is a stronger constriction (that is,
the articulators are closer together) than the lip-rounding, in which there is wide
approximation between the articulators.
We now know that sounds are labialised before rounded vowels or /w/. In
fact, as we know, all the rounded vowels in English are also back vowels.
Therefore, labialisation occurs in the same environment in which velars are
retracted – that is, before back vowels and /w/.
Exercise 10.9 Think about the word ‘course’ from Exercise 10.6 (page 133) and try to answer
the following.
a) Do we expect the velar to be retracted?

b) Do we expect there to be lip-rounding during the velar?
c) Do we know of any other variations of /k/ that will apply in this word when
it is spoken in isolation?
d) Can more than one allophonic variation apply to the same phoneme at the
same time?
Comment (a) and (b) We know that /k/ will be retracted before the back vowel /ɔ/. We
also know that /k/ will be labialised, because /ɔ/ is rounded. In
fact, the /k/ is both retracted and labialised in this word.
c) You may also have noticed that the /k/ will be aspirated, as it is a
voiceless plosive at the start of a stressed syllable.
d) Thus, allophones of a phoneme can actually differ from each other
in several different ways, and an allophonic transcription notes all
these variations. So, in ‘course’, /k/ is realised as an aspirated
voiceless retracted velar plosive with lip-rounding, and it could be
transcribed allophonically as [ḵʷʰ]. Remember that an allophone is
the actual sound that we produce, and we include as much detail
about it as possible in our allophonic transcriptions.
Of course, not all allophonic variations can combine, because some articu-
lations are mutually exclusive. An allophone of /t/ cannot be both retracted and
136
dental, for example, or both aspirated and unaspirated, as these have mutually
incompatible articulations (and they occur in mutually exclusive environ-
ments). As a rule of thumb, a single realisation might have one difference of
voice, one of primary articulation, one of secondary articulation, and one of
manner from most other allophones of that phoneme.
10.4.2 Palatalisation
We have seen that labialisation does not affect the primary POA of a sound, but
instead adds a secondary articulation at the lips. Palatalisation is similar to
labialisation in this regard, but a secondary articulation is added in the palatal
region of the vocal tract. We use the diacritic [ʲ] to the right of another symbol
to symbolise palatalisation.
Exercise 10.10 Think about the words ‘noon’ and ‘news’ and transcribe them broadly. Be very
careful to think about whether you produce a /j/ after the /n/ in ‘news’. Most
speakers of SSBE will, but some American speakers, those with some British
accents, and younger British English speakers may never produce /j/ in this and
similar words. This exercise will only work for speakers who do produce a /j/ in
‘news’, so you may wish to get a friend to say them if this exercise does not work
for you.
a) Concentrate on the /n/ in each of these words. In particular, think about

how your tongue feels, and which parts of the tongue are high in the mouth.
b) Do you notice a difference between /n/ in the two words?
Comment (a) and (b) If you do produce a /j/ in ‘news’, you will have felt that the front of
the tongue comes close to the palatal region of the mouth during /n/, whereas
this did not happen in ‘noon’. Again, this is an effect of anticipatory coarticu-
lation as the tongue prepares to produce /j/ during the /n/. In fact, any non-velar
sound is palatalised before /j/.
Exercise 10.11 Think about the statement above, ‘any non-velar sound is palatalised before /j/’,
and about the primary POA allophones we have already discussed in this unit.
a) Why are only non-velar sounds palatalised before /j/?

b) What happens to velar sounds in this environment (before /j/)?
Comment (a) and (b) As we have seen in ‘news’, /n/ is alveolar, as in most other
environments, but gains a secondary articulation in the palatal region. However,
velar sounds are advanced before the palatal approximant /j/, as we saw above.
In a word like ‘queue’, therefore, the presence of the palatal actually affects the
primary POA of the velar, which we say has been advanced to nearer the palatal
place of articulation.
137
Figure 10.1 Mid-sagittal sections showing the production of non-velarised (left) and
velarised (right) /l/
10.4.3 Velarisation
Exercise 10.12 Given your knowledge of palatalisation and labialisation, what do you think
velarisation might mean?
Comment Velarisation means a secondary articulation in the velar region of the vocal tract.
Like palatalisation and labialisation, velarisation is a secondary POA variant,
so will not influence the primary POA of any sound it affects. Velarisation applies
primarily to /l/ in English, but only occurs in certain environments.
Exercise 10.13 Think about and produce the words ‘little’ and ‘lulled’. In each word, compare
the /l/ in the onset with the /l/ in the coda, and concentrate on the shape of your
tongue, particularly towards the back.
What do you notice?
Comment This can be quite difficult to feel, but hopefully you noticed that the back of your
tongue comes close to the velar region of the mouth for the /l/s that are in the
coda, but that there is no such approximation for the onset /l/s. The two tongue
shapes are shown in Figure 10.1. In SSBE, /l/s are velarised when syllabic or
when in the coda of a syllable (see Unit 8 for a reminder of these terms),
provided they are not immediately followed by a vowel. Another name for
velarised /l/ is dark /l/, and we can use the diacritic [ˠ] to the right of a symbol to
show velarisation in general, or the special symbol [ɫ] to indicate a velarised /l/.
In this book, we will not use the use the [ɫ] symbol, to avoid confusion with the
symbol for a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ]. Instead, we will use the [ˠ]
diacritic, for consistency with other allophonic variations, such as palatalisation
[ʲ] and labialisation [ʷ]. Note that non-velarised /l/s are called clear /l/s, and no
diacritic is added to the symbol we use for the phoneme: [l] signifies a clear /l/.
Take care to remember that [l] is an allophone of /l/, just as [lˠ] is, even though it
does not have any diacritics added in an allophonic transcription.
Consonants before the [lˠ] can also be velarised – for example, in ‘hustle’,
both the /s/ and the /l/ are velarised: [hʌsˠlˠ]. When /l/ occurs between two
vowels, it tends to be clear.
138
Exercise 10.14 We have seen that labialisation and palatalisation are the result of coarticula-
tion. Labialisation occurs due to an upcoming sound with lip-rounding, and
palatalisation occurs due to an upcoming palatal sound.
Let us think again about ‘little’ and ‘lulled’, and about the rule mentioned
above for velarisation.
Do you think velarisation comes about because of a velar sound in the
environment?
Comment Velarisation is rather different to the other secondary place allophones we have
looked at. Velarisation is not the result of coarticulation due to a velar segment
in the environment. Instead, syllable position determines whether /l/ is velarised
or not, as we have seen above. We refer to this as a rule-based or extrinsic
allophone, because it cannot be predicted from the surrounding sounds.
Extrinsic allophones tend to be language-specific rather than universal. So,
whereas labialisation will happen in many languages before rounded vowels, for
example, not all languages will velarise /l/ syllable finally.
10.4.3.1 Accent-specific allophones of /l/

Different regional accents of English also have different allophones of /l/.
Scottish English speakers tend to use velarised /l/ in all positions, including
onsets, while Welsh and Irish English speakers tend to have clear /l/ in all
positions, including codas. Many accents, such as Cockney, use a vocalised /l/
wherever SSBE uses a dark /l/. When a consonant is vocalised, it becomes more
like a vowel. For vocalised /l/, the velar approximation of dark /l/ remains, but
the tongue tip contact is removed, resulting in a sound like a high back vowel,
which can be symbolised as [o] or [ʊ]. These variants would be recorded in an
allophonic transcription but in a broad transcription, all variants will simply be
transcribed as /l/.
10.4.4 Glottal reinforcement

In Unit 3, we saw that speakers often use a glottal plosive [ʔ] as a version (we
now know the term ‘allophone’) of /t/ in English, a situation we referred to as
‘glottalling’ or ‘glottal replacement’. However, it is also possible to produce a
glottal plosive at the same time as, or slightly before, the oral closure for the
voiceless plosives /p t k/, when they occur at the end of an utterance. This is
known as glottal reinforcement, or glottalisation, and can be shown by adding
the [ʔ] symbol to our allophonic transcriptions before the sound that is glottally
reinforced.
Exercise 10.15 Produce the following words and try to work out if you are producing a glottal
plosive at the same time as (or slightly before) the final voiceless consonant.
rat rack rap
139
28/06/2022
Reading aloud
How to prepare a passage
Subject: Phonology & Diction II
Lecturer: Prof. Diana Martínez Salatín
Sample text: A notice in a hotel bathroom
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Sample Text
If you’re staying more than one night and are
happy to use your towels again,
again, please hang them
on the towel rail.
rail.
If you’d like to replace your towels,

towels, please put
them in the bath.
bath.
OK, it may not save the world,

world, but it will certainly
help.
help.
Which steps do you follow to prepare a

passage?
2
28/06/2022
1) TONALITY = CHUNKING
The division into Intonation Phrases (IPs)
Each piece of information is conveyed by a unit of
intonation (also: tone units, tone groups, intonation
contours, intonation phrases, etc.) and this contitutes
the tonality of spoken discourse.
Use your common sense.
Essentially, the intonation structure reflects the
grammatical structure.
Chunking appears to function in much the same
way in all languages.
TONALITY
Tonality is the division

of spoken discourse
into discrete units of intonation,
each of which
carries one piece of information.
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What we have seen using so far…
4
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Start with TONALITY

Put a boundary mark (|) at the end of each IP.
Put a double mark (||) at the end of each sentence.
If you’re staying more than one night and are happy to use
your towels again,
again, please hang them on the towel rail.
rail.

towels, please put them in the
bath.
bath.
OK, it may not save the world,

world, but it will certainly help.
help.
5
28/06/2022
Start with TONALITY
If you’re staying more than one night |and are happy to use
rail. ||
again, | please hang them on the towel rail.
your towels again,
towels, | please put them in the

bath. ||
bath.
OK, | it may not save the world, help. ||

world, | but it will certainly help.
2) TONICITY: Where does the nucleus go?

Within each IP, we select one word as particularly
important for the meaning (= nucleus / nuclear
accent).
Phonetically, we accent a syllable by giving it a
prominent change in pitch. An accented syllable is
always also rhythmically stressed (= it has a
rhythmic beat).
Pragmatically, we accent a word by accenting its
stressed syllable.
In an IP there may be other accents in addition to
the nuclear accent. If so, the nucleus is the last
accent in the IP.
6
28/06/2022
TONICITY
The most important decision the speaker makes is to

decide where the nucleus goes: which is the last
word to be accented.
In doing this the speaker chooses the tonicity of the

IP.
TONICITY
But how do we decide where the nucleus should go?
The nucleus must go on a stressed syllable (=the

syllable that has lexical stress)
Example:
never – NEVer
annoyed – aNNOYED
Accent: (ˈ)
Nuclear syllable: (__)
7
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TONICITY
If you’re ˈstaying more than one ˈ night |and are ˈ happy to
gain, | ˈ please hang them on the ˈ towel
use your towels a ˈ gain, towel
rail. ||
rail.
towels, | ˈ please put them in

If you’d ˈ like to re ˈ place your towels,
bath. ||
theˈ bath.
O ˈ K, | it ˈ may not save the ˈ world,

world, | but it will ˈ certainly
help. ||
ˈhelp.
CONCLUSION
Tonicity is the location for the most
prominent syllable in an intonation unit.
Tonality represents the speaker’s
division of the total message into
separate pieces of information; tonicity,
on the other hand, identifies the focus of
each piece of information.
8
28/06/2022
TONICITY: On or near the last word

The nucleus is usually located on or near the last
word of the IP.
The nuclear accent is the last accent of the IP.
So the general tendency is for the nucleus to be
towards the end of the IP.
(!) Provided that the last word in an IP is important
for the meaning, it will be accented and thus bear the
nucleus.
It is only if the words towards the end of the IP are
for some reason not accented that the nucleus will
go on an earlier word.
TONICITY: Content words & function words

We accent content words not function words.
Hence the nucleus (which is one type of accent) is
typically placed on…
the last content word in the IP
Function words bear the nucleus only if special

circumstances apply (emphasis – contrast –
compounds – old/new information – synonyms, etc.)
9
28/06/2022
Bibliography
J. C. Wells (2006), English Intonation. CUP: UK.

P. Tench (2013), Transcribing the Sound of English. CUP: USA.
Hancock, M. (2003), English Pronunciation in Use (Intermediate).
CUP.
D. Jones (1962), An outline of English Phonetics. 9th Edition.
Cambridge.
10
THEORY TEST: SAMPLE QUESTIONS
INSTRUCTIONS FOR ALL THE TEXTS:
Read the complete text once. Look at the numbered words/phrases. Transcribe the
underlined sequences. Then write about all the features of connected speech you spotted in
each of the numbered phrases. Be clear and concise.
TEXT 1
A ①summary is a ②shortened or condensed version, in your own words, of

something ③you have read. The ④most common kind of summary writing in college
⑤requires you to read the work of someone else, to be able to pick out the most
essential idea, and to put these ideas into your own words. The summary, therefore,
becomes a tool for understanding ⑥what you read; it forces you to read ⑦critically,
differentiating between main ideas and minor points.
TEXT 2
Howard① Newton② works in an office in Reading, a city in southern Britain③. He lives at

29 Silver Street④. His landlady, Mrs.⑤ Smith, is a widow. She lost ⑥ husband ten
months⑦ ago. Noel⑧ Steven's an engineer who⑨ works in a power station⑩. Sophia⑪
and Noel ⑫often go out⑬ together and this doesn't⑭ please Howard at all. Noel's tall,
good-looking⑮, and has a big moustache. He wears expensive clothes⑯ and has a gold
watch. Howard doesn't like Noel for a⑰ number of reasons and the ⑱most significant
reason is that Howard's in love with Sophia ⑲himself. But, ⑳of course, he hasn't (21)told
her about it.
TEXT 3
At Denver, a great many passengers① joined the east-bound Boston② and Maine train③. In one
coach④, there sat a very pretty young woman. She was beautifully and richly dressed. Among the
new-comers were two men. The younger one was good-looking with a bold, honest face and
manner⑤. The other was a large, sad-faced person, roughly-dressed. The two were handcuffed⑥
together.
As they passed down the aisle of the coach, the only empty⑦ seat was one facing the young
woman. Here the linked⑧ pair seated themselves. The woman quickly glanced at them with
disinterest. Then with a lovely smile, she held out a little⑨ grey-gloved hand. When she spoke, her
voice showed⑩ that she was used⑪ to speaking and being heard.
TEXT 4
One night a woman went out for drinks⑫ with her friends⑬. At the end of the night she
got in her car⑭ and drove onto the deserted motorway. She noticed a pair of headlights in
her rear view mirror, approaching at a pace just slightly quicker than hers. As the car pulled
up behind her she saw that it has its indicator on⑮ –it was going⑯ to pass – then suddenly
it swerved back behind her, pulled up dangerously close and flashed its headlights.
TEXT 5
Introductory salutations such as ‘Dear Siegfried’ can often be⑰ omitted, and as the
sender’s e-mail address and the date and time of sending usually appear automatically at
the top of the message on the receiving end, these too are omitted. It is, however⑱,
important to⑲ sign off with your name, as your⑳ e-mail address may not be sufficient to
inform the recipient of who you are. 1
1)
That day in May six years ago could have put me off flying completely, but it didn’t. I
had always wanted to take up flying but it wasn’t until I had seen an ad for a cheap trial
lesson that I decided to try it. When I arrived at the flying club the next morning, I met
my instructor, who turned out to be a woman. We’d only been in the air for about ten
minutes when she said: “You can take over now. Just keep it steady with the horizon.”
And she took her hands off the controls. I froze for a moment or two, but I don’t know
exactly what I did after that. The next moment the ground seemed to be racing up to
meet us. I thought we were going to crash but my instructor took over the controls and
we were soon flying straight again.
2)
I met him two years ago as I was coming out of the club. Once he was one of my best
friends—the kind of person who everybody would put their trust in. I was very proud of
him. He had been nurtured in the lap of luxury, and is his young days enjoyed
abundantly of every pleasurable comfort. At first, luck seemed to be with him; then,
suddenly, he succumbed to temptation and plunged into risky speculations. One day
he faced ruin. However thunderstruck his friends were, they did manage to muster
sufficient money to cover his losses. But he has sunk increasingly lower. Now his
circumstances are far worse than humble. I said he must keep in touch with me, and
insisted that he conduct me to his lodging, which is surely one of the worst hovels in
London.
3)
The old woman who came up to me, turned out to be the landlady. On knowing I had
lost my way in that town, and told that I intended to spend the night at her house, she
offered me a small room at the end of the passage. It was very cold, for there was no
fire in the grate. She told me, however, that one would soon be lighted, and going out,
she suddenly returned with a couple of healthy maids. The good lady had little, rather
no English, but the girls had plenty, and of a good kind, too. They soon lighted a fire,
and then the mother inquired if I wished anything for supper. “Certainly,” said I, “for I
haven’t eaten since I left London Dairy. What can I have?” “We have veal and bacon,”
said she. “That’ll do.” said I. “Fry some veal and bacon for me, and I shan’t complain.”
4)
Exercise is the best way of keeping depression away. It improves your body and your
mind and enables you to perform better in the workplace and at home. Proper
breathing is essential if you want to get the most from exercise and you should also
take into consideration your heart rate. It can be harmful to do too much, which is why
all good fitness instructors emphasize the importance of listening to your body. When
you first start you need your good judgement because it is easy to make the mistake of
using the equipment incorrectly or doing too much at one time. Start your exercising
slowly and go on gradually. Exercise should not be seen as a demanding task. It can be
as easily done as a quick walk. To increase your fitness steadily, exercise for 20 minutes
a day and you will notice a difference in your body and mind in a few months.
WORD & SENTENCE STRESS
WORD STRESS
Stress is said to be the degree of force with which a sound or syllable is

uttered. We can study stress from the point of view of production
(articulatory point of view) and of perception (auditory point of view). The
production of stress is generally believed to depend on the speaker using
more muscular energy than is used for unstressed syllables, i.e. when we
produce stressed syllables, the muscles that we use to expel air from the
lungs are more active. From the perceptual point of view, stressed
syllables are recognised as stressed because they are more prominent that
unstressed syllables. Prominence is produced by four factors: loudness,
length, pitch and quality. Generally these factors work together in
combination, though syllables may sometimes be made prominent by
means of only one or two of them.
Stress is always relative since it implies a comparison with the

neighbouring sounds or syllables. In every word of more than one syllable,
at least one of the syllables receives stress; sometimes even two do, and
the rest remain unstressed. Therefore, syllables are divided in two groups:
 Stressed syllables: those pronounced with a greater degree of force

than the neighbouring syllables;
 Unstressed syllables: those pronounced with a relatively small

degree of force.
There are two different types of stress in English:
 Word (or lexical) stress: refers to the relative degree of force used
in pronouncing the different syllables of a word of more than one
syllable when this word is uttered in isolation. Word stress is usually
considered to occur in three degrees or levels:
o Primary stress:
o Secondary stress:
WORD & SENTENCE STRESS
o Weak or unstressed:
Syllables containing a secondary stress are weaker than syllables

containing a primary stress but stronger than unstressed ones.
SENTENCE STRESS
It refers to the degree of force given to the various words in a sentence.

Normally it is used in syllables that take word stress, but not all the
syllables that are stressed when the word is uttered in isolation retain
their stress in connected speech.
Stress placement
In order to decide on stress placement, it is necessary to make use of

some or all the following information:
 whether the word is morphologically simple, or whether it is

complex as a result either of containing one or more affixes
(prefixes and suffixes) or of being a compound word;
 the grammatical category to which the word belongs (noun,
verb, adjective, adverb, et.);
 the number of syllables in the word.
ENGLISH WORD STRESS
PART 1: WHAT IS STRESS?
• Stressed syllables are most often defined as those syllables within an utterance that are
l o n g e r, LOUDER, and HIGHer in pitch.
• Looking at this phenomenon from the speaker’s point of view, stress involves a greater
outlay of energy as the speaker expels air from the lungs and articulates syllables.
• From the listener's point of view, the most salient features of stress are probably longer
vowel duration in the stressed syllable and higher pitch.
• To indicate strongly stressed syllables in phonetic transcription we have chosen the

convention of a superscript accent mark /'/ placed before the syllable; to indicate lightly
stressed syllables we use a subscript accent /ˌ/; unstressed syllables are not specially
marked.
/ˈsɪvəlaɪz/ /ˌsɪvlaɪˈzeɪʃn/
• Another feature of word stress in English is that it can occur on virtually any syllable
depending in part on the origin of the word. This apparent lack of predictability as to
where the stress falls is confusing to learners from language groups in which stress
placement is more transparent.
PART 2: WHERE THE STESS FALLS IN A WORD
• Factors that influence stress placement include:

the historical origin of a word,
affixation,
the word's grammatical function in an utterance.
• For words of Germanic origin, the first syllable of the base form of a word is typically
stressed:
• Today, even many two-syllable words that have entered English through French and
other languages have been assimilated phonologically and follow the Germanic word
stress pattern:
ENGLISH WORD STRESS
• Words that have not been assimilated to the Germanic pattern have less predictable
word stress in their base forms, but stress is often predictable if certain affixes or
spellings are involved.
PREFIXES
• As a general rule, words containing prefixes tend to be strongly stressed on the first
syllable of the base or root element, with the prefix either unstressed or lightly stressed:
• In English, prefixes tend to fall into one of two categories: prefixes of Germanic origin
and prefixes of Latinate origin.
GERMANIC ORIGIN
The Germanic prefixes include: a-, be-,for-,fore-,mis-, out-, over-, un-, under-, up-, and with-
(as in awake, belief, forgive, forewarn, mistake, outrun, overdo, untie, understand, uphold,
and withdrawn). Some of these prefixes (a-, be-, for-, and with) are always unstressed in the
words in which they occur. Others usually receive light stress, as in the following highly
productive prefix + verb combinations:
An exception to this general pattern (light or no stress on the prefix and strong stress on the
base) occurs when a word with a prefix (such as fore-, out-, over-, under-, or up-) functions
as a noun and has the same pattern as a noun compound (see the following list). In this
case, the prefix or its first syllable tends to be strongly stressed, with the noun receiving only
light stress:
ENGLISH WORD STRESS
Notice the difference in word stress in the following examples, where the prefix is attached in
one case to a noun and in the other case to a verb.
In these examples, the difference in the stress patterns helps to reinforce the differences
between parts of speech.
SUFFIXES
Suffixes affect word stress in one of three ways:
1. They may have no effect on the stress pattern of the root word.
2. They may receive strong stress themselves.
3. They may cause the stress pattern in the stem to shift from one syllable to another.
For the most part, the neutral suffixes, which do not affect the stress pattern of the root word,
are Germanic in origin. These suffixes include, for example, -hood (childhood), less
(groundless), -ship (friendship), and -ful (cheerful). In fact, if we compare examples of English
words that employ such neutral suffixes with their modem-day German equivalents, we can
easily see the historical relationship:

ENGLISH WORD STRESS
Words with Germanic or neutral suffixes (whether the stem is of Germanic origin or not) still
tend to maintain the stress pattern of the base form:
Unlike the Germanic suffixes, suffixes that have come into the English language via French
often cause the final syllable of a word to receive strong stress, with other syllables receiving
light or no stress. In most cases, the following categories represent borrowings from modem-
day French:
Suffixes can also cause a shift of stress in the root word - that is, as certain suffixes are
added to a word, they can cause the stress to shift to the syllable immediately preceding the
suffix. Note the stress shift caused by the addition of the following suffixes to the root word:
ENGLISH WORD STRESS
In these, as in many other words in English, a change of suffix not only brings about a shift in
stress but also a change in the accompanying vowel reduction or neutralization in the
unstressed syllables. Because of the nature of tense and lax vowels, there is sometimes an
accompanying change in syllable structure or syllabification.
Finally, it is important to note that in cases where the base and the suffix have different
historical origins, it is the suffix that determines the English stress pattern.
For example, Germanic suffixes such as -ly and -ness, which can be added to words of
Romance origin, cause no shift in stress: PASsive, PASsively, PASsiveness.
Compare this with the shift from PASsive to pasSIVity that occurs with the addition of the
Latinate suffix -ity. This stress shift would extend even to a base word of Germanic origin if it
were to take a Latinate suffix (e.g., FOLDable vs. foldaBILity).
NUMBERS
Cardinal and ordinal numbers that represent multiples of ten (20, 30, 40, 50, etc.) have
predictable stress on the first syllable.

ENGLISH WORD STRESS
Two different stress patterns are possible with the -teen numbers and their ordinal
counterparts:
Native speakers tend to use the first of these patterns before a noun in attributive position
(e.g., the THIRteenth man) and when counting. Overall, the second pattern is more common
in phrase-final or utterance-final position, or when speakers are trying to make deliberate
distinction between the ten and teen digits.
When pairs of words such as thirteen and thirty might be confused, native speakers may
prefer the second pattern (i.e. strong stress on the second syllable) to differentiate clearly:
The -teen numbers are compounds - that is, combinations of two or more base elements.
The same is true of all hyphenated numbers: for example , thirty-seven, eighty-four. Like the -
teen numbers, hyphenated numbers have two possible stress patterns depending on the
context:
If a number is used without another number as a contrast, the first pattern is used – unless
the number is utterance final, in which case the second pattern is preferred:
Pattern 1: I have TWENty-THREE dollars.
Pattern 2: John is only TWENty-THREE.

ENGLISH WORD STRESS
The first pattern is also preferred if the multiple of ten is in contrast or is given special
emphasis:
Pattern 1: I said TWENty-THREE, not THIRty-THREE
If however, it is the second number in the compound that is contrasted, the second pattern is
used:
Pattern 2: I said TWENty- THREE, not TWENty-TWO.
COMPOUND NOUNS
A compound noun is a fixed expression which is made up of more than one word and which
has the function of a noun. Some are written as two words, some with a hyphen, and some
as one word:
'crash ,barrier ,double-'glazing 'baby,sitter
Notice that some compound nouns have main stress on the first part and others have main
stress on the second part.
The following types of compound noun usually have main stress on the first part:
• noun + noun
' arms race ' fire ex,tinguisher ' night-time ' pillar-box
' lipstick ' news, paper ' airport ' poverty ,trap
Exceptions: infor,mation tech'nology ,town ' hall ,family ' doctor
Notice, however, that if the first part gives the material that the second part is made out of,
main stress usually goes on the second part. Compare:
, cotton ' wool but a ' cotton , plant
Exceptions are most compounds ending with -cake, -bread and -juice:
' cheesecake, ' gingerbread, ' orange , juice

ENGLISH WORD STRESS
• noun + -ing form
' bird-, watching ' house-,hunting ' fly-,fishing
Exceptions: pe,destrian ' crossi ng ,ball ' bearing ,thanks ' giving
• -ing form + noun
' dressing ,gown ' sitting ,room ' freezing ,point
Exceptions: , managing di'rector de,fining ' moment ,casting ' vote
• verb + noun
' search ,party con'trol ,tower ' think ,tank
Most adjective + noun compound nouns have main stress on the second part and secondary
stress on the first part:
,social se'curity ,hot po'tato ,absolute ' zero
Exceptions: ' blind spot ' dental ,floss ‘ easy ,chair ' broadband ' greenhouse
Note that this includes:
• adjective + -ing form
,central ' heating ,global 'warming , passive ' smoking
• past participle + noun
,split in'finitive inverted 'commas ,lost 'property
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES
A compound adjective is a fixed expression which is made up of more than one word and
which has the function of an adjective. Most compound adjectives are written with a hyphen,
but a few are written as one word:
skin-deep long-term threadbare
The following types of compound adjective usually have main stress on the first part:
ENGLISH WORD STRESS
• compound adjectives usually written as one word
'airtight 'carefree 'praise,worthy
Exceptions: , nation'wide ,hand'made
• noun + -ing form
'hair-,raising ‘free-,paying 'time-con,suming
• noun + past participle
' poverty-,stricken 'pear-shaped 'health-re,lated
Exceptions: ,eagle-'eyed ,home-'grown
The following types of compound adjective usually have main stress on the second part:
• noun + adjective
,fat-'free ,sky-'high ,snow-'white (and other colour compounds)
Exception: ' camera-shy
• adjective + noun
,long-'term ,full-'length ,high-'profile
• adverb or adjective + past participle
,fully-'grown ,long-'sighted ,well-'dressed
• adverb or adjective + -ing form
, easy-'going ,hard-'working ,well-'meaning
Exceptions: ' backward -,look ing 'forward-,looking
• self- as the first part
,self-'confident ,self-in'flicted ,self-'governing

ENGLISH WORD STRESS
Most compound adjectives with main stress on the second part can have stress shift.
Compare:
The tiger was fully-GROWN. But It was a FULly-grown TIger.
The prices were sky-HIGH. But They were SKY-high PRIces.
Stress will vary between such "true" noun compounds and words that look like noun
compounds but are actually functioning as adjective + noun sequences.
Compare:
In the first of these sentences, White House is functioning as a noun compound - hence the
strong stress is placed on the first element of the compound. In the second sentence, white
is lightly stressed and functions simply as an adjective modifying the noun house; thus the
strong stress falls on the second (or major) element.
Examples of other word sequences that can function as either noun compounds or adjective+
noun phrases depending on stress and context are greenhouse, blackbird, cold cream,
yellow jacket, blackboard, and hot plate.
When such word sequences are used as noun compounds, they are often spelled as one
word. The same patterns can occur in more complex contrasts, such as the following:
ABBREVIATIONS
Two-, three- and four-letter abbreviations said as individual letters often have main stress on
the last letter and secondary stress on the first:
the ,E'U the ,U'K the ,BB'C ,DN'A the ,YMC'A

ENGLISH WORD STRESS
Abbreviations like this usually have stress shift.
Compare:
He works for the BBC. But He works for BBC Radio
She’s from the UK. But She’s a UK CITizen.
REFLEXIVES
One grammatical category that exhibits complete predictability of stress is reflexive pronouns,
in which self/selves receives strong stress in virtually any environment:
PHRASAL VERBS
Phrasal verbs consist of two or three words and are composed of verbs followed by adverbial
particles and/or prepositions. They are informal colloquial verbs of Germanic origin that can
often be paraphrased with a more formal single verb of Latinate origin:
The prepositions that are the second element of some two-word phrasal verbs or the third
element of three-word phrasal verbs are: about, at, for, from, of, to, and with. The most
common adverbial particles in two-word verbs are: across, ahead, along, away, back, behind,
down, in(to), off, onp over, under, and up.
We can distinguish syntactically between the prepositions and the adverbial particles used to
form phrasal verbs. In formal registers, prepositions can be fronted with their objects in wh-
questions and relative clauses:
Formal About whom are you talking?
Formal I know the woman about whom they were talking.

ENGLISH WORD STRESS
Particles, however, never permit such fronting in any register:
Incorrect Up what word did you look?
Incorrect The word up which we looked has four meanings.
We can classify phrasal verbs into three main patterns. In all three patterns, the verb head
has at least one stressed syllable and the following elements are either unstressed (if
functioning as prepositions) or stressed (if functioning as adverbial particles):
These stress patterns appear when phrasal verbs are spoken in isolation or when the phrasal
verb represents the last piece of new information in the predicate:
Pattern 1 She's LOOKing at it.
Pattern 2 They were STANDing aROUND.
Pattern 3 He RAN aWAY with it.
However, for phrasal verbs in patterns 2 or 3, if some other content (i.e., stressable) word
comes after the verb head and carries important new information, then that word is strongly
stressed and the verb and particle are only lightly stressed:
He TRIED ON a COAT.
We PUT the DOG OUT.

ENGLISH WORD STRESS
He RAN aWAY with the MONey.
We PUT UP with the NEW diRECtor.
For phrasal verbs in the first pattern, only the verb head receives light stress if it is followed
by some other content word that carries the new information and receives strong stress:
LOOK at the BAby!
They TALKED about the MERger.
Adapted & summarised from:

• Celce-Murcia, M.; Brinton, D. & Goodwin, J. 2007. Teaching Pronunciation – A reference for Teachers of English to
Speakers of Other Languages. USA: Cambridge University Press.
• Hancock, M. 2006. English Pronunciation in Use – Intermediate. Dubai: Cambridge.
PHRASAL VERBS (CONT.)
Phrasal verbs consist of a verb plus a particle, which may be an adverb or a preposition. The
general rule is that phrasal verbs are lexically double-stressed, with the primary stress going
on the particle.
ˈHow are you getting ˈon?
Exception: It was ˈreally ˈpouring down.
Prepositional verbs are mostly lexically single-stressed, with the primary stress going on the
verb. The second element, the preposition, being unstressed, does not get accented (unless
for contrastive focus).
Here are the photos.
 ˈMay I ˈlook at them?
Exception: Prepositions of more than one syllable tend to be stressed.
Is there ˈanyone you want me to ˌlook ˈafter?

ENGLISH WORD STRESS
How do we know if it's a preposition or an adverbial? Compare the verbs sit in and take in in
the sentences:
She sat in a comfortable chair.
She took in the information.
The constituents on the first example are she sat and in a comfortable chair, but those in the
second are she took in and the information. Replacing the noun phrase by a pronoun, we get
she sat in it but she took it in. Lexically, sit in is single-stressed, but take in is double-
stressed. When in final position, the first does not attract the nucleus, but the second does:
ˈWhat did she ˈsit in?
ˈHow much did she take ˈin?
Summarised from: English Intonation. An Introduction, J. C. Wells. 2006. UK: Cambridge.

14 Help yourself
Pronunciation: word stress reference
Common patterns -grapher, -graphy

End pattern: o O o o
There are no simple rules relating to word stress: it is photograph photographer
important to learn the correct stress pattern for each telegraph telegraphy
new word you learn. Common patterns include:
-ic, -ical
o O End patterns: O o or O o o
prefer suggest benign contempt history historic
This pattern is especially common in two-syllable verbs. philosophy philosophical
O o
-ese
easy station worker open
End pattern: o O
This pattern is especially common in two-syllable adjectives China Chinese
and nouns. Japan Japanese
o o O
volunteer employee -ity
End pattern: O o o
o O o
equal equality
deposit apartment
active activity
O o o
Note, however, that some suffixes, such as -ness, have no
difficult operate
effect on the stress of the root word:
o o O o
O o O o o
avaricious information
happy happiness
o O o o
exceptional unbeatable
Stress shift in sentences
Words which change meaning For some words, where stress is placed depends on their
position in a sentence. When the words is spoken alone
Sometime words with the same spelling are pronounced or at the end of a statement, the stress occurs near the
with different word-stress patterns. Sometime the end. When the word occurs before another word in a
meaning is related. sentence, the stress occurs earlier.
Noun Verb
Over half the students were Japanese.
O o o O Many people prefer Japanese cars.
object object
transfer transfer In some cultures people sleep in the afternoon.
record record An afternoon meeting may be less productive than a
contrast contrast morning one.
Words stress and suffixes

Words which end in suffixes, such as -tion and -ese, often
have predictable patterns of words stress.
-tion
End pattern: O o
organize organization
nationalize nationalization
IELTS Masterclass © Oxford University Press PHOTOCOPIABLE

THE GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION OF STRESS
There are pairs of words which are identical in spelling but differ from
each other in stress placement, according to word class (noun, adjective,
verb). Nouns and adjectives tend to be stressed on the first syllable while
verbs on the second. For example:
abstract (adj.) abstract (v)

accent (n) accent (v)
attribute (n) attribute (v)
conduct (n) conduct (v)
conflict (n) conflict (v)
contest (n) contest (v)
contract (n) contract (v)
contrast (n) contrast (v)
convict (n) convict (v)
decrease (n) decrease (v)
escort (n) escort (v)
export (n) export (v)
extract (n) extract (v)
frequent (adj.) frequent (v)
import (n) import (v)
insult (n) insult (v)
object (n) object (v)
perfect (adj.) perfect (v)
permit (n) permit (v)
present (n, adj.) present (v)
produce (n) produce (v)
progress (n) progress (v)
project (n) proˈject (v)
rebel (n) rebel (v)
record (n) record (v)
subject (n) subject (v)
suspect (n) suspect (v)
Some disyllabic words may have different pronunciations according to

their use as verbs, nouns, adjectives, etc. The change in pronunciation is
the direct result of the change in the stress pattern.
Look at the table below and fill in with the correct transcription. Take into
account word class. Remember to mark both primary and secondary levels
of stress. Check the changes in transcription that take place when the
stress pattern changes.
abstract (v) (= remove) (n)

(v) (= summarize)
accent (v) or (n) or
annex (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
conduct (v) (n)…………………………..
conflict (v)……………………. or ……………………….. (n)
consort (v)……………………. or ……………………….. (n)…………………………..
contest (v)……………………. or (n)…………………………..
contract (v)……………………. (n)
or sometimes ……………………….
(= agree under a contract, make a
contract)
contrast (v)……………………. or ……………………….. (n)…………………………..
convert (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
convict (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
decrease (v)……………………. or ……………………….. (n)……………or….……….
defect (v)……………………. (n)……………or….……….
desert (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
dictate (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
digest (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
discount (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
escort (v)……………………. or ……………………….. (n)…………………………..
export (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
extract (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
fragment (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
frequent (v)……………………. (adj.)…………………..……
import (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
increase (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
insult (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
minute (n) & (v)……………………. (adj)……..………………….
object (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
permit (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
perfect (v)……………………. (adj.)&(n)…………………
pervert (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
present (v)……………………. (adj.)&(n)…………………
proceed (v)……………………. Proceeds
(p.n)……….……………….
produce (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
progress (v)……………………. or ……………………….. (n)…………………………..
project (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
protest (v)……………………. or ……………………….. (n)…………………………..
rebel (v)……………………. (adj.)&(n)…………………
record (v)……………………. (adj.)&(n)…………………
segment (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
subject (v)……………………. or ……………………….. (adj.)&(n)…………………
survey (v)……………………. or ……………………….. (n)……………or…………..
or……………..
torment (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
transfer (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
transport (v)……………………. (n)…………………………..
There are a few cases where the stress does not function distinctively, i.e.
verbs and nouns/adjectives have the same phonemic and accentual forms:
address
comment
deposit
direct
exˈpress
interview
process
Other disyllabic words, although similar at the segmental level, keep the
same stress pattern irrespective of the part of the speech they stand for.
Fill in the chart with the corresponding transcription.
address (v)……………………………… (n)……………………………..

cement (v)&(n)………………………………….
comment (v)&(n)………………………………….
concrete (v)……………………………… (n)&(adj.)………………………
(= cover with concrete)
(v)……………………………..
(= solidify)
contact (v)………………… or……………….. (n)……………………………..
control (v)&(n)………………………………….
deposit (v)&(n)………………………………….
detail (v)&(n)………………or………………
direct (v),(adj.)&(adv)……………………..
dispute (v)&(n)…………………………………. (n) also ………………………….
express (v),(n)&(adj.)………………………… (n)&(adj.) in a stress-
shifting environment they
sometimes are …………………
interview (v)&(n)………………………………….
prelude (v)&(n)………………………………….
process (v)&(n)………………………………….
(v)…………………………..(= walk
in procession)
program(me) (v)&(n)………………………………….
purchase (v)&(n)………………………………….
report (v)&(n)………………………………….
result (v)&(n)………………………………….
Other words containing more than two syllables also exhibit distinctive
accentual patterns associated with pitch, stress and quality cues:
alternate (v)…………………….. (n)&(adj.)…………………..

associate (v)…………………..… (n)&(adj.)…………………..
or ……………………………
attribute (v)…………………….. (n)……………………………
complement (v)……………………. or…………………. (n)……………………………
envelope (v)……………………. (n)……………………………
estimate (v)……………………. or………………….. (n)……………………………
or…………………………….
interchange (v)……………………. (n)……………………………
intimate (v)……………………. (n)&(adj.)…………………..
moderate (v)……………………. (n)&(adj.)…………………..
prophesy (v)……………………. Prophecy (n) ……………………..……
reprimand (v)……………………. or………………… (n)……………………………
separate (v)……………………. (n)&(adj.)…………………..
supplement (v)……………………. or………………… (n)……………………………
Just as the pronunciation changes with the shifting of stress in disyllabic

words, so we find changes of pronunciation in words of more than two
syllables which are related to shorter words. For example:
lament (v)&(n)……………………………………
lamentable (adj.)………………………………..
lamentation (n)…………………………………
Chapter 3.
Sentence Stress & Rhythm
• Compare the stress patterns below:

volunteer She can hear.
presented He sent it.
economics in the comics
approximate a box of it
electrification She went to the station.
• Syllable-timed language (e.g. Korean,

Spanish): The number of syllables determines
the length of an utterance.
• Stress-timed language (e.g. English): The
number of stresses determines the length of
an utterance.
CATS CHASE MICE.

The CATS CHASE MICE.
The CATS have CHASED MICE.
The CATS have CHASED the MICE.
The CATS have been CHASING the MICE.
The CATS might have been CHASING the MICE.
• Although the sentences above differ in the
number of syllables, they all take roughly the
same amount of time.
• Content words vs. Function words: Rhythm in
English is created by stressing content words
and reducing function words.
DA di di DA di di DA
Bill is in front of the room.
Ann is a way for the day.
Nice is a town by the sea.
• Find the right matches.

a. di DA di i. Try to sleep.
b. di DA di di ii. You promised to phone.
c. di DA di DA iii. I’d like to help.
d. di DA di di DA iv. It’s broken.
e. DA di DA v. I stepped on it.
*Stresses in *English *tend to oc*cur at *regular

*intervals of *time. It is *perfectly *possible to
*tap on the *stresses in *time with a
*metronome. The *rhythm can *even be *said to
de*termine the *length of the *pause between
*phrases. (Prator)
CamScanner
• Underhill, A. 1994. Sound Foundations. Oxford: Heinemann. Page 71.
• Maidment, J. & García Lecumberri, M. L. 2000. English Transcription Course. Hodder Education. Lesson 3.
THEORY TEST 2: SAMPLE QUESTIONS
To be analysed:
well-equipped
take part in
local courts
Howard Newton
29 Silver Street
Mrs. Smith
power station
Noel's tall, good-looking and ...
workplace
in-depth
step-by-step
east-bound
new-comers
sad-faced
roughly-dressed
a little grey-gloved hand
upper case letters

Finch, D. & Ortiz Lira, H. 1982. A Course in English Phonetics for Spanish Students.
Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. Chapter 9.
TEXT 1
CORONAVIRUSES
Coronaviruses are a type of virus. The one we’re all talking about is new, and it causes a
disease called Covid-19. Now most people will only be mildly affected by it, but it can kill.
It starts by infecting our upper respiratory tracts which are the airways from your nose to
just above your vocal chords. You may develop a fever as your immune system stars to
fight the virus and a dry cough. That’s where you don’t produce any phlegm. The virus can
then spread to the lungs making it harder for people to breathe and it can cause
pneumonia. In the most serious cases, people can die from the coronavirus. This is
because the immune system can go into overdrive and that can lead to organ failure. So
we need to do what we can to stop this virus from spreading. As it gets into your body by:
breathing it in or through your eyes and mouth, the best thing to do is wash your hands
regularly and properly for at least 20 seconds, catch your colds and sneezes in a tissue and
avoid touching your face.
TEXT 2
How to clean your phone
While washing your hands is vital if you´re worried about your germs on your phone, you
can clean it effectively with simple soap and water. I´m Dr. Lena Ciric. I´m a microbiologist
at University College London and I´m going to show you how to clean your phone. Unplug
your phone, turn it off and remove the case. All the major phone-makers warn against
using chemicals, hand gels and abrasive wipes on your device as this can damage the
screen´s protective coating. Dampen a microfiber cloth with water and simple household
soap. Gently rub the surfaces of the phone with the damp cloth. Take care not to get
moisture in any openings because even water-resistant phones can lose their protection
over time. Finally, dry your phone with a clean microfiber cloth. Even just using soap and
water can effectively remove bacteria and viruses from your phone and we can test that
by using this little device and these swabs. The device gives a reading of “relative light
units” or RLU and that´s a measure of microbial activity on your phone. So, the higher the
number, the more germs are present. We tested all of these phones and cases before and
after cleaning with soapy water and they were all significantly cleaner afterwards. On a
surgical surface, we would want to get a figure of 50 or less and all of our phones and
cases had readings lower than that. If you have an IPhone, Apple says you can safely clean
it with 70% isopropyl alcohol wipes. These are the ones you can get from computer shops
or online. There are also devices that can sterilize your phone using ultraviolet UVL
radiation. These shouldn´t harm your device but some phones or cases could be
discoloured over time. Just remember, with all of those methods as soon as you touch
your phone you´re going to get germs back on it, so make sure you keep washing your
hands regularly and thoroughly.
Phonology II B. Viale 1
TRANSCRIPTIONS FOR HOMEWORK
1.
Inspector: Mrs Carter?
Mrs Carter: Yes?
Inspector: Inspector Black of the CID.
Mrs Carter: Oh. What can I do for you, inspector?
Inspector: Just a couple of questions, Mrs Carter. Are you the owner of this
shop?
Mrs Carter: Yes, I am.
Inspector: And were you here yesterday?
Mrs Carter: Yes.
Inspector: Can you tell me what time you arrived?
Mrs Carter: Yes, but why do you want to know?
Inspector: Just a routine enquiry, Mrs Carter. What time did you arrive?
Mrs Carter: About 9.30.
Inspector: And what time did you leave?
Mrs Carter: I stayed until about midday.
2.
On July 17th, 1969, Apollo 11 left Cape Kennedy, near Houston in Texas, on a
voyage to the moon. Aboard the spacecraft were three American astronauts,
Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins. The Journey lasted for four
days. Finally, Apollo went into orbit around the moon. Collins remained in the
spacecraft, and the other two descended to the moon's surface in e smaller
craft, the lunar module. After a moment of drama, when the two astronauts
narrowly avoided landing in a crater, the lunar module finally reached its
destination.
3.
Interviewer: Hello and welcome to "Who's in Town". Tonight, I'm very pleased
to welcome to the studio the star of the new Australian TV series, "The People
Next Door". Ladies and gentlemen, please welcome ... Celia Street! Hello,
Celia.
Celia: Hello, Jason.
Interviewer: The People Next Door started broadcasting on British TV only
about three months ago.
Celia: That's right, but it's already the number one family series.
Interviewer: Yes, I was just about to say that myself.
Celia: Sorry!
Interviewer: That's all right, Celia. What's it like working on the show?
Celia: Well, it's pretty hard, actually. I mean ... we have to make two episodes a
week, so we have to work all day every day, sometimes seven days a week.
4.
This is the Odeon Cinema information line. Here are details of the films that we
are showing at the cinema from next Monday.
In Cinema One, from Monday to Thursday, we're showing Rainman, with Dustin
Hoffman and Tom Cruise, and this film will transfer to Cinema Four from Friday
to Sunday, all performances except late-night Friday and Saturday.
B. Viale
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Cinema Two is showing Baghdad Cafe, a film directed by Percy Adlon, all
performances except Friday and Saturday late-night.
5.
People often ask me to explain the behaviour of their pets. Many of them talk
about their cats and dogs as if they were talking about other people. Some
people insist that their animals think and behave exactly like human beings. 'He
knows exactly what I'm thinking about' and 'You could see that he knew he'd
done something wrong' are two examples that crop up very often in
conversations with pet-owners. Sadly, I have to inform these people that almost
without exception, the behaviour of their pets bears no resemblance at all to
human behaviour. Let's look at some of the more obvious examples.
Dogs wag their tails when their owners come home from work. It looks as if
they're pleased to see their human companions. This is not true. They're
hungry. They associate the arrival of a human with the arrival of food.
6.
Reporter: I'm standing right in the middle of the ground floor of the new
Blandsmere Shopping Centre in Croydon, about fifteen miles from the centre of
London. It's a huge, square indoor complex, with an extraordinary variety of
shops and a large open-plan restaurant here in the middle.
Right in front of me, I can see Tessman's Supermarket, the biggest one I've
ever seen. That takes up the whole of the north side of the square. On my left,
on the west side of the square, there are three shops ... a videomarket, a
computer shop and e furniture store. On my right, on the east side, are a series
of smaller shops ... I can see a greetings card shop, next to that a record store
... and more shops selling toys, gifts and flowers.
7.
(Talking about horror films)
John: Well, I enjoy the sensation of being afraid. I like watching horror films by
myself in a dark room and I just enjoy the sensation. I also am very interested in
special effects and I think when you want to see good special effects, you have
to watch a horror movie or ... um ... a science fiction movie.
Interviewer: Mm. The sort of horror films that I can remember seeing always
involve a big, old, dark kind of Gothic house. Why do they always use houses
like that?
John: I think that all started in the novels of Edgar Allan Poe, er some terrific
horror stories there, short stories and novels. In fact, The Raven, the Roger
Corman film, was an Edgar Allan Poe novel. They all use this house on a hill in
a storm or in a forest or somewhere out of the way where you're isolated. I think
that's why Psycho is so memorable as well because it's an isolated place and
the image of the house on the hill. People can imagine themselves being there
and being in that situation. They never have telephones and the electricity never
works and there's always a cellar. It's the darkness in all of us.
8.
• You feed your cat every day, but does he get all the nutrition he needs? New
Kattomilk is a special preparation that will do just that. It's a milk drink that's
B. Viale

rich in vitamins. Try it and see what he thinks. When he's tried Kattomilk,
he'll never want to drink ordinary milk again.
• No one likes to come home and find that their house has been ransacked.
It's even worse when you know they got in because your doors and windows
weren't securely locked. Do the sensible thing ... fit Securex locks to all your
doors and windows. Securex locks protect your house from unwelcome
visitors. So ... fit Securex ... before it's too late!
9.
Interviewer: Today we're focusing on the problem of noise, noise at home and
noise at work. Medical experts agree that there are definite links between noise
and stress levels ... the noisier the environment, the more stress you are likely
to experience. And it's even worse when a person is forced to live and work in
noisy environments. This seems to have been the problem for Ann Dickinson.
Ann: The first place I lived in when I moved here was really lousy. It was on a
main road. I was used to living out in the country. There were lorries passing by
the front door all day and all night. Then the local council put a ban on trucks
using that road during the night, so things got marginally better and I got a bit
more sleep. But then I decided to move and things got much worse.
Interviewer: Ann moved from her house on the main road to a block of flats. It
was next to a park, so it should have been quieter, but it wasn't.
Ann: The problem in the next place was the neighbours ... the people directly
upstairs from me. They played music all night long and got very shirty when I
asked them to stop.
10.
Ken: Tony, where did you go to school?
Tony: I went to school in Dublin at a school called St Condlett's College.
Condlett was an ancient Irish saint.
Ken: Now what age did you start at that school?
Tony: Er ... when I was twelve and I was there until I finished at seventeen or
eighteen.
Ken: And what about before that?
Tony: Before that, er, I had been at a primary school, um, what in Ireland in
those days was called a national school. That is to say you didn't actually pay
for it so I had the experience of going from a very posh infant school which was
run by nuns, then to this national school where the social context was
completely different from what I'd come from and then to this rather posh
secondary school ... I had the whole range of social experience in education in
Ireland.
Ken: Is the system of education the same as it is in Britain?
Tony: Broadly speaking, yes, there are many similarities but there are some
important differences.
11.
Her maiden name was Agatha Miller and she was born in Torquay. Her
American father was an aficionado of amateur dramatics and her mother
claimed to be a mind-reader. Her brother was famous for his practical jokes and
her sister loved disguises.
B. Viale

In 1914, Agatha married an air force pilot called Archie Christie and this
marriage lasted for twenty years. During the First World War, she worked as a
dispenser in a pharmacy and learned a lot about poisons. This information was
to come in very useful in her many murder mystery stories.
She began her writing career, however, with a series of romantic novels, written
under the pseudonym of Mary Westmacott. However, after reading a novel
called The Mystery of the Yellow Room she turned her attention to mystery
writing.
Possibly because of the large number of Belgian refugees in Torquay at the
lime, her detective was a French-speaker from Brussels called Hercule Poirot.
Her other famous crime-solving character was an elderly English lady called
Miss Marple, who was always able to solve crimes faster than any professional
detective.
12.
According to the Guinness Book of Records, the two most travelled people in
the world are Parke Thompson of Ohio in the USA and Giorgio Ricatto of Turin
Italy. Both of them have been to all 170 sovereign countries in the world and
sixty-two of the sixty-three non-sovereign territories.
A number of people claim to have walked round the world. This is literally
impossible, of course, because of the oceans but nevertheless, some of the
achievements are very impressive. David Kunst, for example, an American from
Minnesota, can claim to be the first man to have walked around the world. He
left home on 20th June 1970 and returned to the USA in October 1974. He
walked through America, Europe: Asia and Australia. An Argentinean, Tomas
Carlos Pereira, spent ten years; from 1968 to 1978 walking 48,000 kilometres
around five continents. Even more incredibly, a Canadian named Rick Hansen
travelled more than 40,000 kilometres and visited thirty-tour countries in a
wheelchair. His journey took him two years.
13.
Ken: Tell me about your family.
Nellie: I was born after my father died ... six weeks and I had two brothers killed
in the First World War ... leaving my mother with seven children to look after.
Ken: What do you know about your father?
Nellie: My father was a law writer for a solicitor. He was a marvellous writer.
Ken: Do you know anything about his family, your father's family?
Nellie: I slightly remember my father ... having two sisters who I think came to
live with us when I was born for a few years to help look after us.
Ken: Tell me something about your mother.
Nellie: My mother was in service when she was young.
Ken: What exactly does that mean?
Nellie: She worked for a rich family
Ken: And where did you live?
Nellie: We lived at number nine Rochester Avenue, In Salford, Lancashire.
Ken: Tell me about the house.
Nellie: We had three bedrooms ... hall, a parlour, a kitchen, a scullery, a
backyard and an outside toilet.
B. Viale

Ken: Tell me something about the school that you went to.
Nellie: I went to St Ambrose school, church school, where we had to go to
church every Friday morning. We weren't allowed in church without a hat and so
there was always a fight between my sisters and myself to find a hat.
14.
Quizmaster: Hello and welcome once again to the History Quiz, the quiz that
concentrates on historical events and personalities. The quiz is in two parts. In
the first part, contestants here in the studio have a chance to answer fifteen
questions about the past. There is one point for each correct answer. You the
listeners can try to answer these questions as well. In the second part, the
questions are especially for you listening at home.
First of all, let's meet our three studio contestants.
Shirley: My name is Shirley Grant, and I'm a computer programmer from
Nottingham.
Michael: My name is Michael Rimmer. I'm from St Helens in Lancashire and I
teach Earth Science.
Christine: My name is Christine Burrows, and I'm an air traffic controller from
Newbury in Berkshire.
Quizmaster: Now, each of you has a button in front of you, which you must
press if you think you know the answers. Can we just have a practice, please?
Quizmaster: Now ... put your fingers on your buttons and get ready for the first
five questions. The first five questions are all about the United States of
America. Question 1 ... who was the first president of the United States of
America?
Quizmaster: Shirley?
Shirley: George Washington.
15.
Interviewer: Why do you think an organisation like the Samaritans is
necessary?
Helen: I think we live in a society that moves very quickly and Often doesn't find
a lot of time for people who can't match up to the pressures ... that are put on
them. It's there for people who are without support at a particularly stressful time
and it's often there for people who do have support and do have friends they
could talk to but it's something very private that they'd rather take elsewhere
take to someone objective. So the service offers something which is always
there ... it's befriending without questioning or criticism, it's completely
confidential, you'll find a warm response on the phone someone there to listen
to whatever you need to say whatever the problem is. They won't be shocked or
horrified or bored they'll be there and you'll have their full attention and care and
I think it's just something that we don't always find when we need it.
Interviewer: What kind of people calls the Samaritans?
Helen: All kinds of people. Anyone who's lonely or depressed or perhaps just
on their own. It could be an elderly lady perhaps widowed and has no one in her
life to talk to or perhaps a young man who's unemployed.
B. Viale

16.
Announcer: And now some local news. The village of Millbrook, which is about
thirty miles south of Bristol, is not somewhere that you immediately associate
with the arts. There are no cinemas or theatres there, and no auditorium where
you could put on a concert. But there is a big new conference centre and one
local resident has decided that he would like to organise an arts festival there.
Sarah Thompson went to see how he was getting on.
Sarah: Millbrook has three thousand inhabitants, two churches, three pubs, a
restaurant and a large conference centre which opened about two years ago.
Some of the villagers were a bit put out by the conference centre, which has led
to a big increase in traffic through the village. One particular resident, however,
has decided that the conference centre presents the village with a golden
opportunity. The resident is Mr Rupert Field. Mr Field, what gave you the idea of
holding an arts festival at the conference centre?
Mr Field: Well ... as soon as I saw the new gardens that they had designed, I
knew it would be the perfect setting for all sorts of artistic events.
17.
Garton City Council currently spends thirty-four million pounds on local services.
Next year we intend to cut our public expenditure by ten per cent. With this in
mind, the following changes are planned:
We currently spend twelve million pounds per annum on local education and we
have no intention of changing this. This figure will remain the same.
The amount of money we spend on housing, however, will have to be reduced.
At the moment it's six million pounds. We plan to spend half this amount from
public funds next year. This does not mean housing service will be reduced in
any way. We intend to sell twenty-five per cent of the housing that we own in
the city to finance the housing service.
At the moment, we spend three million pounds annually on the police. We have
been told that we must spend more than this next year so the police budget will
be increased by one million pounds, we intend to finance this increase by
reducing our spending on leisure and recreation by one million pounds.
18.
Hello, this is World Holiday Transport. Here is some information about charter
flights to the USA and Canada this summer. We have flights from Edinburgh to
the following destinations: New York, Miami, Los Angeles or Vancouver. Flights
to New York or Miami are the same fare. Flights to Los Angeles or Vancouver
are in all cases £50 more than the fares quoted to New York or Miami.
First of all, fares to New York or Miami. If you can leave Edinburgh before June
15th, the fare to New York or Miami is £249, but you must return before June
29th. If you wish to return after June 28th but before July 1st, you can do so for
only £20 more, for a fare of £269. If you wish to return between July 11th and
August l6th, the fare is increased by another £20.
Fares to Los Angeles or Vancouver, leaving before June 15th and returning
during the stated periods, are £288, £319, and £339.
B. Viale

19.
The idea of using guide dogs to help blind people originated in Germany in the
1920s. This research came to the attention of an American, Mrs Dorothy Eustis,
who was training army and police dogs at her kennels in Switzerland. She was
very impressed by what she saw in Germany and wrote about it in an American
newspaper. The article aroused considerable interest and Mrs Eustis agreed to
train a dog for a blind American, Morris Frank. Mr Frank returned to America
with his dog.
Mrs Eustis set up a guide dog centre in Switzerland called The Seeing Eye. In
America, guide dogs are still referred to as Seeing Eye Dogs. Guide dog
training in Britain began in 1931. Training a guide dog is expensive, difficult and
time-consuming. Dogs need nine months' training at special centres. They must
be taught how to walk in a straight line, avoiding any obstacles that occur. It is
essential that they learn not to turn corners unless instructed to do so. They
must also learn to stop at kerbs and wait for the command to cross the road, or
turn left or right. Before working with a blind person, a guide dog must also learn
to judge height and width. The dog has to indicate to the blind person when a
space is too low or too narrow to pass through safely. Most important of all, the
dog must become accustomed to traffic.
20.
Ann: More than thirty per cent of marriages in the United Kingdom ends in
divorce, the highest rate of any country in Europe. There are also more people
who are separated from their husbands and wives than anywhere else. In
addition, there are more people in the UK who live together without being
married than in any other country that keeps records of this kind. We asked a
marriage counsellor if she could explain these figures.
Interviewer: Why are there so many divorces in Britain?
Counsellor: Well, first and foremost, it's not difficult to get a divorce. All you
have to do is prove that there has been an irretrievable breakdown of the
marriage.
Interviewer: What does that mean?
Counsellor: It can mean almost anything. If a woman has been subjected to
violence from her husband, then there's no doubt that there are grounds for
divorce. On the other hand, people sometimes feel that there is no benefit in
being married to someone that they don't talk to, so they apply for a legal
separation.
Interviewer: On what grounds?
Counsellor: That the marriage isn't working.
Interviewer: Isn't getting a divorce an expensive business?
Counsellor: The legal costs can be quite high, but a lot of people apply for
Legal Aid, which means that they don't have to pay anything for legal
representation.
21.
(Mrs Bewley is talking to her daughter's teacher.)
Teacher: And you are...?
Mrs Bewley: Mrs Bewley. Jennifer's mother.
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Teacher: Ah, right.

Mrs Bewley: I don't understand this report of Jennifer's.
Teacher: I see. What don't you understand?
Mrs Bewley: Well, first of all ... why are there two different marks for each
subject?
Teacher: Well... one is for classwork ... that's the work done during the term ...
and the other is for the end of term examination.
Mrs Bewley: But they're different.
Teacher: Yes. I'm afraid that's because Jennifer works very well in class but
seems to get very nervous in exams. That's particularly true of Science and
Maths, where she worked very well during the term and got an A for both
subjects. And unfortunately, she only got a D for Maths and an E for Science in
the exam.
Mrs Bewley: I'm more worried about English. Look ... a D and an E. She's very
good at English.
Teacher: Well, I agree that she's very attentive. She got the D for classwork
because she didn't read some of the books that she was supposed to read. As
a result, she had a few problems in the exam as well. But she did very well in
her French and Spanish classwork, getting an A for French and a B for
Spanish, and she managed to get a B in both of her language exams. But in
History and Geography, it was the same problem. She got an E for both the
exams because she seemed to be very anxious about them. But I think a B is a
very fair mark for her classwork in both of these Subjects.
Mrs Bewley: Well, I don't understand. I always tell her she's got to work harder
on her homework but all she wants to do is draw pictures.
Teacher: And very good they are, too! Look at that ... two As for her Art.
B. Viale

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/ˈθæŋk ju !/

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INSTITUTO SUPERIOR PARTICULAR INCORPORADO Nº 9123

PHONOLOGY & DICTION II

Carrera: Traductorado en Inglés

Espacio curricular: Fonología y Dicción II

Cantidad de horas semanales: 4 hs.

Profesora Titular: Diana Martínez Salatín

B. Complete the spaces writing in the places of articulation.

1. Plosives are continuant sounds. ___________

Standard 18.0- Obtaining Employment Student Activity

Anna Tanner is looking for a job. She fills out an application

Reading Infusion by: Mirtha O. Martinez (7/04)

Seminole Community College English Language Studies Department

Standard 18.0 - Obtaining Employment Student Activity

What Does Ann Do?

What Does Tim Do?

Reading Infusion by: Mirtha O. Martinez (7/04)

Seminole Community College English Language Studies Department

Standard 18.0- Obtaining Employment Student Activity

What Did You Do in Your Country?

I worked in my family’s restaurant in my country. My family owned

What Did You Do in Your Past Job?

I studied nursing for four years, and I worked in a hospital as a nurse

Seminole Community College English Language Studies Department

Standard 20.0 – Career Advancement Student Activity

Andy and Tom are employees at the Stanton Tool Company.

Andy and Tom’s job performance is evaluated. They just got

their performance evaluations from their supervisor,

thinks Andy is a motivated and cooperative employee. Andy is

a promotion. Andy is happy because he’ll get a big raise in his

salary. Tom, on the other hand, is not happy. His evaluation is

not good. Mr. Samson wrote about Tom’s problem with

punctuality. The supervisor wants to see Tom have better

cooperation with other employees. Tom doesn’t have any

Andy and Tom are two very different employees.

Reading Infusion by: Mirtha O. Martinez (7/04)

Seminole Community College English Language Studies Department

Standard 24.0 – Health and Nutrition Student Activity

The Emergency Room

Mr. Herman is cutting a tree, and he injures his arm. His

Can she go to the health department, a clinic, a nursing home, or a

hospital? Mrs. Herman asks her neighbor, Mrs. Marley. Her

neighbor explains. She takes him to Mercy Hospital. Mrs.

Herman drives him to the hospital on Farley Street. She walks in

directions. Mr. Herman arrives at the emergency room. He

what to do in an emergency. She calls an ambulance so they can

go to the hospital faster.

Reading Infusion by: Mirtha O. Martinez (7/04)

Seminole Community College English Language Studies Department

PHONEMIC AWARENESS INFUSION

Standard 24.0 – Health and Nutrition Student Activity

Read the Label

counter medicine at the pharmacy. Dan is getting a refill of his

prescription tablets. The men read the directions on the labels.

The label has an expiration date of 7/21/05. Dan takes two

tablets daily on an empty stomach. Dan gets seventy (70) tablets

in a plastic medicine bottle. Dan’s medication has an expiration

Reading Infusion by: Mirtha O. Martinez (7/04)

Seminole Community College English Language Studies Department

PHONEMIC AWARENESS INFUSION

Standard 24.0 – Health and Nutrition Student Activity