Articulo de Ozono
Articulo de Ozono
Articulo de Ozono
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-018-0604-2
Received: 9 May 2018 / Accepted: 12 July 2018 / Published online: 26 July 2018
# Springer Nature B.V. 2018
Abstract
This study analyzes ozone formation in the metropolitan area of Lima-Callao as a function of meteorological patterns and the
concentrations of nitrogen oxides and reactive organic gases. The study area is located on the west coast of South America (12°S)
in an upwelling region that is markedly affected by the Southeast Pacific anticyclone. The vertical stability and diurnal evolution
of the mixing layer were analyzed from radiosondes launched daily during 1992–2014 and from two intensive campaigns in
2009. Vertical profiles show that during June–November, the subsidence inversion base ranges from 0.6 to 0.9 km above sea level
(asl). In contrast, during December–May, subsidence inversion dissipates, leading to weak surface inversions from 0.1 to 0.6 km
asl. At the surface level, compliance with the ozone standard of 51 parts per billion by volume (ppbv) is explained by the marine
boundary layer effect and by strong inhibition of ozone formation due to titration with nitric oxide. Day-of-the-week variations in
ozone and nitrogen oxides suggest a VOC-limited ozone-formation regime in the atmosphere of Lima. Furthermore, the pattern
of C6–C12 species indicates that gasoline-powered vehicles are the main source of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), whereas
the species with the greatest ozone-forming potential corresponded to the sum of the isomers m- and p-xylene. Mean benzene
concentrations exceeded the standard of 0.63 ppbv, reaching 1.2 ppbv east of Lima. Nevertheless, the cancer risk associated with
the inhalation of benzene was deemed acceptable, according to USEPA and WHO criteria.
Keywords Tropospheric ozone . Volatile organic compounds . Benzene . Marine boundary layer . Radiosonde
health (Bell et al. 2004; Liu and Peng 2018). The most impor- Methodology
tant effects are decreased lung function, respiratory tract in-
flammation, pharyngeal irritation, functional changes, and Study area
asthma symptoms in susceptible people (Lippmann 1991).
Forouzanfar et al. (2015) estimated the number of deaths at- The MALC is located on the west coast of South America
tributable to ozone exposure in 2013 at 217,000, which is 63% (12.0°S, 77.0°W, 2672 km2), has a population of approximate-
higher than in 1990. ly ten million, and spans elevations from sea level to the west-
Due to the adverse health effects of ozone, many agen- ern slopes of the Andes mountain range (approximately
cies have established air quality standards following 1.5 km asl) (Fig. 1).
World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines, which set The MALC experiences scarce rainfall, high atmospheric
a value of 51 ppbv for ozone. Accordingly, Peru has strin- humidity, and persistent cloud cover due to strong subsidence
gent standards of 51 ppbv for ozone and 0.63 ppbv for inversion caused by the Southeastern Pacific anticyclone that
benzene (MINAM 2017). The latter is not only a key prevails over the region for much of the year.
organic ozone precursor but is also a known carcinogen On the Peruvian coast, the predominant surface wind from
(ATSDR 2007). the south-southwest favors the upwelling of cold waters along
In Peru, in 2010, the first Automatic Air Quality the coast, which, together with subsidence inversion of the
Monitoring Network, the so-called RAMCA (for its acronym subtropical anticyclone, results in dense cloud cover, particu-
in Spanish), was implemented in the Metropolitan Area of larly from June to November (cold period). In turn, weakening
Lima-Callao (MALC), comprising 10 stations that record of the anticyclone during the warm period (December–May)
hourly concentrations of gases and atmospheric aerosols increases the number of clear days. These conditions make the
(Silva et al. 2017) over a vast geographical area with complex MALC one of the driest regions in the world. For example,
terrain. The network is currently operated by the National during 2010–2015, average temperature was 23 °C (range 13–
Service of Meteorology and Hydrology (SENAMHI) under 32 °C), average relative humidity was 85% (range 70–95%),
the Ministry of the Environment (MINAM). and average wind speed was 4 m/s (range 1–5 m/s), predom-
Air quality in Lima is largely modulated by a persistent inantly from the south-southwest, with average annual rainfall
weather and climate pattern (Enfield 1981). Underhill (2015) of 10 mm.
determined that higher NO2 concentrations are found during
the warm period than during the cold period. In turn, CO
Radiosonde observations at the international airport
records and the prevailing wind show that polluted air masses
(1992–2014)
are transported to the northeast of the city (Tashiro and
Taniyama 2002).
In total, 3046 radiosondes were launched from the Jorge
Despite recent efforts, characterization of Lima’s pho-
Chávez International Airport by the Peruvian Corporation of
tochemical pollution is scarce in the scientific literature,
Commercial Airports and Aviation (CORPAC, for its acro-
and the lack of permanent VOC measurements is a key
nym in Spanish) on a daily basis at 7:00 LT (in this paper,
information gap that must be bridged to properly address
UTC-5 will be used as Local Time (LT)) to assess tempera-
their management and to determine the population’s ex-
ture, relative humidity, atmospheric pressure, and wind direc-
posure to hazardous organic species. Therefore, the ob-
tion and speed as a function of height up to approximately
jective of this study is to relate meteorological patterns to
150 hPa (15 km) (Table 1).
air quality in the Lima-Callao metropolitan area, and to
identify the atmospheric chemical processes that govern
the ozone formation regime in the city. To meet these Daily radiosonde campaigns in Las Palmas
objectives, atmospheric stability is first analyzed from
23 years of radiosondes that were launched between To monitor the daily evolution of the marine boundary layer,
1992 and 2014, followed by diurnal characterization of two radiosonde campaigns were conducted in 2009 by
the marine boundary layer during summer (February) and SENAMHI. Radiosondes were launched from the Las
winter (August) 2009. Subsequently, ozone behavior is Palmas meteorological station (Table 1) from February 16 to
analyzed as a function of precursors of NO x (NO + 28 during the warm period (33 launches) and from August 21
NO2) and reactive volatile organic compounds in periods to 30 during the cold period (31 launches). Three launches
and regions of interest. Finally, the levels of reactive or- were conducted each day, at 07:00, 13:00, and 19:00 LT,
ganic gases are contextualized, prioritized in terms of respectively.
their potential contribution to ozone formation, and com- Vertical profiles for meteorological variables (pressure,
pared with national standards and international temperature, and relative humidity) were recorded by Vaisala
guidelines. RS92-SGP radiosondes. Calibration of the pressure,
Air Qual Atmos Health (2018) 11:993–1008 995
temperature, and humidity sensors was performed with the temperatures at the base and top of the critical inversion layer,
Vaisala Ground Check Set GC25. respectively.
August 21–30,
October
ATE (Ate district), VMT (Villa María del Triunfo district),
Sounding
–
MALC, respectively (Fig. 1).
Descriptive statistical analyses of hourly measurements of
July 5, 20,21 and 23, 2017 (07:00–07:30;
1999).
The gas chromatograph mass spectrometer (Shimadzu,
–
358
292
205
13
73
injection into the GC. The system was calibrated using a mix-
ture that contained C6–C12 compounds (carbon tetrachloride;
Station location
− 76.9186
− 76.9200
− 77.0700
− 76.9997
− 77.1109
− 12.1664;
− 12.1509;
− 11.8500;
(C6–C12)
Las Palmas (LPA)
Chavez (JCH)
Monitoring station
The measured mixing ratio for each C6–C12 species was mul-
Ate (ATE)
(VMT)
categorized based on its proportional contribution to ozone displacement to higher latitudes produces clear skies over
formation according to the following formula: Lima that are occasionally interrupted by the passage of
troughs.
Proportional weighting of the compound The vertical temperature profiles obtained during
¼ ðC‐minÞ ðmax‐minÞ⋅100 ð3Þ December–May of 1992–2014 showed that radiative heating
at surface level allows for the formation of weak surface in-
where C is the average MIR-adjusted mixing ratio for the versions. The bases of the temperature inversions occurred
compound, and min (max) are the lowest (highest) average between 0.1 and 0.6 km (max median 0.59 in December;
MIR-adjusted mixing ratios, respectively, for all compounds. min median 0.13 in March) (Fig. 2a), and the temperature
increased between 1 °C/100 m in May and 0.7 °C/100 m in
January (Fig. 2b).
Fig. 3 Vertical profiles of temperature, potential temperature, water and February 16–28 (left panel) 2009. The cloud scale range considers
vapor, wind speed, and cloud layers measured using radiosondes clear sky (Clear), 1–2 oktas (FEW), 2–4 oktas (SCT: scattered), 5–7 oktas
launched from Las Palmas (Lima) during August 21–30 (right panel) (BKN: broken), and 8 oktas (OVC: overcast)
Air Qual Atmos Health (2018) 11:993–1008 999
inversion height at 7:00, 13:00, and 19:00 LT showed low daily maximum 8-h average (MDA8) ozone-mixing ratio does
variability and was located at 798 m (standard deviation not exceed 30.1 ppbv (PPD). Similarly, annual maxima do not
(SD) = 117), 796 m (SD = 207), and 677 m (SD = 154) asl, exceed 39 ppbv. Therefore, mixing ratios of surface O3 in the
respectively. Under these meteorological conditions, no sur- MALC comply with the national air quality standard of
face inversions were identified during the period August 21– 51 ppbv.
30, 2009. During the warm period, the mean diurnal cycle at station
Figure 3e shows the high water-vapor content of the marine ATE showed maximum nitric oxide concentration of 97 ppbv
boundary layer, whereas the observed wind speeds were low, at 7:00 LT, compared with 56 ppbv at 8:00 LT during the cold
generally less than approximately 4 m/s (Fig. 3g). season (Fig. 5). This pattern of higher concentrations during
The period from August 21 to 30, 2009 was mostly char- the warm period was also observed at VMT (south of the city)
acterized by cloudiness located below the subsidence inver- and at PPD (north of the city).
sion base. In general, a cloud layer with average thickness of NO and CO mixing ratios as a function of wind speed and
0.4 km was identified (Fig. 3i). Clear skies were observed only direction are presented in polar coordinates in Fig. 6. The
on August 26 and partly during the previous day. polar plot shows that in the warm period of 2017, the mixing
ratios of the primary gases NO and CO mostly overlap regard-
Warm period ing wind direction and speed, as is expected for pollutants
from the same source. Conversely, in the cold period, NO
Analysis of the marine boundary layer from February 16 to decreases and CO becomes concentrated (Fig. 5). Fine parti-
28, 2009 shows that the subsidence inversion was completely cles (PM 2.5) exhibited similar behavior than CO in ATE. The
dissipated. By contrast, surface inversions were developed. drastic decreases in nitric oxide compared to carbon monoxide
Over this period, sunny days were occasionally interrupted from June to November (cold period) can be explained by
by cloudiness, mainly during morning hours (7:00 LT). differences in the lifetimes of these species under conditions
The cross-section of temperature (Fig. 3b) shows that days of low atmospheric dispersion. Carbon monoxide has an av-
with clouds (February 16, 21, 22, 25, 27, and 28) inhibit the erage chemical lifetime of approximately 2 months in the tro-
formation of surface inversions. Conversely, clear days show posphere while for NOx the lifetime is about 1 day (Yin et al.
the development of weak surface inversions. The most notable 2015; Wenig et al. 2003). Hence, it is hypothesized that sub-
period was from February 17 to 19, which showed a temper- sidence inversion favor the accumulation of carbon monoxide
ature inversion of approximately 3 °C with base ranging from throughout the cold period and the oxidation of NOx to gas-
0.1 to 0.5 km asl. eous HNO3, followed by its uptake into condensed phase
Throughout the day, in general, the increase in surface would explain the significant drop of NOx. As described in
heating increases the marine boundary layer height, thus im- preceding sections, relative humidities are always high during
proving vertical mixing conditions. During this period, the the cold season, and precipitation in the form of a very light
marine boundary layer grew throughout the day a few hundred drizzle falls much of the time. For example, the relative hu-
meters. The average base of the thermal inversion at 7:00, midity in ATE, VMT, and PPD varies between 81 and 88%,
13:00, and 19:00 LT was located at 227 m (SD = 93), 350 m between 88 and 95%, and between 77 and 85% respectively
(SD = 287), and 336 m (SD = 167) asl respectively. during the cold period of 2016.
Figure 3f shows maximum water vapor mixing ratio at the
surface level, mainly on days with high surface temperatures.
Those days show a significant increase in water vapor (> 15 g/ Ozone inhibition
kg), with higher values than those recorded in winter.
Furthermore, wind speed at the surface level is higher during The mean diurnal cycle (Fig. 4) shows that the NO mixing
summer than winter (Fig. 3j). ratio at ATE is always higher than 27.7 ppbv (14:00 LT),
thereby preventing ozone accumulation during the day
Overview of O3–NOx–CO through titration with NO (reaction 1). The maximum ozone
concentration of 19.3 ppbv reached at 13:00 LT is lower than
Lima shows high atmospheric concentrations of nitric oxide the NO concentration at the same time (28.8 ppbv), which
and carbon monoxide throughout the year, especially at the illustrates the strong inhibitory effect of NO.
ATE station located downwind of the downtown area (Fig. 4). NO þ O3 → NO2 þ O2 ðReactionð1ÞÞ
By contrast, ozone measurements exhibited low mixing ratios.
For example, the annual average between 2015 and 2017 at The polar plot (Fig. 6) shows O3 response to NO levels.
the PPD station varied from 5.7 to 6.9 ppbv, and the mean During the warm period, quadrants with higher ozone levels at
diurnal cycle during the period did not exceed 18.9 ppbv ATE, PPD, and VMT are clearly accompanied by decreases in
(13:00 LT). The 3-year average of the annual fourth-highest NO. Inversely, quadrants with low ozone levels have higher
1000 Air Qual Atmos Health (2018) 11:993–1008
NO mixing ratios. This behavior is illustrated by the low O3/ in NOx reduces consumption of the •OH radical (reaction 2).
NO ratio found in all sites especially in warm periods (Fig. 6). Consequently, the greater availability of •OH would favor
The weekly variation of the primary pollutants CO and VOC oxidation, leading to O3 formation. This result suggests
NOx (Fig. 4) shows that the main decrease affects nitric oxide, a VOC-limited ozone-formation regime in the atmosphere of
given the longer lifetime of CO. Average mixing ratio indi- Lima.
cates higher NO concentrations on workdays (Monday–
Thursday) than at the weekend (Sunday), differing by 29, 9, OH þ NO2 þ M→HNO3 þ M ððReactionð2ÞÞ
and 19% at stations ATE, VMT, and PPD, respectively.
Conversely, for ozone, the average mixing ratio is higher on The observed Bweekend effect^ highlights that future re-
the weekend (Sunday) than at the workdays (Monday– strictions on nitrogen oxides without properly managing
Thursday) differing by 16, 13, and 7%, at the ATE, VMT, VOCs could lead to increased O3 concentrations, as described
and PPD stations, respectively. Over the weekends, a decrease in the literature (Fujita et al. 2003).
Air Qual Atmos Health (2018) 11:993–1008 1001
In summary, meteorological conditions of Lima do not Case study: VOCs in urban atmosphere of Lima
promote photochemical activity during most of the year. The
cloud cover affects actinic flux, and the moderate tempera- The air quality network of the MALC fails to measure relevant
tures do not favor ozone formation. However, the highest organic precursors. Therefore, the campaigns conducted to
ozone levels were typically found during the warm period measure C6–C12 species are the first efforts to address this
mainly due to a presence of photochemical precursors and issue in the MALC and results of C6–C12 speciation is pre-
the occurrence of thermal inversions. Statistically significant sented to illustrate the impact of several VOCs on air quality
differences between cold and warm periods (2014-2016) were and health. Specifically, knowledge of atmospheric VOC
found for all sites as determined by ANOVA (α = 0.05). levels in the MALC is critical for (1) understanding the pro-
From a chemical perspective, in Lima, NO is reacting rap- cesses that govern ozone formation, (2) assessing their contri-
idly with O3 to generate NO2 (reaction 1). Furthermore, at low bution to the formation of secondary organic aerosols, and (3)
VOC/NOx ratios, OH reacts predominantly with NO2 (reac- determining exposure to intrinsically hazardous substances.
tion 2), removing radicals, retarding O3 formation, and pro-
viding (in theory) a major source of HNO3 in fogs and parti- Pattern of C6–C12 species
cles. Hence, the high degree of ozone inhibition caused by
titration with nitric oxide, and the scarcity the radical •OH The results of C6–C12 species show that the highest mixing
explain the lower ozone concentrations observed at the ATE, ratios are oriented eastward to the MALC center (ATE) in
PPD, and VMT stations. accordance with the predominant wind direction. Figure 7
1002 Air Qual Atmos Health (2018) 11:993–1008
Fig. 6 Polar plot for: NO (ppbv), O3 (ppbv), CO (ppmv), and O3/NO ratio, during the warm and cold periods of 2017 at stations ATE, VMT, and PPD
Air Qual Atmos Health (2018) 11:993–1008 1003
shows that the pattern of C6–C12 species analyzed at ATE, of ozone associated with m + p-xylene is 23, 20, and 17 times
PPD, and VMT is relatively similar and comparable to cam- the productivity of benzene at ATE, PPD, and VMT, respec-
paigns conducted in August 2015 and July 2017 (Fig. 7). tively. By contrast, the species naphthalene, styrene, p-
Consequently, the pattern of C6–C12 species confirms the con- isopropyltoluene, n-propylbenzene, n-butylbenzene, and
tribution of a main source to the inventory of VOCs, whereas isopropilbenzene add little value in all sites.
the speciation of C6–C12 compounds identifies tracers that are Figure 8 shows the cumulative percentage of each C6–C12
typical of vehicular emissions, e.g., benzene, toluene, and xy- species, based on reactivity (Eq. 3). Categorization shows that
lenes. The city of Lima, with approximately 2.2 million motor 5 of the 14 species account for nearly 90% of the ozone for-
vehicles (Silva et al. 2017), experiences significant traffic con- mation potential. These species are m + p-xylene (36%), tolu-
gestion and gas emissions from vehicles throughout the day, ene (21%), 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene (14%), 1,2,5-
due to the lack of a comprehensive public transport system trimethylbenzene (13%), and o-xylene (8%). Furthermore,
(Tashiro and Taniyama 2002). these five VOCs prevail at the three sampling sites, and also
match the priority compounds proposed by the USEPA.
Table 2 Mixing ratio of C6–C12 species at Lima multiplied by maximum incremental reactivity (MIR, Carter 2010)
m + p-Xylene 1.4 2.1 7.4 0.98 1.2 4.7 0.97 1.2 2.3 9.75 20 11 12
Toluene 2.3 2.7 9.1 1.2 1.6 5.3 1.2 2.0 4.9 4.0 11 6.5 8.0
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene 0.30 0.59 3.1 0.35 0.43 1.3 0.27 0.40 0.84 11.97 7.0 5.2 4.7
1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene 0.30 0.55 2.8 0.28 0.36 1.1 0.30 0.41 0.95 11.76 6.5 4.2 4.8
o-Xylene 0.35 0.60 2.5 0.30 0.36 1.2 0.47 0.38 0.64 7.64 4.6 2.7 2.9
Ethylbenzene 0.46 0.62 2.1 0.29 0.37 1.2 0.41 0.41 0.75 3.04 1.9 1.1 1.3
Benzene 0.81 1.2 4.8 0.77 0.80 1.8 1.0 0.97 1.3 0.72 0.9 0.6 0.7
Naphthalene 0.07 0.13 0.53 0.06 0.19 1.1 0.06 0.08 0.14 3.34 0.4 0.6 0.3
Styrene 0.22 0.24 0.53 0.13 0.16 0.50 0.13 0.39 1.5 1.73 0.4 0.3 0.7
p-Isopropyltoluene 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.06 4.44 0.3 0.2 0.2
n-Propylbenzene 0.10 0.13 0.36 0.05 0.07 0.17 0.08 0.08 0.16 2.03 0.3 0.1 0.2
n-Butylbenzene 0.05 0.09 0.19 0.02 0.04 0.07 – – – 2.36 0.2 0.1 0.0
Isopropylbenzene 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.04 0.04 0.05 – – – 2.52 0.1 0.1 0.0
measurements in Lima and compares them to the latest official As mentioned in the previous section, m-xylene and p-
values reported for Santiago de Chile (SCL), another South xylene are the species with the highest ozone formation po-
American capital city, which has been designated an ozone tential among the C6–C12 species studied in the MALC, sim-
non-attainment area over the last 20 years (Seguel et al. 2018). ilar to the SCL, considering the 54 PAMS. The levels of m +
The mean benzene values found in the MALC exceed p-xylene at ATE are similar to those found downwind of SCL.
those reported for downtown SCL and approximately 16 km The same was observed for mean o-xylene levels.
downwind. In Table 3, upwind SCL is a suburban site located Nevertheless, the ozone standard is not exceeded at ATE, in
26 km from the city center. Mean toluene concentrations are contrast to downwind SCL. This result is attributed to the
similar for both cities, and the maximum toluene concentra- prevailing meteorological conditions in Lima and to the chem-
tions were found in ATE and in downtown SCL. Mean ethyl- ical regime characterized by the ozone reaction with NO and
benzene concentrations are relatively similar for both cities, low availability of the radical •OH consumed by high levels of
except for higher mean concentrations in central SCL. NOx relative to VOCs.
ATE PP VMT Upwind Downtown Downwind ATE PP VMT Upwind Downtown Downwind ATE PP VMT Upwind Downtown Downwind
(SCL) (SCL) (SCL) (SCL) (SCL) (SCL) (SCL) (SCL) (SCL)
Benzene 0.81 0.77 1.0 0.27 0.54 0.40 1.2 0.80 0.97 0.34 0.61 0.49 4.8 1.8 1.3 0.79 1.1 1.2
Toluene 2.3 1.2 1.2 0.98 2.1 1.7 2.7 1.6 2.0 1.0 2.8 1.9 9.1 5.3 4.9 1.9 6.2 4.2
Ethylbenzene 0.46 0.29 0.41 0.18 0.81 0.39 0.62 0.37 0.41 0.19 0.94 0.52 2.1 1.2 0.75 0.28 1.9 1.8
m + p-Xylene 1.4 0.98 0.97 0.48 3.0 1.0 2.1 1.2 1.2 0.53 3.3 1.7 7.4 4.7 2.3 0.80 6.9 6.9
o-Xylene 0.35 0.30 0.47 0.19 0.95 0.40 0.60 0.36 0.38 0.21 1.1 0.60 2.5 1.2 0.64 0.32 2.3 2.2
1005
1006 Air Qual Atmos Health (2018) 11:993–1008
For Sao Paulo, separate results for m-xylene and p-xylene were available
Lastly, Table 4 compares BTEX levels with other two Latin Conclusions
America megacities (Sao Paulo and Mexico City). In general,
a good agreement for m + p-xylenes and o-xylene is observed. Twenty-three years of radiosonde observations identified a
Toluene stands out as one of the aromatics that presents higher persistent subsidence inversion over Lima, which was stron-
concentrations and greater variation among the four cities gest during cold period (June–November) with an average
reported. base altitude of 0.74 km. During the warm period
(December–May), the subsidence inversion was dissipated
entirely, and weak surface inversions developed with an aver-
Risk assessment for benzene age base altitude of 0.29 km.
The daily evolution of the marine boundary layer showed
Benzene is a known carcinogen (WHO 2000). Therefore, the no surface inversions during the period August 21–30, 2009
USEPA and WHO have established ranges and levels of risk and a cloud layer with an average thickness of 0.4 km was
associated with its inhalation of 2.2·10−6–7.8·10−6 and 6·10−6, usually identified below the subsidence inversion base.
respectively (ATSDR 2007). Benzene measurements at ATE, During February 16–28, 2009, the marine boundary layer
PPD, and VMT were used to estimate the excess lifetime risk grew along the day reaching the higher average altitude of
of leukemia. Table 5 shows the exposure concentration 0.35 (SD = 0.29) at 13:00 LT.
modeled for a residential scenario. This concentration was In the warm period, efficient ozone formation was hindered
calculated by multiplying the 95% upper confidence limit by the intermittent occurrence of numerous cloudy days.
(95% UCL) of the arithmetic mean by the factor 0.41, which Similarly, on clear days with greater solar radiation and with
corresponds to a residential scenario. Specifically, an average the presence of precursors, a substantial increase in ozone was
lifetime of 70 years, exposure duration of 30 years, and an not observed, which was again attributed to strong inhibitory
exposure frequency of 350 days/year were considered to de- effect resulting from the titration of nitric oxide that is present
termine this factor (Table 5). at high atmospheric concentrations in the Lima-Callao metro-
The results show that the cancer risk ranges from 2 per hun- politan area. Maintaining compliance with ozone standards
dred thousand to 9 per million inhabitants. The estimated risk over time, in a continuously growing city, will require effec-
associated with benzene inhalation is considered acceptable, ac- tive measures for the balanced reduction of both NOx and
cording to the criteria established by the USEPA and WHO. VOC concentrations.
Table 5 Exposure levels and risk assessment for benzene according to EPA and WHO inhalation unit risk
Site N° Min. Max. SD Coefficient of Mean Median 95% Student’s t UCL Residential Inhalation unit risk
variation exposure
a
(Factor: 0.41) USEPA range WHO
ATE 12 0.25 15 4.4 3.6 3.9 2.6 6.3 2.6 6 in 1·106 2 in 1·105 2 in 1·105
PPD 12 0.81 5.6 1.5 1.9 2.5 2.5 3.5 1.4 3 in 1·106 1 in 1·105 9 in 1·106
VMT 12 1.7 4.3 1.1 1.1 3.1 3.3 3.8 1.5 3 in 1·106 1 in 1·105 9 in 1·106
a
Factor = (350 × 30) / (70 × 365): average lifetime = 70 years; exposure duration = 30 years; exposure frequency = 350 days/year
Air Qual Atmos Health (2018) 11:993–1008 1007
The pattern of C6–C12 species was relatively similar in the and metabolic risks or clusters of risks in 188 countries, 1990-2013:
a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2013.
atmosphere of the Lima-Callao metropolitan area and was
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